!^\Sv^>^
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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL CONVENTION
OF THE
American Railway Engineerinj
Association
Construction and Maintenance Section, Engineering Division
Association of American Railroads
HELD AT THE
SHERMAN HOTEL, CHICAGO
March 9, 10, and 11, 1959
VOLUME 60
This volume, as listed in the Table of Contents, includes all the committee reports,
reports on research projects, monographs, and memoirs originally published
in AREA Bulletins 544 to 549, incl., June-July 1958 to February 1959.
Copyright, 1959, by
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
59 East Van Buren Street
Chicago, 5, Illinois
OFFICERS, 1958-1959
B. R. Meyers
President
F. R. WOOLFORD
1st Vice President
E. J. Brown
2nd Vice President
Wm. J. Hedley
Past President
Ray McBrian
Past President
A. B. Hillman
Treasurer
Neal D. Howard
Executive Secretary
DIRECTORS
G. H. Echols
1956-59
L. A. LOGGINS
1956-59
k
R. R. Manion
1956-59
W. G. POWRIE
1956-59
A. V. Johnston
1957-60
W. H. HoBBs
1957-60
A. B. Stone
1957-60
J. C. Jacobs
1957-60
W. M. Jaekle
1958-61
T. F. BuRRis
1958-61
T. M. von Sprecken
1958-61
BOARD OF DIRECTION
President
B. R. Meyers, Chief Engineer, Chicago & North Western Railway, Chicago 6.
Vice Presidents
F. R. WooLTORD, Chief Engineer, Western Pacific Railroad, San Francisco S, Calif.
E. J. Brown, Chief Engineer, Burlington Lines, Chicago 6.
Past Presidents
Wm. J. Hedley, Chief Engineer, Wabash Railroad, St. Louis 1, Mo.
Ray McBrian, Director of Research, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, Denver 4,
Colo.
Directors
G. H. Echols, Chief Engineer, Southern Railway System, Washington 13, D. C.
L. A. LoGGiNS, Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and Louisiana, Houston
1, Tex.
R. R. Manion, Assistant Vice President — Operation, New York Central System, New
York 17, N. Y.
W. G. PowRiE, Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, Chi-
cago 6.
A, V. Johnston, Chief Engineer, Canadian National Railways, Montreal 1, Que.
W. H. HoBBS, Chief Engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis 3, Mo.
A. B. Stone, Chief Engineer, Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke 17, Va.
J. C. Jacobs, Engineer Maintenance of Way, Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago 5.
W. W. Hay, Professor of Railway Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
W. M. Jaekle, Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific Company, San Francisco, Calif.
T. F. BuRRis, Chief Engineer System, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Huntington, W. Va.
T, M. VON Sprecken, Assistant to Chief Engineer, Southern Railway System, Washing-
ton 13, D. C. ..-ii^.
Treasurer
A. B. Hillman, Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago; Chicago & Western Indiana
Railroad, Chicago 5.
Executive Secretary
Neal D. Howard, 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago 5.
Assistant Secretary
E. G. Gehrke, 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago 5.
Secretary Emeritus
Walter S. Lacher, 407 East Fuller Road, Hinsdale, III
IV
NUMERICAL INDEX TO COMMITTEE REPORTS
Report Discussion
I — Roadway and Ballast 655 1182
3— Ties 497 "48
4 — Rail -- 873 1166
5 — Track 785 1170
6 — Buildings 315 1120
7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles 555 1081
8 — Masonry 473 1085
9 — Highways 245 1016
II — Engineering and Valuation Records 565 1039
13 — Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 259 1068
14 — Yards and Terminals 289 1044
15 — Iron and Steel Structures 505 1097
16 — Economics of Railway Location and Operation 209 1047
17 — Wood Preservation 341 1116
20 — Contract Forms 301 1036
22 — Economics of Railway Labor 385 1139
24 — Cooperative Relations with Universities 595 1059
25 — Waterways and Harbors 331 1057
27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 417 1132
28 — Clearances 501 1107
29 — Waterproofing 469 1114
30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses 379 1093
Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail 633 11 58
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Static and Fatigue Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs. Advance Report
of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses 1
Tests of a Steel Viaduct on the Genesee & Wyoming Railroad. Advance Report
of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses 51
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints, by W. H. Munse, James R. Fuller and
Kenneth S. Petersen. Advance Report of Committee IS — Iron and Steel Struc-
tures 67
Tie Renewals and Costs per Mile of Maintained Track. Advance Report of Com-
mittee 3 — Ties 12Q
Termite Control Investigation. Advance Report of Committee 17 — Wood Preserva-
tion 131
Tests of Timber Trestles on the Seaboard Air Line Railroad. Advance Report of
Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses 143
Reports of Committees on
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 209
Effect of Degrees of Curvature on Cost of Track. Maintenance 210
Determination of Maintenance of Way Expenses for Various Traffic Volumes . . 216
Potential Applications of Electronic Computers to Railway Engineering and
Maintenance Problems in Research, Design, Inventory, etc 226
Engineering, Maintenance and Operating Benefits to be Derived from Increased
Joint Use of Railway Facilities 231
Innovations in Railway Operations 233
Economics and Methods of Utilizing Railway Property, Rights-of-way, and
Facilities to Develop or Increase Secondary Sources of Railway Revenue . . 237
Review of Developments in New Methods and Modes of Transport 240
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1047
Highways 245
Revision of Manual 246
Merits and Economics of Prefabricated Types of Highway-Railway Grade
Crossings 246
vi
Table of Contents vii
Page
Recommended Device to Guard Highway-Railway Crossing Signs and Signals
from Damage by Vehicular Traffic 247
Recommended Protection at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings Where One-
Way Traffic on the Highway Crosses One or More Tracks on the Railway 240
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Pai)ers anfl Addresses 1016
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 259
Revision of Manual 260
Prevention of Corrosion in Steam and Condensate Lines 26,^
Design, Construction and Operation of Coach-Servicing Facilities to Comply
with Regulations of U. S. Public Health Service 271
Cathodic Protection of Pipelines and Steel Storage Tanks 271
Transportation of Solids by Pipelines 274
Railway Waste Disposal 276
Inspection and Maintenance of Diesel Fuel Oil Storage Tanks 278
Methods of Controlling Spillage of Fuel Oil at Diesel Fueling and Unloading
Stations 279
Disinfectants, Deodorants, Fumigants and Cleaning Materials 2S0
Railroad Aspects of Radioactive Substances 287
Methods of Heating Fuel Oil to Permit Winter-Time Use of High-Pour-Point
"Economy" Grade Fuel Oil 288
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1068
Yards and Terminals 289
Revision of Manual 290
Classification Yards 291
Use and Location of Yardmasters' Offices 292
Facilities for Loading and Unloading Rail-Truck Freight Equipment 293
Parking Facilities for Patrons at Passenger Stations 294
Use of Car Retarders at Locations Other Than a Hump 298
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1044
Contract Forms 301
Revision of Manual 302
yiii Table of Contents
Page
Form of Lease Covering the Use of Railway Tracks for Storage of Tank Cars
Containing Liquefied Petroleum Gases, Anhydrous Ammonia and Other
Flammable or Dangerous Materials 304
Form of Lease Covering Right to Strip Mine on Railway Miscellaneous Physical
Property 308
Form of Agreement Covering Parallel Occupancy of Railway Right-of-Way
Property by Electric Power Lines 308
Form of Agreement for Construction and Maintenance of Highway-Railway
Grade Separation Structures for Public Roads 308
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1036
Buildings 315
Specifications for Railway Buildings 316
Buildings and Structures for Hump Classification Yards with Retarders 317
Infra-Red Ray Heating 324
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1120
Waterways and Harbors 331
Bibliography Relating to Benefits and Costs of Inland Waterway Projects
Involving Navigation 332
Planning, Construction and Maintenance of Rail — Water Transfer Facilities . . 332
Relative Merits and Economics of Construction Materials Used in Water Front ■
Facilities 335
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1057
Wood Preservations 341
Specifications for Wood Preservatives 343
Specifications for Petroleum as a Carrier for Standard Wood Preservatives . . . 344
Specifications for Preservative Treatment of Forest Products, Including Lami-
nated Timbers 345
Service Test Records of Treated Wood 347
Comparison of Wood Preservatives in Mississippi Post Study, by J. Oscar
Blew, Jr., and John W. Kulp 358
Destruction by Marine Organisms: Methods of Prevention 372
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1116
Table of Contents
Page
Impact and Bridge Stresses 379
Steel Girder Spans 3c^0
Viaduct Columns 3S0
Longitudinal Forces in Bridge Structures 381
Distribution of Live Load in Bridge Floors: (a) Floors Consisting of Trans-
verse Beams, (b) Floors Consisting of Longitudinal Beams 381
Concrete Structures 382
Timber Structures 382
Vibrational Ciiaracteristics of Bridges Affecting Deflections and Depth Ratios . . 383
Use of Electronic Computers for Railroad Bridge Problems 383
Steel Continuous Structures 384
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 10'J3
Economics of Railway Labor 385
Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have Substantially Reduced the Cost
of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work 387
Labor Economics to Be Derived from Cyclic Maintenance 402
Relative Advantages of Renewing Ties in Advance of Out-of-Face Surfacing
with a Mechanized Tie Gang, Compared with Renewing Ties with a
Surfacing Gang 404
Labor Economies to Be Effected Through the Use of Power Tools and
Mechanized Equipment by Bridge and Building Gangs 407
Labor Economics to Be Derived from the Use of Radio by Maintenance of
Way Gangs 411
The Specific and Ultimate Improvements in Various Types of Track Mainte-
nance Equipment that Would Provide the Greatest Economies in Main-
tenance Practices, and How These Potential Economies Would Compare
with Present Costs 411
Labor Economies to Be Derived from the Use of Various Machines Available
for Calculating and for Lining Curves 413
Relation Between the Nature of Traffic and the Interval Between Out-of-Face
Resurfacing of Track of Relatively Similar Characteristics 416
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1139
X Table of Contents
Page
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 417
Revision of Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance
of Way Equipment 418
New Developments in Work Equipment 423
Improvements to Be Made to Existing Work Equipment 427
Instructions for Preventive Maintenance of Trucks 430
Equipment for Loading, Transporting, Unloading and Installing Continuous
Welded Rail 442
Number of Units of Work Equipment to Be Repaired by Field Repairmen .... 446
Fuel and Lubrication Trucks for Use with Mechanized Gangs 448
Four-Cyde vs Two-Cycle Gasoline Engines Used on Small Equipment 4SS
Shop Machinery and Equipment Needed for Work Equipment Shops 461
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1132
Waterproofing 469
Revision of Manual 469
Waterproofing Materials and Their Application to Railway Structures 470
Coatings for Dampproofing Railway Structures 471
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1114
Masonry 473
Revision of Manual 474
Design of Masonry Structures 474
Tunnel Linings: Design, Construction and Maintenance 489
Methods for Improving the Quality of Concrete and Mortars 494
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1085
Ties 497
Means for Effecting . Greater Utilization of Timberland Growth Available for
Cross Tie Production 498
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1148
Table of Contents
Page
Clearances SOI
Clearances as Affected by Girders Projecting Above Top of Track Rails,
Structures, Third-Rail, Signal and Train Control Equipment 502
Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements of the Various States . . 502
Clearance Allowances to Provide for Vertical and Horizontal Movements of
Equipment Due to Lateral Play, Wear and Spring Deflection 503
Methods of 'Measuring High and Wide Shipments 50.^
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1107
Iron and Steel Structures 505
Revision of Manual 506
Specifications for Use of High-Strength Steels 508
Stress Distribution in Bridge Frames; (c) Model Railway Truss Bridge 508
Preparation and Painting of Steel Surfaces 509
Appendix A — Brine-Resistant Bridge Paints, by John D. Keane and Joseph
Bigos 500
Appendix B — Protecting Top Flanges of Bridges, by John D. Keane 528
Bibliography and Technical Explanations of Various Requirements in AREA
Specifications Relating to Iron and Steel Structures 535
Specifications for Design of Corrugated Metal Culverts, Including Corrugated
Metal Arches 550
Specifications for the Design of Continuous Steel Railway Bridges 553
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1097
Wood Bridges and Trestles 555
Revision of Manual 556
Grading Rules and Classification of Lumber for Railway Uses; Specifications
for Structural Timber 558
Design of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks 562
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1081
Engineering and Valuation Records 565
Revision of Manual 566
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Engineering and Valuation Records . . . 569
xii Table of Contents
Page
Office and Drafting Practices 570
Valuation and Depreciation; (a) Current Developments in Connection with
Regulatory Bodies and Courts 571
Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting Classifications 574
Simplification of Annual Reports on Form 588 to the Interstate Commerce
Commission, and Underlying Completion Reports 574
Uses of Photography in Railroad Construction and Maintenance Work 592
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1030
Cooperative Relations with Universities 595
Stimulate Greater Appreciation on the Part of Railway Managements of
(a) the Importance of Bringing into the Service Selected Graduates of
Colleges and Universities, and (b) the Necessity for Providing Adequate
Means for Recruiting Such Graduates and of Retaining Them in the Service
by Establishing Suitable Programs for Training and Advancement, and
(c) the Use of the Best Techniques and Methods for Recruiting College
and University Students, These to Be Set Forth in a Guide 598
Student Recruiting Guide 599
Stimulate Among College and University Students a Greater Interest in the
Science of Transportation and Its Importance in the National Economic
Structure, by Cooperating with and Contributing to the Activities of
Student Organizations in Colleges and Universities 613
The Cooperative System of Education, Including Summer Employment in Rail-
way Service 614
The Role of Engineering Technicians in the Railroad Field 619
Revise the Brochure "The Railroad Field — A Challenge and Opportunity" 621
Stimulate Greater Interest by College and University Staff Members in Current
Railroad Problems and Practices, Including AREA Membership 631
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1059
Continuous Welded Rail 633
Laying 634
Economics 63 7
Special Report on Welding Rails at or in the Vicinity of Rail Mills 640
Special Report on Field Tests on Continuous Welded Rail on Great Northern
Railway 642
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1158
Table of Contents xiii
Page
Roadway and Ballast 655
Natural Waterways: Prevention of Erosion 657
Conditions Requiring Headwalls, Wingwalls, Inverts and Aprons, and Requisites
Therefor 665
Specifications for Pipelines for Conveying Flammable and Non-Flammable
Substances 668
Roadway: Formation and Protection; (a) Roadbed Stabilization, (b) Slope
Protection by Use of Additives 668
Soil Engineering Problems on the Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway,
by K. B. Woods, R. W. J. Prycr and W. J . Eden 66Q
Fences 688
Roadway Signs: (a) Reflectorized and Luminous Roadway Signs; (b) Develop
Standard Close Clearance Warning Sign 6Q3
Feasibility Studies on New Nuclear Liuht Sources, by R, Holtzman, and
C. A. Stone 603
Ballast: (a) Tests; (c) Special Types of Ballast; (d) Specifications for Sub-
Ballast 710
Ballast Tests 711
Special Types of Ballast 712
Chemical Control of \'egetation 714
Part 1 — ^Vegetation Control on Iowa Roadbeds — 1058, by W. E. Loomis,
W. M. Struvc, and C. G. Waywell 7lS
Part 2 — Railroad Weed Control, North Carolina State College, by Glenn C.
Klingman and Merrill Wilcox 723
Part 3 — Chemical Control of Vegetation— 1958 AAR Report 732
Part 4 — Cost of Developing a New Herbicide 782
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses 1182
Track 785
Revision of Manual 786
Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip Switches 787
Appendix 3-a — Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel Castings in
Crossings at McCook, 111 792
Prevention of Damage Resulting from Brine Drippings on Track and Struc-
tures 793
xiv Table of Contents
Page
Hold-Down Fastenings for Tie Plates, Including Pads Under Plates; Their
Effect on Tie Wear 800
Effect of Lubrication in Preventing Frozen Rail Joints and Retarding Corro-
sion of Rail and Fastenings . 828
Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints 839
Methods of Heat Treatment, Including Flame Hardening, of Bolted Rail Frogs
'and Spht Switches, Together with Methods of Repair by Welding 862
Service Tests of Simulated Crossing Units in the Milwaukee Railroad at
Mannheim, 111 862
Economies to be Gained by the Railroads from the More Extensive Use of
AREA Trackwork Plans 870
Convention Presentation, Discussicn, Papers and Addresses 1170
Rail 873
Revision of Manual 874
Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint Bars in
Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest 877
Appendix 2-a — Investigation of Failures in Control-Cooled Rails, by R. E.
Cramer 878
Rail Failures Statistics, Covering (a) All Failures; (b) Transverse Fissures;
(c) Performance of Control-Cooled Rail 883
Rail End Batter: Causes and Remedies 903
Economic Value of Various Sizes of Rail 903
Service Tests of Various Types of Joint Bars 90S
Joint Bar Wear and Failures; Revision of Design and Specification for New
Bars, Including Insulated Joints, and Bars for Maintenance Repairs 916
Causes of Shelly Spots and Head Checks in Rail: Methods for Their Prevention 916
Appendix 8-a — Report on Service Tests of Heat-Treated and Alloy Rail . . . 919
Appendix 8-b — Final Report on the Service Test of the l5S-Lb Heat-Treated
Rail on the Pennsylvania Railroad, by C. J. Code 930
Appendix 8-c — Shelly Rail Studies at the University of Illinois, by R. E.
Cramer 941
Appendix 8-d — Investigation into the Significance of the Hydrogen Level in
Rail Steel, by L. H. Winkler 949
Appendix 8-e — Final Report on a Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Inves-
tigation of the Stress Distribution in the Head of a Model of a Railroad
Rail Along Lines Parallel to the Axis of the Rail, by M. M. Frocht 951
TableofContents xv
Page
Recent Developments Affecting Rail Section 970
Service Performance and Economics of 78-P't Rail; Specifications for 78-Ft
Rail 972
Rail DamaKf Resulting from Engine Burns; Prevalence; Means of Prevention;
Repair by Welding 075
Convention Presentation, Discussion, Papers and Addresses Ilb6
PROCEEDINGS
Program 979
Report of the Tellers 982
Opening Session 983
Invocation 984
Address by President B. R. Meyers 986
Report of Executive Secretary Neal D. Howard 989
Report of Treasurer A. B. Hillman 991
Greetings from Signal and Electrical Sections, AAR 992
Greetings from NRAA 99J
Address: Change and Challenge in Railroading, by D. P. Loomis 995
Address: Give the "High Ball" to Safety, by Paul Jones 1001
Presentation of Honorary Membership Certificate 1007
Address: What I Observed in Europe of Interest to American Railroads, by Ray
McBrian 1 008
Address: Summary of Discussions Before Industry Conference on Railway-Highway
Problems, by H. H. Hale 1012
Discussion of Committee Reports (see preceding pages of the Table of Contents)
Address: The Engineer's Responsibility to Railroad Management, by R. G. May ..1064
Annual Luncheon Address, by Ben W. Heineman 1101
Closing Business 1191
xvi Table of Contents
Addresses Presented in Conjunction with Committee Reports
Page
The AASHO Road Research Project, by W. N. Carey, Jr 1019
The Economics of Railway Engineering, by Frank Richter 1052
The Broadening Field for Railroad Water Service Engineers, by E. T. Myers 1076
How Serviceable Are 50-Year-Old Bridge Stringers, by F. P. Drew 1083
Prestressed Concrete in Western Europe and Russia, by Ben C. Gerwick, Jr 1087
Practical Applications of Infra-Red Ray Heating, by L. R. Morgan 1122
Report on Work Study — A Tool for Railway Management as Practiced on British
Railways, by H. J. Fast 1145
Studies of Anti-SpHtting Devices for Ties at the AAR Research Center, by H. M.
Sutcliffe : 1 150
Field Tests on Continuous Welded Rail on Great Northern Railway, by G. M.
Magee 1160
Further Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Studies of Stresses in Rail Head Due to
Wheel Contact Pressure, by Dr. M. M. Frocht 1167
Standardization of Turnouts — What Must Be Done to Achieve It?, by M. J. Zee-
man 1177
Soil Engineering Problems on Quebec, North Shore & Labrador Railway, by Robert
W. Pryer 1186
MEMOIRS
D. E. Perrine 316
A. L. Simpson ■ ■ • ■ ^42
M. F. Jaeger 342
W. H. Vance 386
Armstrong Chinn 597-1197
L. D. Shelkey 657
Allen Hazen 1048
E. M. Grime 1069
W. M. Wilson 1098
W. H. Fulweiler 1117
Report of the Executive Secretary 1200
Report of the Treasurer 1221
Constitution 1222
Information for Conimittees 1234
Advance Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
D. S. Bechly, Chairman
Static and Fatigue Tests on Prestressed Concrete
Railway Slabs
by
Roger G. Slutter
Research Instructor of Civil Engineering
Fritz Engineering Laboratory
and
Carl E. Ekberg, Jr.
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering
Chairman, Structural Concrete Division
Fritz Engineering Laboratory
Institute of Research
Lehigh University
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
CONTENTS
Page
SYNOPSIS -^
INTRODUCTION '. 3
THEORY OF FATIGUE FAILURE 4
Introduction 4
The Combined Diagram 4
LABORATORY TESTS 6
Specimens 6
Test Program 7
Instrumentation 9
Results 11
ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS 13
Deflections and Strains 13
Cracking Loads 14
Concrete Strength 15
Fatigue Strength 17
Creep Considerations 17
Simplification of Fatigue Strength Calculations 10
Summary 20
CONCLUSIONS 20
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 21
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 21
APPENDIX A 22
APPENDIX B 25
APPENDIX C 27
APPENDIX D 27
REFERENCES 30
Figures
Figs. 1 to 20, incl 31 to 50, incl.
2
Static and Fatigue Tests on Prestressed Concrete
Railway Slabs
SYNOPSIS
This report is principally concerned with the fatigue properties of prestressed pre-
tensioned concrete members. A theoretical study of the fatigue resistance of such mem-
bers is first presented, followed by a description of laboratory tests on six beams.
A discussion and interpretation of the test results constitute the balance of the report.
The proposed theory of fatigue failure is based on three diagrams, which are com-
bined to enable the investigator to predict the critical loading. One of these diagrams
is a failure envelope based on a limited amount of fatigue test data on prestressing
strands. This envelope indicates the permissible range of steel stress (from any given
minimum value) to obtain fatigue failure at 1,000,000 load cycles. A second diagram per-
tains to the fatigue characteristics of plain concrete, and is similar to the failure envel-
ope for the prestressing steel described above. The application of the two failure envel-
opes is accomplished by combining them with curves expressing the moment-stress
relationship for a given beam. (See Fig. 1).
The 6 test beams were 19 ft long, I6yi in wide, and 18 in deep, and were preten-
sioned with 11 strands of % in nominal diameter to 60 percent of their ultimate strength.
The beams were cast end-for-end on the same prestressing bed, and all beams were cast
during the same operation; however, the concrete strengths were intentionally varied.
In each of the three pairs of beams the compressive cylinder strengths at time of test
for beam pairs A and B, C and D, and E and F were, respectively, 8850 psi, 7730 psi,
and 5750 psi.
The beams were tested in pairs, with one beam undergoing static tests and the
other fatigue tests. The test program for the static specimens, beams A, D and F,
consisted of loading each beam in increments to the design moment, sustained load tests
at design moment, sustained load tests at cracking moment, and finally a gradually
increasing load to failure. The static failure loads at each of the two load points for
beams A, D and F were 59,900 lb, 55,900 lb, and 53,900 lb, respectively, compared
with a design load of 19,040 lb. (See Tables 4, 5, and 6).
Fatigue tests were conducted on beams B, C, and E where the repeated loading was
applied at 250 cycles per minute. In the case of beam B, the test program consisted
of 1,000,000 cycles where the load applied by each of the two jacks varied from
3,000 lb to 20,000 lb, and 1,000,000 cycles with load range from 4,000 lb to 26,000 lb,
so as to produce cracking, and 1,516,100 cycles to fatigue failure with the load range
from 4,000 lb to 30,200 lb, making a total of 3,516,100 cycles of load. In the testing
of beams C and E, the first 2,000,000 cycles were applied exactly as for beam B; how-
ever, for beam C the fatigue failure occurred after 970,500 cycles of load ranging from
4,000 lb to 30,300 lb, and for beam E the fatigue failure occurred after 954,000 cycles
of load ranging from 4,000 lb to 28,900 lb.
The test results checked reasonably well with the critical fatigue loads predicted on
the basis of the stated theory of fatigue failure.
INTRODUCTION
In 1953 the research staff of the Association of American Railroads, in connec-
tion with the assignments of AREA Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses, began
laboratory and field investigations for the purpose of comparing the behavior of cer-
4 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
tain pretentioned prestressed bridge slabs and similar slabs of conventional reinforced
concrete. In this regard, tests were carried out on full-size bridge slabs to obtain infor-
mation on the shear, bond, deflection and ultimate strength properties under static and
repeated loads.
The investigation reported herein is an outgrowth of the work described above and
is principally concerned with the fatigue properties of prestressed members. The size
of the six test specimens was limited, in this investigation, by the capacity of the
equipment available for dynamic testing; it was thus not possible to test full-size
bridge slabs. Since the slabs in question had simple, one-way reinforcing, the tests were
carried out on full length strips of convenient width with steel percentages and prestress
similar to those in the slab.
The test beams were produced and furnished by Prestressed Concrete of Colorado,
Inc., Denver, Colo., and were tested at Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh Univer-
sity. The prestressing strands used in the test members were contributed by John A.
Roebling's Sons Corporation. Instrumentation was conducted at the plant by members
of the Lehigh staff and members of the AAR research staff.
THEORY OF FATIGUE FAILURE
Introduction
Without the medium of a theory of fatigue failure for interpretation, test results
can have only very limited applicability and usefulness in the development of design
criteria. It is, therefore, convenient to consider at this stage theoretical aspects of fatigue
failure in prestressed concrete beams.
Data on the fatigue strength of metal specimens are usually presented in two
forms, namely (1) the S-N diagram, which plots the number of cycles of loading to
produce failure for any given stress variation and (2) a modification of the theoretical
Goodman-Johnson diagram which indicates the stress variations at all levels of stress
which can be applied an infinite number of times without causing failure. The modified
Goodman-Johnson diagram, which indicates the endurance limit at any level of stress,
is the one more often needed for design.
In reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete members it is possible for fatigue
failure to take place either in the tension steel or in the concrete compression zone.
The modified Goodman-Johnson diagram for both of these materials can be incor-
porated into a combined diagram for the purpose of predicting the ultimate strength
in bending of a critical cross section under repeated loading. The combined diagram
will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
The Combined Diagram
The combined diagram, shown in Fig. 1, is found by combining the fatigue failure
envelopes for the concrete and steel with curves giving the relation between applied
bending moment and stresses for the beam itself. Thus one is able to ascertain the
possible range of moment which can be applied to the beam without causing fatigue
failure in either the steel or the concrete.
Fatigue Failure Envelope for the Steel
The failure envelope curve which appears as diagram A of Fig. 1 is the modified
Goodman-Johnson diagram obtained for prestressing strand similar to that used in the
manufacture of the beams tested in this investigation. This envelope indicates how
much the stress can be increased from a given lower level to obtain a failure at 1,000,000
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
loaH ryclcs. Il should he noted th;it the ordinates and ahrissa.s ol this curve, ;is well
as all others in P'ig. 1, are given as percentages of the static ultimates of the quantities
being considered. It can be seen, for example, that the steel may resist a repetitive
range of stress amounting to 28 percent of static tensile strength if the lower limit is
zero, but only an 18 percent range of stress if the lower stress limit is increased to 40
percent. The basing of the fatigue failure envelope on 1,000,000 load cycles appears
to be sound; however, there is only a limited amount of data presently available on
the fatigue properties of strands.
Fatigue Failure Envelope for Concrete
A diagram similar to the steel fatigue failure envelope is shown as diagram D (in
Fig. 1) for high-strength concrete in compression. This curve, however, has been con-
tinued into the tension quadrant to enable the fatigue cracking loads to be determined.
The curve given here was first obtained by Ros^ and has been checked by cylinder
tests in connection with fatigue tests of prestressed beams."
Curves Showing Relationship Between Bending Moment and Stress
Diagrams B and C in Fig. 1 indicate the variations of the stress in the prestressing
steel and the top and bottom fiber concrete stresses, respectively, with the applied
bending moment in a prestressed concrete beam. The curve segments to the left of the
cracking moment are established without difficulty through the use of conventional
design practice.* It is observed that the relation between stress and moment is linear
from zero load to the cracking load. Beyond the cracking load the stresses must be
determined by a trial and error calculation using equilibrium and compatibility condi-
tions at the various stages of loading. The procedure is explained fully in Appendix B.
A simplification of the calculation for design purposes is suggested in a following section
of this report.
Use of the Combined Diagram
When the diagrams and curves of Fig. 1 are prepared for the beam under consid-
eration, the range of loading to produce fatigue failure of either concrete or steel at
1,000,000 cycles of repeated load may then be determined. It is implied that the lower
limit for this range is design dead load and the upper limit is defined as the "ultimate
strength under repeated load." Considering first the possibihty of fatigue failure in the
steel, a horizontal line is projected from the dead-load point B on the stress-moment
diagram to the corresponding point C on the steel failure envelope. Projections from
point C vertically to D, then from D horizontally back to E and F on the steel stress-
moment diagram, yield the value of the ultimate strength under repeated load based on
fatigue in the steel. A similar procedure is followed through points G, H, I, J and K to
determine the ultimate strength under repeated load based on fatigue failure in the con-
crete. The lower of these two moments, which in Fig. 1 is that corresponding to fatigue
failure in the steel, is the critical ultimate strength under repeated load of the member.
Cracking moments under repeated loadings may also be calculated by a similar use of the
figure, considering in this case the concrete bottom fiber stress and the tension quadrant
of the concrete stress envelope (tracing points L, M, N, O).
^ See page 30 for all referencps.
* .See Appcnrlix A.
6 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
I.ARORATORV TESTS
Specimens
The details of the specimens and of the full-size bridge slab are shown in Fig. 2.
All 6 test beams were 19 ft long, and 16% in wide by 18 in deep and had prestressing
tendons consisting of 11 strands of Y^ in nominal diameter. The percentage of pre-
stressing steel in the slabs was 0.62S, whereas in the test beams it was 0.532. Thus, the
effective prestress in the specimens was less than in the bridge slabs by a slight amount.
Properties of the Concrete
The specimens were cast in pairs, and a different concrete strength was used for
each pair. Apart from the variation in the concrete strength, the six specimens were
identical.
Details of the concrete strengths are as follows:
Table 1 — Properties of Concrete in Test Beams
Beam
Compressive Cylinder
Strength at Release
of Prcslress in PSI
Compressive Cylinder
Strength at Time of
Test in PSI
E 0 at Time of
Test in PSI*
A, B
.5,700
4,800
3 , 200
8,850
7,730
5,7.50
4,610,000
3 790 000
C, D
E, F
3 180 000
♦Modulus of elasticity as obtained from cylinder tests at time of beam test.
Properties of the Prestressing Strands
The 7-wire high-tensile steel strands used in the manufacture of the test beams
had a cross-sectional area of 0.1438 sq in and an ultimate strength, as determined by
actual tests on strand samples, of 38,800 lb which corresponds to an ultimate stress of
270,000 psi. These strands were rated at an ultimate strength of 250,000 psi in the
manufacturers' catalogue.
Fatigue tests were carried out on two samples of this strand. To provide a satis-
factory means of loading the wire in the testing machine, the ends were gripped in mild-
steel pipes, partly by the action of wedge anchorages and partly by bond with high-
strength cement-mortar grout. The results of the tests are given in Table 2.
Table 2 — Fatigue Tests of Two Samples or J^ In Diameter Prestressing Strand
Number
Minimum
Stress in
PSI
yiaximum
Stress in
PSI
Hate in
Cycles per
Minute.
Number of
Cycles to
Failure
1__
140,000
140,000
174,000
174,000
500
500
1,147,000
2..
1 , 360 , 000
The fatigue failure envelope of diagram A in Fig. 1 is assumed to be valid for
Yz in diameter prestressing strands in spite of the fact that the envelope was originally
based on numerous tests of -h in diameter strands. This assumption was made because
of the close correlation of the data of Table 2, with corresponding data for A-in
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 7
.strands. In fact, the data of Table 2 will plot directly on the failure envelope curve
of diagram A, if the catalogue-rated ultimate strength of 250,000 psi is used as a basis.
The test beams were poured in one prestressing bed on the afternoon of March 28,
1957, and were steam cured until the morning of March 30, at which time the prestress
was released. The first testing began 40 days after pouring and continued for 35 days
thereafter.
Camber
The camber of the beams was measured when the prestress was releHse<l and again
at the time of testing.
Tabi.k 3 — Observed Camber of Test Beams (All X'alhes in Inches)
H,aw
.1 H
r D
E /••
.\fter release of prestress
At tinie of test ._
O.IC.
0.24
0.08
0.18
0.21
0.03
0.17 O.IC.
0.22 0.23
0.0.-) 0.07
0.19 0.19
0.2.5 0.27
Change
0.00 0.08
Average Change
0
0.5.->
O.OCO
0.070
Time in days*
ni
OC)
53 54
37 38
*Tiine elapsed from release of prestress to time of testing.
Test Program
The two beams comprising each pair were tested during the same period of time,
one beam being a static and the other a fatigue test specimen. Both static and fatigue
test beams were symmetrically loaded with two jacks 5 ft 6 in apart and had centers
of supports 18 ft apart. The repeated loading was obtained using Amsler pulsating
equipment' with 110,000-Ib capacity jacks. Fig. 3 shows a beam being tested under
repeated loading at the left and a second beam statically loaded at the right. The nature
of the repeated loading is such that the load applied by the jacks is a sinusoidal func-
tion of time, with the maximum and minimum load being held constant by proper
adjustment of the machine.
Static Specimens
The testing program for the static specimens (beams A, D, and F) consisted of the
loading of each beam, in increments, to a load of 20,000 lb on each jack. This load,
which is slightly above the computed design load* was then released. In the following
step the jack load was reapplied in increments to 20,000 lb and sustained for 48 hr
before release. The beam was next loaded to just above the cracking point, after which
this load was maintained for 48 hr. Finally, after 24 hr rest, each beam was tested to
failure.
Fatigue Specimens
In the case of the fatigue specimens, a static test was first made to the load of
20,000 lb per jack followed by 500,000 cycles of loading varying between 20.000 lb
per jack maximum and 3,000 lb per jack minimum. After a .second static lest and an
• See Appendix A.
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
Table 4— Loading Schedule for Beams A and B
(/c'==88S0 at time of test)
Static Tests — Beam A
Date
Load
Stage
Load P in Pounds
Description
5/31/57
5/31
6/3
1-S
2-S
2-S
3-S
4-S
4-S
5-S
Zero to 20,000 to zero
Zero to 20,000
20,000 to zero
Zero to 28,000
28,000
28,000 to zero
Zero to 59,900
Initial static test
Sustained load of 20,000 lb for 48 hr
6/3
6/3
6/5
6/6
Static test to cracking
Sustained load of 28,000 lb for 48 hr
Ultimate load test
Fatigue Tests — Beam B
Date
Load
Stage
Load P in Pounds
Description
6/5/57
6/5
6 6.-
1
1-D
2
1-D
3
2-D
4
2-D
5
3-D
6
3-D
7
3-D*
Zero to 20,000
3,000 Min to 20,000 Max
Zero to 20,000
3,000 Min to 20,000 Max
Zero to 28,000
4,000 Min to 26,000 Max
Zero to 28,000
4,000 Min to 26,000 Max
Zero to 32,000
4,000 Min to 30,200 Max
Zero to 32,000
4,000 Min to 30,200 Max
Zero to 32,000
4,000 Min to 30,200 Max
Initial static test
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
6/6
6/8
6/8 .
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
Third static test
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
6/9
6/9-
Fourth static test
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
6/11
6/11
6/13
6/13
6/14
6/14-
Fifth static test
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
Sixth static test
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
Seventh static test
516,100 cycles to failure
*Total cycles of 3-D loading = 1,516,100.
additional 500,000 cycles of loading as before, a static test was made to determine the
cracking load. Then, 1,000,000 cycles of dynamic loading were applied with the mini-
mum of 4,000 lb and the maximum equal to 26,000 lb. In the final stage the fatigue
strength of the specimens was calculated for 1,000,000 cycles of loading, and each
specimen was then loaded to a value near the computed fatigue strength for a number
of cycles sufficient to cause failure. In all repeated-loading operations, however, the
testing was interrupted at the end of every 500,000 cycles to permit the running of
static tests to determine the static components of strain and deflection. The details
of the loading schedule of each beam are given in Tables 4, 5, and 6.
Upon completion of all testing, the beams which had undergone fatigue failure were
subjected to an examination of strand breakage. As a preliminary step, all concrete in
the region of the broken strands at the failure crack was removed and the strand
actually exposed for approximately a distance of 6 in either side. After visually check-
ing the condition of each strand all seven in the lower two rows of the section were
removed by means of a cutting torch.
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
Table >— LoAniNf; Schedule for Beams C and D
(/',. = 7,730 psi at time of test)
Static Tests— Beam D
Dale
Load
Slai/e
Load I' in Pounds
Description
alZ\l'-)l - - . -
1-S
2-S
2-S
3-S
4-S
4-S
5-S
Zero to 20,000 to zero
Zero to 20,000
20,000 to zero
Zero to 28,000
28,000
28,000 to zero
Zero to 55,900
5/24 - . -
Sustained load of 20,000 lb for 48 hr
5/26
5/26
Static test to cracking
Sustained loa<l of 28,000 lb for 48 hr
,5/26
5/28
.5/29
Fatigue Tests — Beam C
Dale
Load
Stage
Load P in Pounds
DcscriiHion
5/23/57
1
1-D
1-D
3
2-D
4
2-D
5
3-D
0
3-D*
Zero to 20,000
3,000 Min to 20,000 Max
Zero to 20,000
3,000 Mill to 20,000 Max
Zero to 26,000
4,000 Min to 26,000 Max
Zero to 26,000
4,000 Min to 26,000 Max
Zero to 32,000
4,000 Min to 30,300 Max
Zero to 32,000
4,000 Min to 30,300 Max
5/23
5/24
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
5/24. _
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
Third static test
Rep. load, ,500,000 cycles
5/26
5/26
.5/27
5/27
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
5/29..- - -
.5/29
5/30. .
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
5/30-31
470,500 cycles to failure
♦Total cycles of 3-D loading = 970,500.
Instrumentation
Strain Measurement on Steel at Release of Prestress
Prior to the pouring operation SR-4 electrical resistance strain gages of Type A-12
were placed on the prestressing strands at the midpoint and near the ends of all speci-
mens. The locations are shown in Fig. 4. Readings were taken on these gages before
and after release of prestress to determine the bond length of the end block required
to anchor the prestressing strands. Complete results are given in Appendix C.
Measurement of Strand Slip During Testing
In the first pair of tests (beam E and F) Ames dial gages were attached at each
end of the beams to the prestressing strands comprising the bottom layer of the pre-
stressing steel. Throughout the tests, readings were checked ior indications of strand
slip. Since no slip was indicated either by the gages or by the SR-4 gages attached
to the steel, the slip gages were not used in other te.sts.
10
Tests on Pre stressed Concrete Railway Slabs
Tabtf. 6 — Loading Schedtilf. for Beams E anp F
(/'.. — 5,750 psi at time of te.st)
Static Tests — Beam P
Date
Load
Stage
Load P in Pounds
Description
5/8/57
5/8 - -
1-S
2-S
2-S
3-S
4-S
4-S
.5-S
Zero to 20,000 to zero
Zero to 20,000
20,000 to zero
Zero to 28,000
28.000
28,000 to zero
Zero to .53,900
Initial static test
Sustained load of 20,000 11) for 48 tir
.5/10
.5/10
.5/10
.5/12
.5/13
Static test to cracking
Sustained load of 28,000 lb for 48 hr
Ultimate load test
Fatigue Tests — Beam E
Date
Load
Slaye
Load P in Pounds
Description
5/7
5/7
1
1-D
2
1-D
3
2-D
4
2-D
5
3-D
Zero to 20,000
3,000 Min to 20,000 Max
Zero to 20,000
3,000 Min to 20,000 Max
Zero to 26,000
4,000 Min to 26,000 Max
Zero to 26,000
4,000 Min to 26,000 Max
Zero to 32,000
4,000 Min to 28,900 Max
Initial static test
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
5/9 - .
5/9
.5/11. -- . _ -
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
Third static test
.5/11
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
5/12
5/12
5/14
5/14-17
Fourth static test
Rep. load, 500,000 cycles
Fifth static test
Rep. load, 954,000 cycles to failure
Strain Measurement on Concrete at Midspan
In both static and fatigue tests concrete strains, were measured at midspan on the
top fibers and at the level of the lower layer of prestressing steel. Fatigue strains were
measured by two SR-4 type gages on the top fiber and values recorded by means of
a Brush oscillograph. During the static testing of all specimens concrete bending strains
were measured by a Huggenberger mechanical extensometer at two points on the top
fiber and at a point on each side at a distance of 2% in up from the bottom fiber.
This check on the strain readings was especially necessary in the fatigue tests since the
gages measuring strains could not be temperature-compensated, and the static com-
ponents had to be found by another means. It was for this reason that static tests
were run on the fatigue test specimens after every 500,000 cycles of loading.
Measurement of Deflections
In the static loading operations midspan deflections were measured with an Ames
dial gage mounted beneath the test beam. During fatigue loading the static deflection
gage was taped down out of contact with the beam surface. To measure the beam
deflections during fatigue loading a spring-steel cantilever was set up beneath the test
beam at mid.span with the di.splacement end of the cantilever coupled to the lower
Tests on Pre stressed Concrete Railway Slabs
11
beam surface by means of a vertical aluminum rod. The deflections were indicated
by means of strain-gage readings taken from the top and bottom surface of the spring-
steel cmtilever and picked up with the Brush recording equipment. The apparatus for
measuring deflections is shown in Fig. .S.
Results
Deflections, Strains, PenuanenI Sets
The steel and concrete strains observed during the various loading operations are
presented in graphical form in Figs. 6 through 10. The corresponding curves of load
versus beam deflections are contained in Figs. 11 through 13. Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 and 12
apply to tests of the static specimens, and from them can be seen the increase in deflec-
tions and strains and the permanent sets which resulted from the sustained static
loadings. Figs. 10 and 1.^ contain the information concerning the fatigue .specimens
and indicate the effect of the repeated loadings on strains and deflections.
Cra-cking-Load Tests
Cracking was not detected during either the fatigue or the static tests to design
load. Cracks were first found in all specimens during the static cracking-load tests as
shown in Table 7.
Table 7 — Cr.acking Loads of Test Specimens
Cracking Load, Lb per Jack
7',.s/ /^/H
When Cracks
Detected
Beam
Load at
Which Cracks
Obaerred
As Obtained
from Strain and
Deflection Curvex
A
B
23 , 500
2ti , 000
20,000
24,500
22,500
22,900
26,000
,3-S
(4)
C .
(4)
n
2G.000
3-S
K - .
(4)
F
2(1,000
3-S
Tension cracks first appeared in the region of maximum moment between the load
points of the beams. During the periods of sustained loading on the static specimens an
increase in the heights of the preformed cracks was observed, together with the appear-
ance of a number of small new cracks. The deflections and strains and the final per-
manent set were all noticed to increase considerably during the sustained loading at
cracking.
The effect of repeated loading on cracking was generally observed during test
run (4) which was carried out after application of 1,000,000 cycles of design load (see
Tables 4. 5. 6, and 7). The appearance of a number of new cracks was noted during
test run (5) and subsequent runs, together with a considerable development of those
cracks already present. The static strains and deflections and the permanent sets observed
in these static tests, which indicate the effect of the repeated loading, may be seen in
Figs. 10 and 13.
I lliniate-Strength Tests
The three static specimens were tested to failure within .'4 lir after tlie sustained
cracking-load tests had been completed. Typical flexure-type failures occurred in the
pure moment region between the load points, with extensive yielding of the tensi<in
12
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railwa\' Slabs
steel followed by secondary crushing of the concrete in the compression zone. The
appearance of the three beams after failure is shown in Fig. 14. Quantitative details
of the strength tests on the static as well as the fatigue specimens is presented in
Table 8.
T.\BLE 8- -Ultimate Strength oe Specimens
Hiain
Static Ultimate
Load
Computed
Fatiyue
Ultimate
Strerif/th
Ol-iserved Ultimate
Fatiyue Strength
Types of Failure
Com-
puted
Oh-
serevd
Min
Load
Max
Load
Min
Load
Max
Load
Number
Cycle)^*
A
52,000
.39,900
B __ -
4,000
33,000
4,000
30,200
1,51(1,100
Concrete
Fatigue Failure of
Strands
c
4,000
32,600
4,000
30,300
970,. 500
Fatigue Failure of
D
50,300
55 , 900
Strands
Compressive Failure of
Concrete
E
4,000
31,400
4,000
28,900
954,000
Fatigue Failure of
F
45,750
53,900
Strands
Concrete
Note: All loading is given in terms of pounds per jack. The cylinder strength of the concrete in Beam
Pairs A-B, C-D, and E-F at time of test was 8,850, 7,730, and 5,750 psi, respectively.
♦Number of cycles shown were preceded by 1,000,000 cycles of load ranging from 3,000 to 20,000 lb,
and by 1,000,000 cycles of load ranging from 4,000 lb to 26,000 lb. See Tables 4, 5, and 6.
All fatigue specimens failed by breakage of the prestressing strands in the lower
two rows. Little forewarning of the fatigue failure was given, as the deflections and
strains in the beams did not reach large values, even at failure. Imminence of failure
was signified by the development of a larger crack at the prospective failure section.
As the repeated loading continued, sharp reports were heard which indicated the snap-
ping of the individual wires of strands. Fig. IS shows the crack development on both
sides of the three fatigue-test beams during the last stage of loading (test run 3-D).
Fatigue failure of the beams was considered to have taken place when the first
wires broke. As the load cycles were continued after failure, more wires were heard to
break, and the maximum load, corresponding to the maximum induced deflection, grad-
ually dropped off. Upon the release of load, the crack pattern at the failure section did
not close to the extent that it did at other sections.
After failure, all beams were loaded with the design load. Even in the failed con-
dition all six beams could support the static design loads, but the corresponding deflec-
tions were large, being about V/2 in. in the static specimens and 1 in for the dynamic
specimens. After the failure of the static specimens by crushing of the concrete com-
pression zone, the lower portion of the beams were sufficiently intact to act as doubly
reinforced members and resist the design load. Failure of some of the bottom strands in
the fatigue specimens left the upper portion of the beams with sufficient steel at mid-
depth to resist design loading. Fig. 16 shows the six test beams after failure, with the
higher strength members uppermost in both photographs.
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
13
ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS
The analysis of test results has been subdivided, for the sake of clarity, into sub-
sections concerned with deflections and strains, cracking loads, influence of concrete
strength, fatigue strength, creep considerations and simplification of fatigue strength
calculations.
Deflections and Strains
The load-deflection curves for the static sustained-load tests are shown in Fig. 11
for beams A, D, and F. The amount of permanent set in the beams and the amount
of increase in deflection under sustained load is greatest for the beam of lowest strength
concrete (beam F). An indication (in Fig. 11) that the amount of creep is inversely
proportional to the strength of the concrete is further borne out in Fig. 7, indicating
the strains of the concrete in the top fiber under sustained loading. If one now looks
at Fig. 13, which shows consecutive static load-deflection curves for the fatigue test
beams; and Fig. 10, showirg the strains in the top fiber for the same tests, it will be
seen that the creep is of the same order of magnitude for the static and fatigue test
beams. The fatigue-test data are conclusive evidence that considerable creep occurs in
the concrete under repetitive loading as applied in the laboratory test. The effects of
the creep of the concrete on the steel stresses is discussed in some detail in a following
section of this report.
The amount of residual deflection, as observed in Fig. 11, does not seem e.xcessive
for any of the three statically tested beams. Table 9 shows values of residual deflection
which were measured after completion of test run 4-S and the corresponding recoveries
which occurred before starting test run 5-S.
Table 9 shows that there is a substantial decrease of residual deflection with
increasing strength.
Table 9 — Residual Deflections and Recoveries for Static Beams
Beam A
Beam D
Beam F
Time Date
Defl.
Inches
Time Dale
Defl.
Inches
Time Date
Defl.
Inches
Completion Test
i-S
Commence Test
4-S
Elapsed Time,
2:00 piu
8:30 am on (i/Ci
18.. 5
0.019.5
37
0.0.530
0.0335
9 :40 am on 5/28
9:45 am on 5/29
24.1
0.0235
34
0.0700
0.0465
3:05 pm on 5/12
1:30 pm on .5/13
22.4
0.0310
33
0.0940
0.01)30
Recovery, Inches--
Percent Recovery .
The magnitude of residual deflections for the three dynamically tested beams fol-
lows approximately the same trend as outlined above for the static beams. Fig. 13
shows, for example, that residual deflections at the commencement of test run (5) were
measured at 0.016S in, 0.0415 in, and 0.1508 in for beams B, C, and E, respectively.
Figs, b and 8 show the average results of strain measurements taken on two cf the
bottom layer strands at midspan for the statically tested beams. The curves denoted
as test runs 2-S and 4-S exhibit a marked increase in steel strain during the periods
of sustained load. In general, this increase in steel strain is caused bv a differential
14 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
creep in the concrete at every section, resulting in a gradually increasing moment car-
ried by the steel (see Appendix D). The remarkable recovery of strain after application
of run 4-S is probably due to the beneficial action of the cracks which opened up at
the high loads and tended to reduce the tensile creep strains in the lower libers of the
concrete. The direct translation of the steel strain into steel stress is complicated by the
fact that strain is being measured with respect to the longitudinal axis of a single wire
of a strand. This creates some uncertainty about what modulus of elasticity should be
assumed for obtaining steel stresses from the measured strains and points up the neces-
sity for making a series of special calibration tests. However, an E value of 28,000.000
psi should give reasonable values.
Consideration of the load-defiection curves for the fatigue test beams given in
Fig. 13 shows that there is no appreciable change in slope prior to fatigue failure of
the strands. This is true because the maximum stress in the strands is below the pro-
portional limit of the steel. There was also no significant increase in the observed am-
plitude of the deflection under repeated load as shown by the Brush recorder.
Figs. 14, 15, and 16 are photographs showing the crack pattern on all beams at
impending failure or after failure. One observation, which is not discernible in the
photographs, is that the relation between applied jack load and crack number and size
was approximately the same for both beams of a given strength of concrete. In the
case of the fatigue specimens, the opening and closing of cracks during cycles of loading
could be observed, although these cracks always seemed to close at the minimum load
of each cycle up until failure. The fatigue failure was always preceded by the forma-
tion of one rather pronounced crack which seemed to open wider under load than any
of the others. The failures were not accompanied by excessive deflections, and hence
the failures might be termed sudden in nature. It was generally observed that the pre-
stress was sufficient in all cases to close, after failure, the tensile cracks which developed
during the testing of the three static beams. In the case of the fatigue specimens the
cracks were all closed after release of failure load except in the region of strand break-
age. In Fig. 16, an arrow denotes the faUure crack in beams B, C, and E, and these
cracks can be seen in greater detail in Fig. 15.
Cracking Loads
Table 7 indicates a neghgible difference in the observed cracking loads for the six
beams tested. Two means of distinguishing cracking load were employed — one involving-
a visual inspjection of the white-washed surface of the beams, and a second method
wherein non-elastic behavior was observed from plotted strain and deflection data.
The first method simply consisted in an examination of the beam at 2000 lb load
increments for visible cracks. The second method required an arbitrary decision as to
what point the load-deflection (or load-strain) curves deviated from a straight line.
Remarks Concerning Use of Modulus of Rupture
The normal manner of calculating the cracking load of a member is to find the
load which will produce a stress in the bottom fiber of the member equal to the rupture
modulus of the concrete. From this approach it would seem that the cracking load
should be greater for the higher strength concrete because the rupture modulus of that
concrete would certainly be higher. No rupture modulus tests were made, however.
Using the rupture modulus to calculate cracking load sometimes gives good results
because several of the fallacies involved tend to counteract each other under some con-
ditions. First of all, rupture modulus is a very specific test made with a standard plain
concrete beam under a specified loading condition. The results of this test cannot he
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 15
applied directly to a plain concrete specimen of different cross section or to one which
is reinforced because the influence of shrinkage stresses is different in each case. Differ-
ences in the size, shape, or amount of reinforcement will affect the magnitude of the
tensile stresses near the surface caused by shrinkage. Furthermore, in determining the
ultimate strength of a beam as limited by the compressive strength of the concrete, the
calculation is never made on the basis of a maximum compressive stress using elastic
theory. It cannot be expected, therefore, that this method would be satisfactory for
concrete in tension. Failure of concrete in either tension or compression must be cal-
culated by taking into account the plastic properties of the concrete. The presence of
steel on the tension side of the beam makes it difficult to treat this problem because the
plastic properties of the concrete are altered by the reinforcement. The concrete un-
doubtedly cracks when the strain in the steel reaches a value which is mostly independent
of the strength of concrete involved.
Level of Pre stress
An important variable which affects cracking load is the level of prestress at the
time of loading. It would seem that all six test beams should have the same loss of
prestress because of their similarity, but this is not necessarily true. The modulus of
elasticity of the concretes is not greatly different, so the elastic loss of prestress upon
transfer of prestress should be about equal for all beams. On the other hand, the loss
of prestress for the higher strength beams due to shrinkage will be greater than for
the lower strengths because the amount of shrinkage is approximately proportional to
the water content. However, the loss of prestress due to creep of the concrete would
be largest for the lowest strength concrete. Since no measurements were made to deter-
mine loss of prestress, conclusions regarding this item cannot be made, but it is possible
that there was a difference among the six beams.
Concrete Strength
A consideration of the influence of concrete strength on certain beam properties
will be dealt with at this point. This includes a discussion of concrete strength as it
affects flexural strength under static loads, bending stiffness, and bond. The effect of
concrete strength on the ultimate strength under repeated load of the test beams has
been noted previously.
Effect on Flexural Strength Under Static Load
The calculated and observed values of static ultimate strength show that increas-
ing the concrete strength makes very little difference in the ultimate strength of the
member (see Table 8). The difference in the failure loads between the strongest and
the weakest beams is only 11 percent while the corresponding difference in concrete
strength is 55 percent. The reason for this can be explained by considering the inter-
nal resisting couple at ultimate load. If one considers two test beams which are iden-
tical except for strength of concrete, it can be shown that the center of pressure of
the normal force acting on the concrete at any section will be closer to the top fibers
for the stronger beam. This is because the compression stress block for the stronger
beam will more closely approximate a triangular shape than will that of the weaker
concrete, thus resulting in a larger moment arm for the stronger beam under given
load. It follows that the corresponding increase in moment must be small because the
increase in the moment arm will be small. Actually, the test results tend to show a
larger advantage for the higher strengths of concrete than do the calculated values.
However, this is partly due to the fact that beam A was loaded from zero to ultimate
16
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
over a period of 13^ hr whereas about 2 hr were consumed in loading beams D and F
to the ultimate.
Calculations for the static ultimate moments based on the 19S8 recommendations
of the ASCE-ACI Joint Committee on Prestressed Concrete give reasonably good
agreement between calculated and observed ultimate moments* In calculating the ulti-
mate moments, it was assumed that the centroid of the steel area and the position
of the resultant strand force were coincident. This assumption is not quite correct;
however, it is on the safe side. The three beams actually failed statically by crushing
of the concrete in the top fibers. Fig. 14 shows the three beams after failure. The calcula-
tions for ultimate moment are given in Appendix A.
In order to take advantage of the higher strength concrete to obtain higher ulti-
mate moment in a beam the arrangement of steel must be changed and the beam
designed using the higher permissible prestress in the concrete. With the higher design
stresses the strands can be placed nearer to the bottom fiber of the beam and, there-
fore, the monient arm of the resisting moment will be increased and result in a cor-
responding increase in ultimate moment.
Effect on Bending Stiffness
The effect of concrete strength on the bending stiffness of the beams is shown
in Figs. 11 and 12. The increase in stiffness is not proportional to the increase in con-
crete strength, because the modulus of elasticity is not proportional to the compressive
strength for high-strength concrete. The effect of strength of concrete on the concrete
strains is shown in Figs. 7, 9, and 10. Table 10 shows the modulus of elasticity obtained
from cylinder tests, load-deflection curves, and strains measured on the beams.
Table 10 — Measured Values or Modulus of Elasticity for Concrete
Modvhis of Elasticity (Millions of PSI)
Beam A
Beam B
Beam C
Beam D
BeamE
Beam F
4.61
4.57
4.44
4.13
4.61
4.68
4.12
3.79
4.35
4.17
4.88
3.79
4.46
3.83
4.23
3.18
3.78
3.83
4.48
3 18
3.91
strains Top Fiber
4.33
4.39
*0n the concrete at level of lower row of steel.
Effect on Bond
A number of observations were made during the course of the tests which reflect
on the bonding characteristics of the strands. One of the most important of these is
the fact that the strain readings taken on the steel strands near the ends of the beams
indicate that the bonded length required for the anchorage of strands did not change
for any of the six beams. Strain readings on the steel were taken at release of prestress,
and during the various stages of testing as well.
The anchorage of a 7-wire strand such as the ones used in these beams is mostly
a mechanical wedging effect resulting from the Poisson's Ratio effect in the steel,
shrinkage of the concrete, and the necessity of the steel to untwist in order to slip.
Because of the mechanical nature of the bond it appears only necessary to have con-
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 17
Crete of good density in the vicinity of the strand, and compressive strength appears
to be of little importance within the range of compressive stresses being considered
here.
Fatigue Strength
The calculated ultimate strengths under repeated load were all based on failure
of the steel prestressing strands. The calculated ultimate strength under repeated load
based on concrete failure was higher in all three cases than the corresponding values
based on the steel. All three fatigue-test beams actually failed by rupture of the strand.
Fig. 16 shows beams B, C, and E after failure by repeated loading. The large cracks,
at sections where strands failed in fatigue (see also Fig. IS), did not close upon removal
of the load, whereas all other cracks in the beams closed after failure. All three statically
tested beams failed by compression of the concrete after a noticeable plastic elongation
of the strands.
The correlation between theory and test results is quite good the greatest differ-
ence being 9.3 percent.* The only disturbing fact is that the theory is not conservative
in any case. The question arises as to whether or not the theory might be even less
conservative if some other cross section of member were involved, and if the dis-
crepancy between theory and test results might not become so large for a particular
section as to render the method invalid. The best approach to the answer of this
question is to trj- to determine the cause of the discrepancy, and this is done in one
of the following portions of this report.
An examination of the extent of strand fractures in the beams subjected to
dynamic loading was carried out, and the results are shown in Fig. 17. It was evident
in every case that the primary cause of failure was due to breakage or partial breakage
of the prestressing tendons. All beams experienced wire breakage of some strands in
the bottom layer and to a lesser degree in the second layer. It will be noted that
damaged strands were fairlj' well distributed in the cross section. In no case did the
concrete in the region of the top fibers appear to be on the verge of compressive
failure. Fig. 18 is a close-up view of five exposed strands in beam B. The strands are
numbered 1, 5, 2, 3, and 4 (in accordance with Fig. 17) reading from top to bottom.
It will be seen that strands 1, 2, 3, and 4 are ruptured, whereas strand 5 appears to
be intact.
Creep Considerations
Test results presented in Figs. 7 and 10 indicate that the amount of creep of the
concrete under repeated loading was comparable in magnitude to the creep in the
corresponding static specimen. This is substantial proof that when repeated loading is
applied continually, as in the laboratory testing, considerable creep occurs in the concrete.
The effect of creep of concrete on the steel stress for a beam loaded only by a
prestressing force is well known. A relatively large portion of the loss of prestress in
any prestressed concrete beam is due to creep of the concrete because it greatly exceeds
in magnitude the amount of creep in the prestressing steel. Suppose that a sustained
load such as dead load or sustained live load were applied to a prestressed member.
This causes creep in the lower portion of the beam in exactly the opposite direction
as that caused by the prestressing force. Whereas prestressing caused a greater shortening
of the bottom fibers than of the top, the sustained loading causes a greater lengthening
* See Table 8.
18 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
of the bottom fibers than for the top fibers. The creep of the concrete under sustained
loading is opposite to the creep of the concrete due to prestress alone. The result is
that creep of concrete under sustained load results in an increase of steel stress in the
same way that creep of concrete under prestress alone resulted in a loss of prestress.
The theory for predicting fatigue failure did not take into account any creep
of concrete. The theory did, however, point to the steel as the critical material in all
cases. The mathematical analysis of the effect of creep of concrete on the steel stress,
given in Appendix D, applies for sustained loading; however, it also applies in the
case of repetitive loading continuously applied.
It should be noted that at high repeated loads, the critical cross section will be
cracked, and for this reason there will be a progressive increase in steel stress under
sustained repetitive loading. This increase in the steel stress produces a larger total
tensile force in the cross section, and from a consideration of equilibrium there must
then be a greater total compressive force on the cross section. This increase in the total
compressive force results in higher compressive stresses in the concrete. Since creep in
concrete is very nearly directly proportional to the applied stress, there results an
increase in creep.
Referring to the fatigue test results in Table 8, it will be noted that the same test
loads were applied to beams B and C even though the concrete strength, and there-
fore, the predicted strength under dynamic loading was highest for beam B. It is
observed that whereas beam B failed at practically the same load as beam C, beam B
nevertheless withstood 545,600 cycles more than beam C. Creep of concrete in beam B
was less than beam C under the same stress, and for this reason it is logical that the
beam of higher strength concrete would fail eventually but would always require a larger
number of cycles. Beam E, which had the lowest strength concrete, also had the lowest
failure load and the most creep of the three beams.
It has been established that creep in concrete occurs when a member is subjected
to a continuous repeated loading. Furthermore, even cycling at lower loads tends to
cause creep in the concrete and results in a reduction of the ultimate strength under
repeated load. When the cycling is intermittent, the concrete may have time to recover
during the period of lighter loading, and creep of concrete would not contribute to the
failure. Therefore, the test results represent a lower bound to the value of ultimate
strength under repeated load, because of the continuous nature of the loading. The
type of loading used in this investigation is seldom, if ever, encountered in practice;
therefore, the test results obtained are extremely conservative as when applying them
to, for instance, the design of bridge members. To treat the problem of creep in a
quantitative way, and to evaluate the amount by which the test results are conservative,
would require an extensive study into the creep properties of the concrete and probably
would never yield an exact value because of the complex nature of the problem as it
applies in beams.
From the foregoing discussion it would appear that the theory of fatigue failure
being used here, although not conservative for predicting the behavior of the test beams,
is satisfactory for predicting the behavior of beams in practice. In the case of the test
results, the theory holds within 10 percent, which is of the same order of accuracy
as methods commonly used for computing the static ultimate strength of a member.
In view of this, it would seem that design can safely be based on this theory. Because
of the laborious aspect of the method some modifications will be discussed in order to
simplify it to a satisfactory design method.
If the theory of fatigue failure is applied to a number of prestressed beams chosen
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
19
at random it would appear to be seldom that a beam would fail due to concrete fati^'ue.
It is of interest that, to date, no investigator has reported a test member failing in
latigue of concrete, and in view of the discussion presented, this is understandable.
Certainly, the possibility of a fatigue failure of concrete would likely occur only in a
.section with low-strength concrete and high percentage of steel. On the other hand,
if a minimum strength of concrete of 5000 psi is specified for members, it should not
be necessar>- to consider the possibility of concrete failure in design.
Simplification of Fatigue-Strength Calculations
It has already been pointed out that the establishment of the relationship between
stress and moment in the region above cracking load is a laborious task. However, a
qualitative consideration of the properties of the materials involved leads to a simplifica-
tion which can be justified for design purposes. Referring to Fig. IQ and considering
the curve of stress vs moment for a reinforced concrete beam, it will be noted that the
curve is linear almost to the ultimate moment and at this point becomes concave down-
ward because the steel begins to yield. Considering a combination of high-strength
concrete, which has a very small plastic portion of the stress-strain curve, and high-
strength steel which has no yield point and a linear stress-strain curve almost to ulti-
mate, it will be realized that the portion of the steel stress-moment curve which is
concave downward will be extremely small or non-existent for the materials used in
prestressed concrete, particularly pretensioned members. Let us now consider the curve
in Fig. 19 which apphes to a prestressed beam having exactly the same cross section
and reinforcement as the reinforced concrete beam already discussed. Assuming that the
beam begins to crack with the steel stress at point A, the curve for greater moments
becomes non-linear. Because the tension force in the steel is greater than that required
for the corresponding reinforced concrete beam at the same bending moment, the rate
of increase in the steel stress will be less for the prestressed than for the reinforced
beam. For this reason the steel stress curve in the region above cracking load must be
concave upward. At some bending moment corresponding to point B, the tension forces
in the two beams are equal, and from this point on toward ultimate, the tensile force
is equal in both beams at the critical section.
Point C on the diagram is simply the static ultimate strengeth and can be calcu-
lated easily, as can point A. The dashed line connecting these two points is a con-
servative approximation of the steel curve in the vicinity of the cracking load, and can
be used by the designer to obtain the ultimate strength under repeated load. The
values obtained by this method, are given in Table 11 along with the calculated values
and the test results. It will be seen that the approximate values are slightly more
conservative than the calculated values, but are still not conservative with respect to
the test results.
Table 11 — Comparison of Various Values of Dynamic Ultimate Load
Beam
By Test
Calculated*
Ai>proxiwal<
Method
B _
C ^.
E
30,200
30,300
•-'8..-)0()
.33,000
32,300
31.300
31.700
29,300
27,400
\\i values are niaxiijuim pfmnds per jack. The iiiiniiiiuin i.s 4.0(10 II) in all cases,
*,Sep Appendix H.
20 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
The design of members for fatigue loading has now been reduced to a simphfied
procedure; however, the problem of providing a sufficient factor of safety still remains.
Summary
The fact that the ultimate strength under repeated load is considerably lower than
the static ultimate moment should not be taken as an indication that prestressed con-
crete is not well suited for fatigue loading. Since fatigue failure must be based on range
of stress rather than maximum stress, it appears that prestressed concrete is far better
than reinforced concrete in resisting fatigue loading.
This argument is based on the fact that conventionally reinforced concrete usually
cracks at low load, thus causing a high rate of change of steel stress with respect to
moment. The reinforced concrete structure in service under fatigue loading, therefore,
has a much lower factor of safety than generally supposed; but this factor of safety
is apparently sufficient in most cases. Because of the non-linear nature of the complete
stress-moment curve for the prestressed member, the method presented herein should be
used for design in the same way that the conventional design static loading is based
on allowable stresses with a sufficient factor of safety as regards ultimate static moment.
Specifications usually simplify the consideration of loss of prestress to the use
of an empirical formula. Some consideration should be given to the ultimate loss of
prestress in members subjected to fatigue loading because of its bearing on the cracking
load and ultimate strength under repeated load. It will be noted in Fig. 1 that the ulti-
mate strength under repeated load lies uncomfortably close to the observed cracking
moment. Loss of prestress will result in a reduction of the cracking moment and in
fatigue strength. Previously the statement was made that the beam under repeated
loading should not be cracked at design load. In order to meet this requirement, some
knowledge of the ultimate loss of prestress should be known. Concrete should be so
controlled as to keep loss of prestress to a minimum for members which are to be
loaded with fatigue loading.
There are several reasons why a minimum compressive strength of concrete should
be specified. Among these are (a) to insure good durability, (b) high density for good
anchorage of strands, (c) reduce probability of fatigue failure in concrete, (d) adequate
shear strength and (e) better economy of materials.
On the other hand, the tests indicate that there is a point of diminishing return
on increasing the concrete strength. Although full advantage of the higher strength
concrete was not taken in the design of the members, the practical aspects of manu-
facturing beams with these higher strength concretes would seem to outweigh the small
advantages gained.
CONCLUSIONS
From the results of these tests, it appears that the following conclusions are
reasonable:
(1) The theory of fatigue failure was found to be satisfactory for predicting
the ultimate strength under repeated load for prestressed members. The use
of a simplified method for determining the steel stress-moment diagram is
satisfactory and is more conservative than the exact method of obtaining the
steel stress versus moment curves.
(2) Consideration of the fatigue properties ol concrete, creep ul concrete, and
fatigue properties of the steel strand, shows that concrete failure is improbable
if the concrete .strength is greater than .^000 psi.
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 21
(,^) Design should be bastd on having no tensile stress in the bottom fiber ot
concrete. By checking the strength under repeated load, a sufficient factor
of safety can be provided.
(4) As much as 50 percent design overload can be permitted without causing
failure at 1,000,000 c\'cles. The static strength is approximately three times
the design load.
(5) The results of the fatigue tests on beams B, C and E were lower than
predicted, and this is believed due to the creep induced in the concrete by
the continuous application of repeated loads.
(6) No warning of impending fatigue failure of prestressed concrete beams can
be expected other than the opening and closing of cracks. However, if no
visible cracks occur under load, no danger of fatigue failure exists.
(7) There was no evidence of slip of strands in any of the six beams tested.
The prestress force in J4 in diameter strands is transferred to the concrete
in a relatively short anchorage length.
(8) The strength of the test beams under 1,000,000 repeated loads is approxi-
mately 55 percent of their static strength.
(9) The shear strength of the beams is sufficient without additional steel.
(10) The cracking load of a member cannot be calculated with accuracy because
of unknown shrinkage stresses and unreliability of the rupture modulus as a
measure of tensile strength.
(11) The 5750-psi concrete used in beams E and F was of sufficient strength.
The use of higher strength concrete is not advantageous unless the pre-
stressing strands are placed to take advantage of the higher allowable stresses.
(12) In the static tests the primary cause of failure was a crushing of the con-
crete, whereas the primary cause of fatigue failure was breakage of steel
strands.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Although the theory of fatigue failure presented here has been verified by these
and other tests, there are some aspects which have not been investigated. Among
these are:
(1) Magnitude of ultimate loss of prestress.
(2) The correlation between the lower limit of the dynamic ultimate load found
in laboratory testing with the value of dynamic ultimate load for a member
loaded under field conditions, in order to establi-sh a proper factor of safety
for design.
(3) Estabhshment of a S-N diagram for the combination of steel and concrete
in flexure.
(4) Effect of poor bond.
(5) Fatigue properties of various types of steel.
(6) Concrete fatigue failure in composite sections.
(7) Shear strength.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work wa.s carried out through the Institute of Research of Lehigh University,
b\- the staff of the Fritz Engineering Laboratory under the administrative direction
of Profes.sor W. J. Eney. The program is the result of re.search .sponsored by the Asso-
21
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railwax' Slabs
ciation of American Railroads through Committee .^0 of the American Railway Engi-
neering Association.
The authors wish to acknowledge the helpful suggestions of E. J. Ruble, research
engineer structures, AAR, in setting up the test program. Mr. Ruble, a.ssisted by F. P.
Drew, assistant research engineer structures, A.AR, also arranged for the manufacture
of the test specimens and conducted preliminary tests at the precasting yard.
The suggestions, encouragement, and interest in this project of Professor Eney is
greatly appreciated by the authors. He has actively participated for many years with
the subcommittee on prestressed concrete of AREA Committee 8. This committee has
collaborated with Committee 30 on the study of the use of prestressed concrete for
bridge structures.
Several members of the Fritz Engineering Laboratory staff were actively engaged
on the project. F. S. Nuwaysir, research assistant, worked on the calculations for
predicting dynamic ultimate strength and in the preparation of some figures. G. I. Nasr
and P. L. Deutsch, both research assistants, helped in the operation of the dynamic
testing equipment. W. K. Savage, student helper, assisted in the conduct of the testing,
recording of data, and plotting of curves. K. R. Harpel, laboratory foreman, with his
staff of machinists and laboratory technicians, was responsible for handling and setting
up the specimens. R. F. Warner, research assistant, helped in the preparation and review
of the manuscript.
APPENDIX A— ANALYSIS OF TEST BEAMS
The calculation of working stresses for only the intermediate strength beams is
shown. The values of ultimate load, however, were calculated separately for all three
strengths of beams.
Data
AT-
2-
#3
c.g.c
/ \
_i
1 1/2"
e.g. 8
18"
5 1/4"
1 1/2"
"2 1/4" ,
8.87"
5,11"
.
•
\ 16 1/2"
Initial strand stress before release of prestress
Area of prestressing tendons 11 @ 0.1438, A^
Modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons, £«
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, £c
Transformed area
Unit weight of beams
Center of gravity of transformed section to top liber, y,
Center of gravity of transformed section to bottom liber, v., .
Center of gravity of transformed section to center of gravity
of steel, e
Moment of inertia of tran.sformed section, /,
: 150,000 psi
; 1.582 sq in
: 28,000,000 psi
4,000,000 psi
: 309.7 sq in
307 lb/ft
9.13 in
8.87 in
; 3.7o in
S.MO in*
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 2.<
Section mndiihis (tOp fiber), S, =. = 913 in
8340
Section modulus (bottom fiber), S\. = 'TIT^ =^ ^-^^ ^^'
Calculation of Design Moment
The loading for the test beams was patterned after the earlier tests of the AAR."
These early tests involved slabs of the same length and depth as the test beam, but
were 6 ft 6 in wide. The 6-ft 6-in wide slabs were loaded as shown in the sketch
below, and the load P which produced a bending moment corresponding to Cooper E 72
6'-3" I 5'-6" J. 6'-3"
1 ''-'" 1 '-" i
'A
18' -0"
loading plus lull impact was found to be 90,000 lb. The equivalent load for the 16J/j-in
wide test beams is 19,040 lb calculated as follows:
16.5
-T7- X 90,000 = 19,040 lb
/ o
The corresponding design live-load moment for the test beams is 1,425,000 Ib-in. The
dead-load moment, Mr, is 149,000 Ib-in.
Calculation of Effective Prestressing Force
Initial prestressing force, P„= 1.582 X 150,000 = 2.? 7..^00 lb.
Elastic losses:
Por 2 Moe^ £.
1.4 ' / 3 / J
_[ 237,300 , 237,300X3,76- 2_ ^ 149,000X3,76128 _ ^^^q .
[ 309,7 "^ 8340 3 8340 J 4
Shrinkage losses:
Assuming 0,02 percent losses,
0.0002 X 28 X 10" = 5600 p.si
Creep:
Assume twice elastic los.ses,
2 X 7860— 15,720 psi
Relaxation of steel:
Assume 4 percent losses,
0.04 X 150.000= 6000
Total losses of prestress ;= 35,180 psi
Effective prestress =114,820 psi
Effective prestressing force = 182,000 lbs
Calculation of Working Stresses
Prestressing:
, . . , ^ .. . P . Pe 237,300 , 237,300(3.76) _ , ,„„
Initial top tiber: /. = ^ \- -f 209
A S, 300.7 913
24
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
Initial bottom fiber: /^ =
Dead-load stresses:
Pe
_ _ j37,300 _ 23 7 ,300 (3 .76 ) _ ^^^,
309.7
top fiber: /, =^ ^ ^49,000 ^ _ ^
St
913
63 psi
bottom fiber: /„ =^ ^149,000 ^ ^.^
5. 940
Live-load stresses:
M _ 1,425,000
top fiber: /c
5,
913
1560 psi
bottom fiber: /. = i^ ^Ml^^O^ = + 1520 psi
Si 940
Initial concrete stresses:
+209
-163
+159
D L
-1560
940
psi
-l5Lb
Concrete stresses after losses:
+i6o _i63
-1560
-1563
+366
P + D L ♦ L L
Calculation of Static Ultimate Moment
The static ultimate moments for beams A, D, and F, were calculated through the
use of the method proposed in the Tentative Recommendations For Prestressed Con-
crete by ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 323.* The relationship given, for rectangular
sections is
Mu = A4,nd (1
where
and
kjPfsu\
ko
0.6
/„, = /'„ (i_ 0.5 ^: \
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 2>
For beams A, D, and F, the various terms in the above equations may be tabulated
as shown below.
/'« /'. /Is h=.A' f'" Computed A/u
Beam psi psi sqin bd psi Ib-in
A 8850 250,000 1.582 0.00745 224,000 4,050,000
D 7730 250,000 1.582 0.00745 220,000 .S,Q20,000
F 5750 250,000 1.SS2 0.00745 210,000 3.580,000
To check the computed static load at failure against the experimental load, we
may write
75/',, M + 149,000 =:i/„
where 149,000 is the dead-weight moment of the beam in Ib-in.
Solving, we find P,.n ^ -^/.. - 149,000
75
The final summary is given in Table 8.
APPENDIX B— CALCUL.\TION OF STRESSES IN A PRESTRESSED MEMBER
AT A CRACKED SECTION
Consider the cross section at which the bending moment is greatest. The e.xternal
moment may be resolved into a couple whose forces are equal in magnitude to the
force, Pm, necessary at the level of the center of gravity of the steel to produce zero
stresses in the entire concrete section. The magnitude of force Pm is
P„,=P-\- AP = P+ e.EsAs
where
ErAr Eric
P is the effective prestressing force and ^P represents the loss of prestress due to
elastic strain in the concrete.
Let the lower force of the couple be applied at the center of gravity of the steel,
then the upper force acts at a distance
M
d^p
above the lower force.
Refer now to Fig. B-1. By superimposing the lower force of the couple alone on
the member, the concrete stresses over the whole cross section are reduced to zero
while the tension force in the steel increases by ^P to Pm. The state of stress in the
concrete due to the external moment M is thus found by analysing the case of an
eccentrically applied axial load.
Consider now Fig. B-2, and apply the equations of statics.
2F = 0: P,n+ {^cTsdA,— \crdAc=Q (1)
:i Mr... = 0: ( iT.dAr — ( i.T.dA , = 0 (2 )
-Assuming plane sections remain plane,
0-, Z,.
''^^-^—E. (3)
2t) Tests on P r e s t r e s s e rl (" o n c r e t e Railway Slab
J— P.
3
+ j M =
C.G. Steel
V
M
& '= o
cr ■= Concrete
Stress Figure B-1
Pm d
dA.
Centroid of steel Area
T-^o^s
Figure B-2
Tests on Pre stressed Concrete Railway Slabs 27
wherr
also
£c = -
{Er is the secant
Modulus of Elasticity)
-.-4^£. (4)
Rewriting equations (1) and (2)
P„ + -^ i £^ rf.4 , = -^ ( MjL d.i (5 )
eJ X £, ' .r
£i ' X ' " £i
ind -^^ I f . ^^:£:i rf.4 ,. = ^ I L ^1^ rf.-l „
or i L A:?:: d.A. = ( r. J^;^ f/.4. (o)
' X ' v
Equations (5) and (6) allow the position of the neutral axis and concrete stresses to be
calculated for a given applied moment M (i.e., distance d). If the concrete modulus
of elasticity can be assumed constant for the range of stresses being considered, the
position of the neutral axis may be determined directly by solving Equation (6). If.
however, Ec is a variable it is necessary to guess the location of the neutral axis, cal-
culate (''i and check the estimate. By successive approximation, the values are determined.
APPENDIX C— STRAIN MEASUREMENTS ON STRANDS AT RELEASE
OF PRESTRESS
The transfer of load from the strands to the concrete produced by releasing the
strand anchorage is shown in Fig. 20. Strain gages were applied to the strands after
the strand tension was developed and before placing concrete. Strains were read imme-
diately before and after release of the strands. The strain readings shown in Fig. 20
indicate the extent of relaxation of the strands at various points along the beams. The
residual prestress varies from zero at the ends of the beam to a maximum value in the
middle portion of the beam determined by the elastic shortening of the concrete. It can
l>e seen from the figure that the transfer of stress was accomplished sooner in the con-
crete with highest strength, and the maximum length required was about 27 in.
APPENDIX D— EFFECT OF CREEP OF CONCRETE"
The analysis presented here is intended to show qualitatively the influence of creep
of concrete upon steel stresses under repetitive loading and has been simplified (a) by
neglecting any change in modulus of elasticity of the concrete while under load and
(b) neglecting any shrinkage of the concrete which might occur during the loading.
The simplest problem to consider is that of loss of prestress due to creep in a beam
assumed to be loaded only with a prestressing force. This problem will be discussed
first followed by the analogous problem of a beam loaded by sustained load or equivalent
sustained load in the case of a beam under repetitive loading.
Notation
Pi = prestressing force immediately after transfer of prestress
Pi = prestressing force at some time t after release of prestress
■^P ^= change in prestressing force during time interval /
28
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railwa>- Slabs
0 = ratio
(it
I\
Ac
Ec
As.
Es
■■ elastic strain at transfer of prestress
: total strain at time t which consists of e„ plus strain due to creep
rate of change of strain with respect to time, i.e., rate of creep
: moment of inertia of concrete
; concrete area
: modulus of elasticity for concrete
: steel area
: modulus of elasticity for steel
c.g.c
e.g. 3
Using the diagram above, strain stiffness is defined for the steel and concrete as the force
required to produce elastic unit strain in the material at the level of the steel.
For steel strain stiffness S^,
E,A,
=1, or 5, =£,^.,
For concrete strain stiffness S,-,
Sr , S,.r'
-^^^^l- = l, or 5. = -
ArEr E.-L, 1
EcAc
rAc
In
Neglecting creep of the steel as being small compared with creep of the concrete,
due to creep of the concrete the beam shortens at the level of the steel and the steel
stress is decreased. With the steel bonded to the concrete, the strain in the concrete
and steel at any time I must be equal. The shortening of the steel is given by:
rf(^P) 1
dt 5,
The shortening at the concrete consists of three parts as follows. The first part is an
elastic shortening at release of prestress and being time-dependent is given by:
5,.
?,. \dt)
The second part is an elastic shortening due to change in steel stress and being time-
dependent is given by:
Sc
m
The third portion is due to the change in ^P with time due to inelastic creep and is
given by
d(AP) 1
dl S.
T e s ts on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 29
Equating the shortenintr of ronrrete to the shortening of the steel the following
equation results:
Se lit dt Sr ~ dt ' S.
S
Taking — ^ ^= o. and rearranging gives:
dt dt dt
The solution of this differential equation is:
AP=zP, (i_e-a0)
The prestressing force at time t is given by:
P, =Pi — ^P = P,e-°-^
showing that the eventual prestressing force is dependent on the two quantities o. and <P.
Thus to avoid high losses of prestress, high values of a and <P should be avoided.
Consider now a beam loaded only with a sustained load producing stresses opposite
in sign to those produced by the prestressing force.
I^ = moment of Inertia of steel
^7)
The sustained moment Ms is carried by the concrete and steel in proportion to their
relative flexural stiffnesses. Defining flexural stiffness as the moment required to produce
unit angular rotation of the cross section we have for flexural stiffness of the concrete,
and flexural stiffness of the steel,
Sst=lo' Es
and let «;■ == J'
Set
The moment M is carried partly by the steel and partly by the concrete.
Portion carried by steel = Ms = Map
Portion carried by concrete == Afr = M (1 — «/•)
Change in moment carried by the concrete (or steel) due to creep — ^Mc
Due to plastic flow of the concrete there will be a decrease in the moment carried
by the concrete and an increase in the moment carried by the steel. The angular dis-
placements must be the same for both materials.
The angular displacement in the steel is given by
d(^Mr) 1
dt S.,
,^0 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
The angular displacements of the concrete consist of three parts. The first part is due
to the elastic displacement caused by Mr and is given by:
Mc d0
Srf (it
The second part is due to the elastic displacement caused by ^Mc and is given by
Sc, dt
The third part is due to the change in AMc with time due to creep and is given by
dj^Mr) 1
dt Srf
Equating the angular displacements of the concrete and steel and simplifying by using
S.,r , the following equation results
d{^M^ di^M^_ _^^^^d^^^
dt dt dt
The solution being
^Mc — M d — e-^'i'/')
where ^Mc represents a decrease in the moment carried by the concrete and an increase
in the moment carried by the steel. This increase in moment carried by the steel must
result in an increase in steel stresses. The two factors 0 and af again affect the change
in steel stress due to creep. These are the factors which affect the error involved in
calculating the fatigue strength by the theory proposed. It is known that the
value of a-f is the same for the three beams tested in fatigue but that the value of <P
will be different for the three beams. This accounts for the apparent difference in error
between test results and theory for the three beams.
REFERENCES
1. Ros, M.: Vorgespannter Beton (Bericht Nr. 155) Eidgenoessische Materialpruefungs-
und Versuchsanstalt fuer Industrie, Bauwesen und Gewerbe. S.79,Abb 78, Zurich,
1046
2. Ekberg, C. E., Jr.; Walther, R. E.; and Slutter, R. G.: "Fatigue Resistance of Pre-
stressed Concrete Beams in Bending." Journal of the Structural Division, Vol. 83,
No. ST4, Paper No. 1304, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
July 195 7.
3. Thurlimann, B., and Eney, W. J.: "Modern Installation for Testing of Large Assem-
blies under Static and Fatigue Loading." Lehigh University, Fritz Engineering
Laboratory Report No. 237.7. August 31, 1956.
4. Report of ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 323: Tentative Recommendation for Pre-
stressed Concrete. Journal of the American Concrete Institute, January 1958, Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 54.
5. Report of Committee 30 — ^Assignment 5, Chicago: American Railway Engineering
Association Proceedings, Vol. 55, 1954. pp. 462-465.
6. Komendant, A. E.: Prestressed Concrete Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952,
pp. 53-55.
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
31
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Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
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Tests on Prestress e d Concrete Railway Slabs
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Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railwav Slabs
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Tests on Pre stressed Concrete Railway Slabs
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40 Tests on P r c s t r e s s e d Concrete R a i I w a >■ Slabs
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Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
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Fig, 14 — Views showing static test beams after failure.
Tests o n Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs 45
Beam B
Beam C
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Fig. 15 — Views showing dynamic test beams at failure load (Run 3-D). The
south sides of the beams are shov/n at the left, north sides at the right.
46 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
mr
»mmimammmmmmm
Dynamic test beams
Static test beams
Fig. 16 — Views showing test beams after failure.
Tests on Prestressed Cone rete Railway Slabs
2-9"
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Note:
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5 wires broken
Plan View
I wire broken
of Beam C
6 wires broken — i ^5 wires broken
Plon View of Beam E
FIGURE 17- DIAGRAMS SHOWING LOCATION OF
DAMAGED STRANDS
48 Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
Fig. 18 — View of beam B showing strand fractures.
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railwav Slabs 40
100
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0 25 50 75 100
BENDING MOMENT (% OF Mult)
FIG. 19— TYPICAL STEEL STRESS vs. MOMENT DIAGRAMS
50
Tests on Prestressed Concrete Railway Slabs
IM A
\M B
/
/
SYMBOLS:
K
-CALCULATED STRAND TENSION
= » 8£
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fi=5850 PSI (AT TIME STRANDS WERE CUT)
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27 IB 9
FIG. 20 -TRANSFER OF STRAND TENSION TO CONCRETE WHEN STRANDS WERE CUT
To« Span 4
%V^?H>'^
^»3.:i^
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ijlumn 2
Testing the Genesee & Wyoming's York Viaduct with the AAR
Research Center's Mobile Laboratory.
Advance Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
D. S. Bechly, Chairman
Tests of a Steel Viaduct on the Genesee &
Wyoming Railroad
A. DIGEST
This is a report on field tests of the York viaduct of the Genesee & Wyoming
Railroad, near Retsof, X. Y. — a 478 ft long structure consisting of 13 deck girder spans
supported on steel towers. Strain gages were applied to various elements of the viaduct,
as follows:
Top and bottom flanges of girders at center of span.
Columns near the bases.
Tower bracing.
Running rails.
A test train was ustd to determine the maximum stresses and total impacts for a
complete range of speeds from 5 to 33 mph. Longitudinal forces were developed by the
test train braking on the structure and accelerating off it, and the resulting stresses
in the tower bracing and in the running rails were measured.
51
52 TestsofaSteelViaduct
Salt corrosion has caused considerable loss of flange material, and the girders were
strengthened by welding additional angles to the flanges between stiffeners. The effec-
tiveness of this added material was determined.
The results of this test may be summarized as follows:
1. The static stresses in the top flanges of all the girders tested were higher than
in the bottom flanges, probably because of the greater corrosion of the top flange.
The maximum average recorded static stress was 6.20 ksi.
2. The recorded average static stresses in the top flanges of the girders were as
much as 17 percent higher than the calculated stresses based on full section, but the
bottom flange stresses were lower.
3. All recorded maximum live-load-plus-impact stresses in the girder flanges were
less than the calculated stresses.
4. Recorded static stresses across a column section varied from zero to 7.56 ksi.
Local effects probably caused this large variation.
5. The recorded average static stresses in the columns were higher than the calcu-
lated stresses by as much as 44 percent.
6. The average recorded maximum live-load-plus-impact stresses in the columns
exceeded the calculated stresses in several instances.
7. All recorded total impacts in the girders and the columns were less than the
current AREA allowance for rolling equipment without hammer blow.
8. The material which was added to the flanges is effectively strengthening the
girders.
9. Braking of the trains produced longitudinal force of 17.58 kips in the bracing
between bents 2 and 3 and 17.78 kips in the rails.
10. The direct load of the train on the tower caused a higher stress in the tower
bracing than the braking of the train. This maximum stress was 3.74 ksi.
11. The tractive force applied by the test locomotive caused negligible stress in the
tower bracing and running rails.
B. FOREWORD
At the request of the Genesee & Wyoming Railroad the AAR research staff con-
ducted tests and secured data on various elements of this road's York Viaduct. The
tests were conducted during July and August, 1956, and a full report of the results
was furnished to the railroad company in December of that year.
Since the assignments of Committee 30 include studies of stresses and impacts
in steel girder spans, permission was granted by the railroad company to publish the
results of this test as a committee report.
The York Viaduct, built in 1900, consists of a series of 13 deck girder spans on
steel towers for a total length of 478 ft, as shown on Fig. 1. It is located on the main
line of the Genesee & Wyoming near Retsof, N. Y. Since most of the tonnage carried
by this railroad is rock salt from a nearby salt mine, this structure is subjected to
severe salt corrosion. The girder section has been considerably reduced by this corrosion,
and to strengthen it in 1947 the top and bottom flange areas were increased as shown
on Figs. 2 and 6. Thus, one of the reasons for conducting this test was to determine
the effectiveness of this added material in carrying live load. The structure has an
open timber floor with a single tangent track. The railroad operates only diesel locomo-
tives and furnished a special test train to secure the data comprising this report.
This test was carried out under the general direction of G. M. Magee, director of
Tests of a Steel Viaduct 5^
engineeririK research. Engineering Division, AAR. All of the direct costs involved in the
test were borne h>- the Genesee & Wyoming.
The conduct of the test, analysis of the data and preparation of the report were
under the direction of E. J. Ruble, research engineer structures, assisted in the office
and tield by F. P. Drew, assistant research engineer structures, and W. J. Murphy,
former assistant research engineer structures. This report was prepared by Mr. Drew.
C. INSTRUMENTS
Since the structure was accessible by truck, the Research Center's mobile labora-
tory was used (see photograph, page 51). The instruments used in this test consist essen-
tially of two 12-channel oscillographs, which recorded the strains on photographic
paper in response to the SR-4 wire resistance gages cemented on the bridge at various
points. .\ description of the SR-4 gages and the necessary recording equipment is given
in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. S2, 1951, page 152. The relative position of each locomo-
tive and car wheel with respect to the structure was indicated by two solenoid marker
units in each oscillograph which were connected to spring-type switches located on the
rail at the center line of spans 2 and 4. The speed of each locomotive was readUy
obtained from the oscillograms by determining the elapsed time for the locomotive to
pass between these wheel position markers. Two additional spring-type switches were
located on the rail at a spacing of one-fortieth of a mile and connected to an electric
timer which automatically recorded the elapsed time for each locomotive to cover this
distance.
Each strain gage circuit was calibrated individually before each test run, and a
calibration check was made at the completion of each run. All the gages mounted on
the girders and towers were calibrated for a sensitivity of 1 in trace deflection equal
to 10,000 psi in the member, assuming a modulus of elasticity of 30.000,000 psi.
D. TEST SPANS AND LOCATION OF GAGES
As shown on Fig. 1, spans 2, 3 and 4 were used as test spans. The girders are
spaced 8 ft 0 in on centers. Spans 2 and 4 are identical in span length and composition.
The girders of spans 2 and 4 are 43 ft 11 in over-all and 43 ft 3 in center to center of
bearings, while those of span 3 are 27 ft 11 in over-all and 27 ft 3 in center to center
of bearings. The top flanges are braced by a single lateral system, and there are end
and intermediate crossframes.
The open timber floor consists of 8-in by 12-in by 10-ft ties spaced 16 in on cen-
ters. The center line of track is 1% in west of the center line between girders at the
center of span 2, l^g in west at span 3 and 1 in west at span 4. The west girders,
therefore, are calculated to carry 51.2, 52.0, and 51.0 percent, respectively, of the total
live load. The capacity of the spans in flexure, using the full gross section plus rein-
forcement and present ARE.\ design stresses and impact for diesel locomotives, is E 96
for spans 2 and 4 and E 80 for span 3.
The girders were strengthened by welding two 3J/2- by sy^- by H-in angles to each
flange, as shown on Fig. 6. The angles were cut and fitted between the stiffeners. The
toes of the angles were welded to the original flange angles, and the ends of the angles
were welded to the stiffeners.
Strain gages were applied tu llic lup and ijottoiu flanges of eadi girder near the
center line of the spans 2, 3 and 4. In addition to these gages placed at the extreme
fiber, gages were applied to the ea.st girder only near the center line of .span 4 to deter-
54
Tests of a Steel Viaduct
mine the longitudinal distribution of strains along the strengthening angles and the
original flange material. These gages were applied midway between the stiffeners and
at the ends of the strengthening angles as close to the stiffeners as possible.
The ends of each girder span bear on steel bents. Except at the ends of the viaduct,
the bents are spaced 28 ft and 44 ft on centers. Those at 28 ft comprise the towers
which have single or double cross bracing as the height increases. The columns of each
bent are battered and consist of a web plate and four Z sections.
Strain gages were applied at the four corners of the columns near the base and to
the tower bracing angles.
To measure the amount of longitudinal force transmitted to the rails, strain gages
were applied to the neutral axis of the 80-lb rail at the north end of the viaduct and
330 ft from the north end on span 10.
The location of all gages is shown on Fig. 2.
E. TEST TRAINS
Except for a few runs obtained under regular trains the entire test was conducted
with a special test train consisting of a diesel locomotive and six cars. The locomotive
weight was 240,000 lb, and each car weighed 169,000 lb, as shown on Fig. 1.
The rating of this test train on the 27-ft 11-in span was E 33.8 and on the 43-ft
11-in span, E 35.5.
The test train was operated at various speeds from about 5 mph (which was con-
sidered the same as static loading) to a maximum of 33 mph. In addition to these runs,
which were used to determine the dynamic effect, several runs were made with the
train coming to an abrupt stop (under a service application of the brakes) near the
north end of the viaduct. Several runs were also made with the locomotive accelerating
off of the viaduct from various points.
F. ANALYSIS OF FIELD RECORDS
The oscillograms obtained during this test are similar to those obtained from
previously reported tests. A total of 77 runs were recorded on the two oscillographs,
producing 154 oscillograms which form the permanent record of strains at the various
gage locations under the passage of the Uve loads. In all cases the recorded stresses
represent only the live-load stress, to which must be added a dead-load stress to obtain
the total stress. The gages were applied to the gross section of the members between
the rivet holes or other stress raisers.
1. Static Stresses
The recorded stresses in the flanges of the girders and the columns were determined
from the maximum mean stresses secured under the slow speed runs of approximately
5 mph of the test train. The calculated static stresses were based on concentrated wheel
loads and the gross section of the members. The exact position of the train to produce
the maximum recorded static stress was secured from the oscillograms. It was noted
that the maximum recorded static stress did not occur solely from the loading of the
locomotive, but that the heavily loaded cars also produced maximum stress. Thus, the
maximum recorded stress in spans 2 and 4 occurred when the trailing truck of the
locomotive and the lead truck of the first car were on the span. The maximum stress
in span 3 occurred when the two adjacent trucks of the first and second cars were
on the spans. Similarly, for the north columns of tower 1, the maximum stress occurred
Tests of a Steel Viaduct
55
when the adjacent trucks of the locomotive and the first car straddled the columns,
and for the south columns when the adjacent trucks of the first and second cars
straddled the columns.
a. Top and Bottom Flange Near Center of Girder
A comparison of the recorded and calculated static live-load stresses and the
resulting stress factors is shown in the following tabulation. The stress factor is the
ratio of the recorded to the calculated stresses.
Average Recorded Static Stress
Calculated
Static
Stress
Stress
Factor
Rec./Cal.
E. Girder
W. Girder
Average
Span 2 — Top Flange - -
-6.20
+4.05
-3.29
+ 2.01
-5.39
+ 3.34
-5.10
+ 3.98
-2.48
+ 2.16
-5.42
+ 3.00
-5.65
+4.02
-2.88
+ 2.08
-5.40
+ 3.17
-4.83
+ 4.83
-4.14
+4.14
-4.65
+ 4.65
1.17
Span 2 — Bottom Flange
0.83
0.70
Span 3— Bottom Flange
Span 4 — Top Flange
0.50
1.16
Span 4 — Bottom Flange
0.68
It can be seen from the above tabulation that the top-flange stresses were higher
than the bottom-flange stresses. This is probably due to the loss of top flange material
from corrosion with a consequent lowering of the neutral a.xis. It can be seen further
that the top-flange stresses of span 2 and 3 were highest on the east girder. It was
noted previously that the track was slightly off-center, putting more load on the west
girders; apparently the corrosion was enough more severe on the east girders to offset
this eccentricity of the track.
It is also noted from the stress factors that the top-flange recorded stresses were
higher than the calculated stresses whereas the opposite was true on the bottom flange.
Undoubedly the corrosion of the top flange caused this, since the calculated stresses
were based on the top flange having its full section.
b. Columns Near the Base
A comparison of the recorded and calculated static live-load stresses and the result-
ing stress factors is shown in the following tabulation for the columns of tower 1.
Recorded Static Stress
Calculated
Stress Factor
Rec./Calc.
Maximum
Average
Northeast Column
Northwest Column
Southeast Column
Southwest Column
-7.80
-5.80
-7.21
-7.56
-5.30
-4.48
-3.98
-3.49
-3.68
-3.68
-3.41
-3.41
1.44
1.22
1.17
1.02
It is noted from the above tabulation that the stress factors are all greater than
unity, indicating high recorded stresses compared to the calculated. These stress factors
are based on the average stress as recorded simultaneously on four gages at the edges
of the column section near the base. There was a large variation between the stresses
as recorded on the individual gages. For example, during one run the four gages on the
northeast column recorded the following stresses:
56 TestsofaSteelViaduct
4.21 ksi
— 7.80 ksi
— 7.11 ksi
— 3.39 ksi
and during that same run the southwest column gages recorded these slres.ses:
— 5.61 ksi
— 7.56 ksi
0 ksi
— 0.71 ksi
Hence, it is apparent that there were factors present to create high corner stresses.
Bending of the column about the base, concentrated bearing pressure near one edge
and the secondary effect of the gusseted connection of the tower bracing could all
contribute to these high corner stresses. Since there was this large variation, the average
recorded stress probably does not represent the true recorded direct stress, consequently
the stress factors are high.
Nevertheless, the fact that the average stresses were higher for the north columns
than for the south columns does indicate there has been some differential settlement
to transfer additional load to the north columns.
2, Maximum Stresses
The maximum live-load-plus-impact stresses recorded in the top and bottom flanges
and in the columns at a full range of speeds to 33 mph are shown on Figs. 3, 4 and 5.
Also shown on these diagrams are the calculated stresses based on the current AREA
design specification impact allowance for rolling equipment without hammer blow.
a. Top Flange Near Center of Girder
An examination of Fig. 3 reveals that there was no significant increase in maximum
stress with an increase in speed. In fact, in several instances the maximum stress was
actually reduced with an increase in speed. The maximum recorded stress was 7.18 ksi
in the top flange of the east girder in span 2.
While the recorded static stress exceeded the calculated stresses on spans 2 and 4,
none of the recorded maximum stresses exceeded the calculated values. On span 3 all
recorded stresses were less than the calculated stresses.
It was noted previously that the static stresses were highest in the top flanges of
the east girders in spans 2 and 3, and this same trend was apparent for stresses at the
higher speeds also.
b. Bottom Flange Near Center of Girder
The diagrams at the top of Fig. 4 indicate that all recorded stresses were less than
fhe calculated stresses, with no significant increase in stress with an increase in speed.
It is also apparent from these diagrams that the variation in bottom-flange stress
between the east and west girders is relatively small. There was not the loss of flange
material at the bottom that there was at the top to affect the stress variation.
c. Columns Near the Base
As was the case with the girder flanges, the top diagrams of Fig. 5 show no signifi-
cant increase in maximum stress with an increase in speed. The maximum recorded
stress at one corner of a column was 8.35 ksi, and the maximum average stre.ss was
6.00 ksi, as shown.
TestsofaSteel Viaduct 57
Thv calculated maximum stress in the north columns of tower 1 is 5.47 ksi, and it
can be seen from the upper right diagram that several average recorded maximum
stresses exceeded this value. This is not surprising, as the average recorded static values
were nearly this high, and a large variation of stress occurred between the four corner
gages at maximum stress.
The calculated maximum stress in the south columns of tower 1 is 5.08 ksi, and
the upper left diagram indicates that all average recorded maximum stresses were less
than this. There were individual corner stresses which did exceed this calculated value,
however.
3. Total Impacts
The total impacts recorded in the bottom flanges of the girders near center of span
and in the columns near the base are shown in the lower diagrams of Figs. 4 and 5.
The total impact percentage for a particular speed is the increase in stress in the mem-
ber over the average stress occurring at slow speed. The total impacts include the
combinations of (1) speed effect, (2) roll effort and (.^) track effect, hut these various
effects were not separated for this analysis.
a. Bottom Flange Near Center of Girder
It can be seen from the diagram that there was an increase in impact with an
increase in speed on the 27-ft 11-in span, but such a relationship is not so apparent on
the 43-ft 11-in span. In all cases, however, the recorded impact was less than the AREA
design specification allowance for rolling equipment without hammer blow. The maxi-
mum impact recorded was ,38.4 percent on the 27-ft 11-in span. The AREA design allow-
ance for this span is 51.0 percent. The recorded impacts were generally higher for the
shorter span. Since all the spans are the same depth, the indication is that the increased
stiffness of the short span was a factor causing higher impacts in this .span.
b. Columns Near the Base
The plotted values of recorded impacts indicate that all values are less than those
calculated according to the AREA design specifications. The maximum impact recorded
was 36.1 percent in the southeast column of tower 1; the calculated value is 41.9
percent.
4. Distribution of Bottom Flange Stress
To determine the longitudinal and vertical distribution of stress over the bottom
flange, particularly to determine the effectiveness of the strengthening material, strain
gages were applied to the east girder of span 4 as shown on Fig. 6.
The "Location of Sections" indicates that gages were applied to the strengthening
angles and to the original flange angles and plates. A set of such gages was applied
midway between stiffener angles at Section D-D, a similar set applied at the ends of
the strengthening angles at Section N-N and another similar set applied at the ends
of the strengthening angles at Section P-P in the adjacent stiffener panel.
The graphs on this figure show the average recorded static and dynamic stress
variation along each gage line at the various sections. It can be seen from these graphs
that the stresses were highest along gage lines "g" and lower along gage lines "a" and
''d" as the neutral axis was approached. It is also noted that along all gage lines (except
line ''g") that there was a slight decrease in stress between Sections D-D and P-P, due
probably to the reduction of monitnt between these two points. The fact that the
change in stress occurred in the original flange material as well as in the added strength-
58 Tests of a Steel Viaduct
ening material indicates that the welds at the ends of the angles were transferring stress
to the outstanding leg of the stiffener and then to the angles in the next panel and,
therefore, were effective in strengthening the girder.
5. Braking and Traction Stresses
A tabulation of the recorded stresses in the tower bracing and in the rails resulting
from the test train braking on the structure is shown on Fig. 7.
For the braking runs the train approached the structure at a speed of about 15
mph, and when the locomotive reached the south end a service application of the brakes
was made and held until the train came to an abrupt stop. The highest braking stresses
were obtained when this abrupt stop was made with the lead wheels of the locomotive
near the north rail gages. The column at the extreme right of the tabulation indicates
the position of the lead wheel of the locomotive after stopping.
The recorded rail stresses in kips are shown for the rail gage locations, and it can
be seen that during these braking runs the rails ahead of the locomotive were stressed
in compression and those behind in tension. The maximum simultaneous stresses recorded
were 0.69 ksi compression and 0.44 ksi tension in the 80-lb rails. The longitudinal
force to produce these stresses was, then, 17.78 kips.
Simultaneous stresses were also recorded in the tower bracing, as indicated by the
location of bracing gages on Fig. 7. There does not seem to be any definite pattern as
to the magnitude of the stress in relation to the location of the train. It is noted, how-
ever, that the kind of stress is consistent for all braking runs ,and that in any panel
of cross bracing each of the braces carries stress of opposite sign which is consistent
with the applied longitudinal force. The simultaneous recorded stresses in the bracing
of bents 2 and 3 were 1.70 ksi compression and 1.14 ksi tension which are the average
of the stresses in the braces on the east and west sides of the tower. The longitudinal
force to produce these stresses is 17.58 kips. This is equivalent to 6.4 percent of the
girder reaction on the bents.
Stresses in the bracing were also recorded under the direct load of the test train,
and it will be noted that for each run the maximum stress in the bracing occurred linder
this direct load rather than under the braking load. The maximum direct stress in the
bracing was 3.74 ksi and occurred during run 59 when the train came to a hard stop
with the locomotive directly over the tower with that bracing.
It is interesting to note that these stresses were not all compressive as might be
expected. In tower 1 the brace leading to the base of the south column carried a tensile
stress under direct load, whereas the other brace carried a compressive stress. It will be
noted on Fig. S that the column stresses were higher in the north columns than in the
south columns. It seems likely that part of the load to the south column is being
transferred to the north column through the tower bracing.
The effect on the rails and the structure of a train accelerating off the structure
was also determined. The engine was positioned in two different locations from which
the run started: (1) over tower 2, and (2) just south of the south backwall. No
perceptible stress was recorded for either position.
G. CONCLUSIONS
The test showed that the material added to the flanges effectively strengthens the
girder.
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Advance Report of Committee 15 — Iron and Steel Structures
D. V. Messman, Chairman
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
By W. H. Munse/ James R. Fuller" and Kenneth S. Petersen"
A. SYNOPSIS
The applicability of laboratory fatigue tests of structural joints to actual struc-
tures has long been questioned by the research engineer as well as the field engineer
because the studies in the laboratory are generally made under conditions in which the
maximum and minimum stresses remain constant during an entire test. In actual struc-
tures, however, the stress cycles are seldom of constant magnitude and may vary from
cycle to cycle in a random manner. Thus, constant cycle laboratory fatigue tests pro-
vide only relative data on the fatigue lives of service structures or their components.
To determine the fatigue lives of members which are subjected to variable cycles
of loading requires that tests be made with cyclic stresses of the same frequency and
magnitude as the actual service stresses, or that an adequate hypothesis be available
to explain the behavior of such members. From a review of existing data a hypothesis
has been formulated which the tests reported herein show to be reasonably accurate
in predicting the fatigue life of a member or joint subjected to a variable loading cycle.
From the limited number of tests conducted, it may be concluded that the varia-
tions in maximum cyclic stress obtained in railway bridges may be expected to provide
a life markedly greater than one would expect to obtain on the basis of the maximum
applied stresses. However, it appears also that all of the loading cycles, even those at
the lower stresses, have an effect on the life of a member and must be considered in any
evaluation of the member's fatigue resistance.
B. INTRODUCTION
1. Preliminary Remarks
In this age of fast-moving vehicles and high-speed machinery, engineers are often
confronted with problems which were not important a number of years ago. Not only
must present-day structural elements often sustain higher stresses than formerly, but in
many cases they must also sustain a larger number of repetitions of these stresses.
Of the many problems in our modern technology few are as perplexing as those of
guarding against failures of metal by fatigue.
Fatigue failures are difficult to anticipate because so little is known about the
basic nature of fatigue. There are questions as to how the cracks originate and how
fast they are likely to grow under repeated loadings, when does fatigue damage begin
and how does it accumulate? Qualitatively, it is known that points of high stress
concentration are danger points for fatigue failures. Therefore, actual tests must be
conducted on specific parts, which are loaded precisely as they are in service and under
similar environmental conditions, before a reasonably accurate estimate of the faitgue
life can be ascertained.
^ Professor of civil engineering, University of Illinois.
2 Engineer, Boeing Airplane Co., Seattle, Wash. Formerly, research assistant of civil engineering.
University of Illinois.
^ Structural engineer. Rust Engineering Co., Birmingham, Ala. Formerly, research a.ssistant of civil
engineering, University of Illinois,
67
68 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
Since the formation of a fatigue crack is a very localized phenomenon, its place
and time of inception depend not only on the geometry and general stress condition in
the part, but also on the textural stresses in the metal at critically stressed regions.
The size, shape, and orientation of the individual grains as well as their crystalline
structure and boundaries all influence the formation and growth of the crack from a
microscopic or submicroscopic point of weakness until it can be seen with the naked
eye. Any influence that affects the mechanical behavior of the metal can certainly be
expected to have some effect on its fatigue properties. However, attempts to predict
the fatigue life of a metal from a knowledge of its various measurable properties have
not met with complete success for even the simplest type of specimen and a constant
stress cycle.
2. Fatigue Damage Studies
Studies were started more than 20 years ago to try to correlate the fatigue lives
of standard-type specimens which have been subjected to mixed cycles of stress with
conventional S-N relationships for the same type of specimen. Most of this research
has been done on round polished specimens stressed in reversed bending; however, some
tests have been made using direct axial loads.
The earlier investigations of this type dealt with the effects of cycles of over-
stress* on the endurance limit of a given material. French*"** defined a so-called
"damage line" by this type of testing. This damage line is determined in the following
manner: An S-N curve is first obtained, using all virgin specimens. Then several more
identical specimens are run at a low overstress for various fractions of their normal
lifetime as determined by the S-N relationship. Each of these "prestressed" specimens
is then cycled at the endurance or fatigue limit*^'***. If a specimen fails while being
run at the fatigue limit, it is assumed to have been damaged by the prestressing opera-
tion at the overstress. One that does not fail after a sufficiently large number of cycles
is assumed to have accumulated no damage. Other series of specimens are then tested
in a similar manner at other overstresses until it is possible to interpolate between the
number of cycles applied to the specimens of each overstress series and determine a
point where no damage is inflicted on the fatigue limit. The locus of such points at
the various overstresses then determines the damage line.
Similar tests have also been conducted by Moore *^', Kommers"'^^ and others. Kom-
mers determined new fatigue limits for the prestressed specimens. He then expressed
the damage as the percent change in the initial fatigue limit caused by the prestressing,
where either understresses or overstresses were used as the prestress. His results indicate
that there is a rapid increase in damage with an increase in the number of cycles at the
higher overstresses. That is, damage increases at an increasing rate with the number
of overstress cycles applied. He concluded that a material which has been subjected
to an overstress and then to an understress finally fails at a stress below the initial
fatigue limit, because overstressing causes a decrease in the initial fatigue limit. Other
observations showed that for some materials there appeared to be an actual increase
of the fatigue limit due to some cycling at low overstresses. Apparently, these materials
* An overstress or understress is defined as a cyclic stress greater or less than the endurance limit,
respectively.
** Numbers in parentheses refer to references in the Bibliography.
*** The American Society for Testing Material, Manual on Fatigue Testing, considers the term
"fatigue limit" preferable to endurance limit.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 60
were not damaged significantly until a very large perrentage of the normal fatifjiic life
at these overstresses had been expended.
Lea**' conducted overstress and understress tests on an annealed 0.32 percent carbon
steel having a tensile strength of 72,000 psi and a rotating beam fatigue limit of 32,000
psi. The estimated fatigue life at 40,000 psi was 12,500 cycles. By cycling a specimen
just under the fatigue limit and by repeatedly increasing the stress in small increments
up to 40,000 psi, it was possible to apply 40,000,000 cycles at the latter stress level
before failure occurred. The normal life at 40,000 psi had been increased 3,350 times.
Swanger and France'"' also report some interesting results similar to these. This type
of testing is reported in many places in the Uterature and is generally known as coaxing.
Gough**' and many other investigators believe that understressing tends to work-out
the peak textural stresses in the virgin material into a more homogeneous distribution
and, in effect, increases the fatigue limit. Overstressing, on the other hand, is believed
to aggravate the textural stress condition by more severe plastic deformation, particu-
larly in the partially unrestrained material at the surfaces. It is here that fatigue cracks
generally form.
Much of the fatigue damage work reported in the literature has been along the
lines discussed above. It is not directly applicable to design problems, but it has aided
greatly in providing a better general understanding of fatigue damage from a
phenomenological viewpoint.
3. Cumulative Damage in Fatigue
Most so-called cumulative fatigue damage studies have been concerned with the
effects of prestressing at one overstress on the subsequent endurance at another over-
stress or "test stress". These studies have led to methods for estimating the fatigue lives
for variable-stress-cycle loading and can be applied to certain design problems. Impor-
tant general conclusions can also be drawn from these more recent investigations. For
the purpose of discussing these conclusions, the following terminology will be used:
S = Maximum stress of a stress cycle.
N = Number of cycles to failure, applied to a specimen at a stress, S.
n r= The number of cycles endured at any stage of a fatigue test at a stress, 5.
n always less than TV.
R = Cycle ratio, the ratio of the number of stress cycles applied at a given stress
level to the expected fatigue hfe as estimated from the S-N curve for that
stress level, R = n/N.
D = Fatigue damage done to a specimen by previous fatigue stressing, measured
as the percent shortening or lengthening of the fatigue life at the final or
test stress level.
Palmgren '"•''" is reported to have suggested a method for analyzing data for fatigue
tests at several stress levels. The method was then considered by Miner.'^" Luthander
and Wallgren''^', and others for design purposes. Miner conducted tests on 24S-T
aluminum alloy plain sheets and riveted joints, and the method generally carries his
name in this country.
In analyzing data by this method, it is assumed that there is a linear relationship
between the prestress cycle ratio and damage at any given overstress level, and further-
more, that during the course of any fatigue test, the damage is equal to the summation
of all of the prestress cycle ratios. Thus, the damage, D, and the cycle ratio, R, would
70 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
he equal to w/A' for each block of cyclic stress applied, and would sum to unity at
failure.
Miiller-Stock, Ceroid, and Schulz^"", Kommers*"', Richart and Newmark*'^', and
other investigators have shown that such a simple relationship between damage and
cycle ratio does not actually apply, but that damage more likely varies with some power
of the cycle ratio.
In some of these investigations only two different stress levels were used. Thus,
the effect of a certain block of prestress cycles could provide either a healing or damag-
ing effect to the remaining endurance at a different test stress. For example, if after
Wi cycles at a stress 5i, a specimen is cycled to failure at a different stress level, 52, the
cumulative cycle ratio is n-i/Ni plus n^Ne and should be equal to 1.0 according to
Miner's theory. However, in most cases it was found to be greater or less than unity.
It has been demonstrated that the order in which the stresses are applied makes
a difference in the total number of cycles to failure. That is, an initial maximum cyclic
stress, 5i, greater than the final stress, 52, ordinarily gives a cumulative cycle ratio less
than 1.0, while an initial stress less than the final stress may give a value of cumulative
cycle ratio greater than 1.0.
Richart and Newmark*^' showed that as the number of alternate blocks increased
without bound the value of the cumulative cycle ratio appeared to converge to some
definite value regardless of which stress block had been applied first. But even then,
the cumulative cycle ratio was usually different from unity. It appears that a cumula-
tive cycle ratio most nearly equal to unity will occur when the prestress and test stress
are nearly the same. This is to be expected, because the constant-cycle fatigue lives at
the two stress levels would be very nearly equal.
A point that stands out in nearly all of these tests is that a specimen which is
being cycled in fatigue is in a nearly constant state of change, particularly if the maxi-
mum stress of the cycle is an overstress. If a given set of specimens were all cycled at
a constant maximum stress for an equal number of cycles, and then an S-N diagram
determined using these prestressed specimens, and including the cycles of prestress in
the new plot, the new diagram would cross the S-N diagram for the original specimens
at the value of the prestress. This would occur because continued cycling of a pre-
stressed specimen at the prestress value would cause failure as predicted by the original
S-N diagram. Also, it has been shown by test that prestressed specimens will give a
new S-N diagram. However, the fatigue lives are usually more scattered than for tests
at a single stress level.
Fig. 1 shows some of the results of tests made by Kommers*^'^' on rotating-beam
specimens of SAE 1020 steel. The upper diagram in this figure shows the new S-N
relationships that were determined after prestressing the specimens at 36,000 psi for
various prestress cycle ratios, R. The lower diagram shows the same test data except
that the cycles of prestress are included with the test stress cycles to failure.
It may be noted that the "rotation" of the diagrams with respect to the basic S-N
curve or a vertical line through the point of rotation is proportional approximately
to the cycle ratio of the prestress. Thus, for zero cycles of prestress, R = 0, a. test
point would lie on the S-N curve, and for R=1.0, the specimen would fail before
any test stress cycles could be applied. In the latter case, the point representing zero
cycles of test stress would be plotted on the vertical line through the point of rotation.
From a study of Kommers"^^*' data and tests by Bennet"*" and others, it appears
tl^at S-N diagrams for prestressed specimens will "rotate" in a clockwise fashion about
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 71
the point on the original S-N diagram corresponding to the value of the prestress.
This illustrates some of the principal findings of the earlier fatigue damage studies —
that a high overstress has a damaging effect on the subsequent remaining fatigue life
:it a lower stress, and that a low stress tends to show a healing effect on the endurance
at a higher subsequent stress.
\ possible effect of prestressing specimens at one or more values of prestress is
further indicated in Fig. 2. In this illustration it is as^sumed that an overstress, 5n, is
applied to all of the specimens for n, cycles. The specimens will be suft'iciently changed
by this prestressing operation that they will yield an S-N curve different from that
of the original specimens. If this new S-N curve is determined and if the cycles of pre-
stress are included in its representation, a curve such as 2-2 will result. Two things
may be noted concerning curve 2-2: first, it crosses the original S-N diagram at the
value of the prestress, and second, it is rotated in a clockwise direction with respect to
the original diagram. If. after cycling at 5i for n-i cycles, the specimens were subjected
to an additional )h cycles at S2 and another S-N relationship were established including
the cycles rii plus w^. a curve such as 3-3 would possibly result.
This implies that if the applied cyclic stresses are always within the finite life range
of the basic S-N relationship, the fatigue life can be bracketed on the original diagram
between the numbers of cycles required to cause failure at the upper and lower maxi-
mum cyclic stresses. Presumably, the location of the point representing the number of
cycles to failure would fall within this bracket and would be a function of the general
configuration of the blocks of the applied cyclic stresses. Of course, an approximation
for an equivalent random variation in stress cycles could be attained only if the pattern
of blocks of stresses were repeated a sufficiently large number of times such that the
order of the application of the stresses within the pattern or spectrum would make no
discernable difference in the total number of cycles to failure.
Damage curves can be utilized to compare this observation with test data. If the
damage is equal to the cycle ratio as Miner and others have surmised, then curves of
constant fatigue damage are the same as curves of constant prestress cycle ratio. It is
possible, then, to construct curves of constant damage by using Miner's theory and an
S-N diagram. For this type of plot, the basic S-N diagram is the curve for a damage
of 1.0. The data from Kommers'"*' tests, as shown in Fig. 1, have been replotted in
Fig. 3. The solid curves in the upper diagram show the number of cycles to failure
after various cycle ratios, R, of the 36,000 psi prestress have been applied. The dashed-
line curves are loci of constant fatigue damage from Miner's theory due to prestressing
at 36,000 psi. The basic S-N diagram is obtained by test-stress cycles only; therefore,
the prestress cycle ratio for this curve is zero. The number of cycles between the
dashed-line damage curve, D = 0.2, and the basic S-N diagram, i? =: 0, corresponds
to 0.8 of the fatigue life at the test stress, because the total or cumulative cycle ratio
must be 1.0.
The lower part of Fig. 3 shows the total number of cycles to failure including
the cycles of prestress at 36,000 psi. The dashed-line curves are those predicted by
Miner's theory, and the two solid curves, R=:0 and R =: 0.8, are those determined by
Kommers' tests. These curves clearly illustrate one serious defect in Miner's theory,
the assumption that no damage is entailed when cycling below the fatigue limit. The
diagram also shows that the failure may occur at 1,000,000 cycles at a stress approxi-
mately 3,000 psi below the fatigue limit after a cycle ratio of O.cS had been applied
at the prestress. Certainly these stresses below the fatigue limit and their effect on the
fatigue life cannot be discounted.
72 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
4. Object and Scope of Investigation
The objectives of the research program described herein were:
1. To complete the design and construction of a 50,000-lb variable-cycle fatigue
testing machine and programming apparatus to test structural joint specimens.
2. To review past investigations in cumulative fatigue damage and to correlate
the findings with the present study.
3. To determine the fatigue lives of double-strap butt joint specimens and plain
plate specimens when tested in pulsating tension under a loading pattern which
approximates the statistical distribution of service loads on present-day
medium-span, main-line railway bridges.
Evaluations of variable-cycle fatigue tests in previous investigations have been based
on conventional S-N relationships for the specimens. In order to make a correlation,
the stress cycle used for both constant and variable-cycle tests must have a common
basis of comparison. The mean stress, the minimum or maximum stresses, or the type
of stress cycle (zero to tension, etc.) must be held constant. But, in the actual struc-
ture, there may be no well defined minimum or maximum stresses to which a member
is subjected. It is logical to believe, however, that variations in stress at the smallest
stress levels are of less significance than those due to heavy live loads and impact.
Thus, the maximum stresses and the cyclic variation in these stresses are of principal
interest in this study.
If representative samples of these maximum cyclic stresses for a structural element
are ascertained and sorted according to decreasing magnitudes, a load-frequer.cy spectrum
can be constructed. The research staff of the Association of American Railroads has
conducted a number of field studies*"'^*' to determine the static and dynamic effects in
plate-girder bridges resulting from the passage of trains. It is evident from a study
of the reports on this work that the maximum stress in the girders was not obtained
with the passage of each train, but rather by only a small percentage of the trains.
The nature of the frequency-distribution spectrum for the maximum stresses obtained
in the AAR tests is presented in Fig. 4.
If such a frequency spectrum is used as the envelope of the maximum cychc
stresses over a given number of cycles, and if a fixed minimum stress is established,
then the data from fatigue tests conducted according to this stress pattern could be
compared with constant-cycle fatigue tests having the same fixed minimum stress. The
fatigue lives obtained by cycling under this spectrum-type pattern should be more
nearly congruent with actual fatigue lives under service conditions than data from
constant-cycle tests.
For the present study the maximum cyclic stresses are varied as a sine wave from
some major maximum stress value, Sa, to a minor maximum, 5„, one-half as great. It is
believed that this pattern approximates reasonably well the frequency distribution data
obtained in the field. Under this sine-wave type of pattern, part of the stress cycles
will be below the fatigue limit. From a study of the previously mentioned investigations
it was somewhat uncertain what effect these lower stresses would have on the fatigue
life.
According to Miner's theory, the value of the cumulative cycle ratio for stresses
below the fatigue limit is always zero because the number of cycles to failure at these
low stresses is infinite. But, it is known that overstressing can lower the fatigue limit
and also that understressing can coax the fatigue limit upward for some materials.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 73
With these questions in mind, it was necessary to study other variable-cycle fatigue
data wherein various loading spectrums were used and where some of the stress cycles
were below the fatigue limit for the original material. It was hoped that such a study
would reveal a method for approximating empirically the fatigue lives of structural
joints when tested under any given loading spectrum.
5. Acknowledgment
The study described herein is part of an investigation carried on as a result of
a cooperative agreement between the Engineering Experiment Station of the University
of Illinois, the Illinois Division of Highways, the Department of Commerce — Bureau
of PubUc Roads, and the Research Council on Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints.
It is part of the structural research program of the Department of Civil Engineering
of which Professor X. M. Newmark is Head. Much of the work was carried out
and the damage hypothesis developed by J. R. Fuller, formerly a research assistant in
civil engineering, as a part of his work on a doctoral thesis submitted in partial ful-
fillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering.
All units for the variable-cycle fatigue testing machine used for this investigation
were constructed in the Structural Laboratory at the University of Illinois. All machine
shop work was carried on under the supervision of D. F. Lange, supervisor in the Civil
Engineering Shop in the Laboratory. Initial portions of the design for the variable
cycle machine were completed by W. J. Hall, associate professor of civil engineering*^*.
The other parts of the machine for activating both the mean-load and range-control
mechanisms, and the mechanical portions of the programming unit were designed by
J. R. Fuller. V. J. McDonald, associate professor of civil engineering, designed the
electrical portion of the control and programming systems.
The tests described herein were planned with the advice of the Project VIII Com-
mittee of the Research Council on Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints. This committee
is concerned with cumulative damage in the fatigue of structural joints. The members
of the committee are as follows:
W. H. Munse (chairman), Raymond Archibald, J. W. Carter, K. H. Lenzen, Frank
Baron. X. M. Xevvmark, E. J. Ruble, \'. M. Romine, E. W. Larson.
C. DISCUSSION OF OTHER TESTS
1. Spectrum-Type Fatigue Tests
If a specimen is cycled under some variable load pattern between two limiting
overstresses, the greater of which is Sa and the smaller Sa, then failure may be expected
to occur at some number of cycles greater than that which would cause failure by
cycling at S.i alone and less than that which would cause failure by cycling at S„ alone.
Thus, by cycling under some variable load pattern whose upper and lower bounds are
overstresses, it would seem likely that the fatigue life would be a function of the
variable load pattern and the stress levels, and that it could be related to the basic
S-X diagram.
Dolan, Richart, and Work*"* conducted a rather extensive series of tests on notched
and unnotched rotating-beam specimens of several materials using three different vari-
able load patterns, which they refer to as load cycles B, A, and G, respectively. Two
of these patterns, B and A, were of the rectangular two-stress-level block type, and the
third, pattern G, was a sine wave. All three had a duration of 10,000 cycles. For pur-
74 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
poses of discussion. onl.\ the results of the tests on the steel specimens from the above
paper will be considered.
In this work of Dolan et al, the major (larger) maximum stress, .S.i, was always
an overstress, and the minor (lesser) maximum cyclic stress, 5,,, was either an over-
stress or an understress. Also, the major maximum stress, Sa, was varied from speci-
men to specimen, while the minor maximum, S„, was held constant. The results of load
cycle B tests on SAE 1045, where both Sa and 5o were overstresses, are shown in
Fig. S.
The variable-cycle test results shown in this diagram are plotted at the major
maximum stress value; all test points having the same minor maximum stress are
represented by the dashed curves. Thus, curve 2 represents test results wherein Sa was
60,000 psi and 5.4 was selected between 60,000 psi and 75,000 psi. Naturally, these dashed
curves must intersect the S-N diagram at the value of the minor maximum stress, S„,
because at this point there was no variation in the maximum stress.
It is of particular interest to note that these curves are nearly parallel even though
a rather limited amount of data is presented. This suggests that the slopes of the dashed
curves may be a function of the loading spectrum used for these specimens and that
the ratio of the slope of the S-N curve, ^,sv, to the slope of the variable cycle curves,
kv, may be a constant and may depend only on some function of the variable-cycle
pattern.
Other similar tests were conducted on SAE 4340 specimens for which Su was con-
siderably below the fatigue limit. One group was tested at a value of Sa equal to 78,000
psi and another at 60,000 psi. As in the previous tests, the type B load cycle was used.
Fig. 6 shows the results of these tests. In these diagrams, the authors approximated the
experimental data by the solid curves as indicated. However, straight lines would appear
to fit the variable-cycle test results equally well.
For the tests of SAE 1045, where both Sa and 5« were overstresses, it was evident
that the variable-cycle curves must intersect the S-N diagram at Sa in each case. Also,
the test results for the SAE 4340 specimens show that the variable-cycle straight lines,
when extended, intersect the extended "sloped-leg" of the S-N diagram at Sa, This
occurs even though a new fatigue limit is obtained above the fatigue limit of the initial
S-N curve.
The type B load cycle used in the tests of SAE 4340 consisted of 1,000 cycles of
5.1 and 9,000 cycles of 5«, where 5„ was below the fatigue limit. Thus, the fatigue lives,
as computed by Miner's theory, would be 10 times the number of cycles as indicated
for each point on the initial S-N curve. Of course. Miner's curve would terminate at
the fatigue limit of the S-N diagram. These curves and those ascertained by the authors
may be compared with the test results on the diagrams in Fig. 6.
If the slopes of these two variable cycle curves are a function only of the dis-
tribution pattern they should be identical, because the testing apparatus, the specimens,
and the load pattern were the same for both series; only the value of S„ was different.
An inspection of these curves shows that this may well be the case.
Tests similar to those previously discussed were also conducted using load cycle A,
which consisted of 5,000 cycles of Sa and 5,000 cycles of S„. The results of these tests
are shown in Fig. 7. From these results it is evident that the variable-cycle curve lies
quite close to the S-N diagram even though the test results are somewhat more erratic
and even fall to the left of the S-N curve at times. As would be expected, the slope
of the variable-cycle curve more nearly approaches the slope of the S-N diagram,
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 75
iiecause more cycles of 5a were included in the load pattern. Thus, the ratio of fe.s.v to ^i-
should be nearer unity.
With the data presented in the test.* using the two load patterns B and .A as a
basis, it is possible to interpolate for the expected relationships for other patterns having
different ratios of Na to (A'.i + A'„); where A',i and A'„ represent the number of cycles
in a load pattern at Sa and 5,„ respectively.
If the load pattern was constant at S.u where Sa is any overstress, then failure
would occur on the S-N diagram and the ratio of fe.,v to k, would be 1.0. But if only
a very small percentage of the load pattern cycles were at 5.^ and the remainder at Su,
then the slope of a variable-cycle curve so determined would be e.xtremely high and. in
theory, would approach a vertical line through the point {N„, S.,) on the S-N diagram.
In the latter case the ratio of ^.s-.v to ^r would approach zero as k, becomes infinite.
If the ratio of kg.\-/kv is set equal to /3, where
then the two limiting points of j3, (0 and 1.0), together with the two interior points
determined from Dolan's tests provide four points on a curve.
\Na + N., )
(1)
This relationship has been plotted as a solid line in Fig. 8 and approximated by the
dashed-line curve. The equation for this dashed-line curve is
1 / 1000 .Va \ ,,,
In the cumulative frequency-distribution spectrum for girder bridges shown in
Fig. 4 the percentage of total loadings exceeding a given stress are presented in teams
of the maximum stress. If we consider this same decreasing order for a 1,000-cycle
load pattern between 5.i and 5„ and plot it on a 3 -cycle log plot, the ratio of the area
under this log-distribution pattern (from logio 1.0 :=0 to logiu 1000 = 3.0 and from
Sa to Sa) to the area of the field on which it is plotted is equal to the distribution
coefficient, i3, as previously defined. The stress cycles greater than 5„ produce a block
of area equal to log I ^-^1- Thus, ^ mav be taken equal to the above mentioned
block divided by the area of the entire field, which was 1.0 times logio 1000 or 3.0.
On the basis of a 1,000-cycle load pattern, load cycle B of Dolan's tests*"' would
have 100 cycles at Sa and 900 cycles at Sa. The minor maximum stress, 5.., is the lower
Umit of the plot, and cycles at this stress will not contribute to the area being computed
but cycles of greater stress will. Therefore,
log 100 _ 2
log 1000 ~~
0.67
For load cycle A there would be 500 cycles at Sa and 500 cycles at S„, and the dis-
tribution coefficient, ^a, could be computed as follows:
log 1000 ?>
Of course, if rII r\cles were at ,S„, P winild be zero; if mII were at .S'^, /"( wuiild cqiiMl 10.
76 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
Thus far, patterns having only two stress levels, one at 5^ and the other at 5a,
have been considered. However, it is necessary to consider loading spectrums of multi-
stress levels for the method to be of any appreciable value.
Dolan's load cycle G varied as a sine wave between Sa and 5a. The results of these
tests are shown in Fig. 9. In this diagram the dashed-line drawn through the test results
has a value of ^ equal to 0.90. The value of ^ based on the above noted area proce-
dure has been computed for a sine wave frequency-distribution spectrum. Fig. 10 (a)
shows the frequency-distribution spectrum, and Fig. 10 (b) shows the resulting 1,000-
cycle log-distribution pattern. It may be noted that the value of /3 computed in Fig. 10
(b) is 0.90, which is identical with the above test value.
Another point which is of interest in this discussion is that at any given stress level
the value of jS may also be represented as the ratio of the actual horizontal distance
between the variable-cycle diagram and a vertical line through the S-N diagram (or
S-N diagram extended) at 5a, to the distance from the basic S-N diagram to the same
vertical line at the same stress level. Thus, in the previous diagrams in Figs. 6, 7, and 9,
which show the results of tests by Dolan et al, the ratio of BC to AC (or in Fig. 6
for Sa ^ 60,000 psi and load cycle B, the ratio of B'C to AC) is the same as the ratio
of ksN to kv and equal to P.
If the distribution coefficient, 13, is known, the number of cycles to failure under
a spectrum-type loading pattern may be expressed as Nv where
log N, = log iV„ — j8 (log N,. — log Na),
and
N, = Na (^) " =^/ /^'.''"" (3)
It should be mentioned again in connection with the previously discussed variable-
cycle tests and the foregoing analysis, that all of the variable-cycle results were plotted
at Sa, the major maximum cyclic stress. This would seem to be the logical way to iden-
tify the test results. However, if a variable-cycle test value plotted at Sa were projected
vertically downward onto the S-N curve, it would indicate a constant stress cycle
which would have the same fatigue life and which could be considered as an equivalent
constant stress cycle.
Freudenthal'™* has conducted variable-cycle rotating-beam tests on 24S-T4 and
7SS-T6 aluminum alloys. For purposes of comparison, however, only the 75S-T6 tests
will be discussed here.
Twenty specimens were tested at each of six different stress levels for a careful
determination of the S-N diagram. Also, 20 specimens were tested at identical stress
levels for each of 9 different distribution patterns.
The nine distribution patterns (A, B, C) (A', B', C), and (A", B", C") are shown
in Figs. 11 and 12. The 3-cycle log-distributions are adjacent to each frequency
distribution pattern. In the log-distribution patterns, the ratio of the shaded area to
total block area yields the value of P in each case.
The results of Freudenthal's tests on 75S-T6 are presented in Fig. 13. All points
plotted on this diagram were obtained as the anti-log of the mean log N for 20 separate
tests. Thus, the 300 tests represented on this figure provide some of the most extensive
information yet obtained in a cumulative damage study.
The test results for the nine variable cycle load patterns have been plotted at Sa,
and the results based on the computed values of ^ have been plotted above the actual
lest resulfs and connpcfed to them b> short solid lines foi- purposes of compHrison. The
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 77
results are also presented in a tabular form in Table 1. It may be noted that the aver-
age net error was only 1.52 percent. Those distributions which showed the greatest
error are A, C, B', and C", but no reason for these larger deviations can be determined.
If these four patterns are considered alone, the average net error is only 2.91 percent.
Thus, it would appear that the previously described method of estimating the
fatigue lives of specimens or parts which are subjected to variable-load patterns need
not be complicated to conform exactly with any given set of results. The method appears
to yield values that are within the accuracy of the test results themselves.
2. Statistical Nature of Fatigue Test Results
Obviously, the experimental scatter of fatigue-test results can be minimized by
making the specimens as nearly identical as possible, both metallurgically and geomet-
rically, and by carefully controlling the testing apparatus and procedure. Nevertheless,
the aggregate nature of the metal as well as the chance distribution of minute inclusions
and other points of weakness may cause significant experimental variations.
.■\n ordinary S-X curve usually shows the relationship between the maximum cyclic
stress for a defined stress cycle and the number of cycles of this stress which a given
type of test specimen will endure until failure occurs. The curve implies that there
exists a unique relationship between the maximum cyclic stress and the cycles to failure
and that failure has been precisely defined.
If failure in a specimen is defined as the number of cycles endured until the appear-
ance of a crack, then the number of cycles to failure depends on how closely and how
often the specimen is inspected during the course of the test. Visible cracks have been
detected in fatigue specimens at as little as 10 to 50 percent of the total cycles to
complete rupture*-". Therefore, some criterion for failure must be established. Also,
since dispersion in the data is inherent, some method of choosing a value within this
range of dbpersion must be defined before an S-N diagram can be uniquely established
for a given set of data.
A statistical interpretation of the results of a number of measurements, such as the
number of cycles to failure for identical specimens, requires some assumption concern-
ing the distribution of fatigue lives for an infinite number of identical tests. If the
nature of the distribution is known, it is then possible to apply approximate statistical
methods to the results of a relatively small number of tests to ascertain a representative
mean result and to arrive at an estimate of the dispersion or deviation from this mean
value.
Several investigators have conducted a large number of identical tests to determine
the nature of the distribution of fatigue lives"'"'. The results of 235 tests by Miiller-
Stock, Ceroid, and Schulz"'" on steel specimens (German St 37) subjected to reversed
bending at approximately 45,500 psi and results obtained by Sinclair and Dolan*^ for
57 rotating-beam tests on 75S-T aluminum alloy are shown in Fig. 14. Data from
Miiller-Stock's frequency density diagram have been replotted to a log scale. The data
given by Sinclair and Dolan are presented herein as they were reported.
An examination of these results indicates that the distributions are both skewed
to the left with regard to the number of cycles to failure, N, but appear to be approxi-
mately normal with regard to log N. Other investigators have demonstrated results very
similar to these.
If the fatigue life frequency density curve can be considered normal with respect
to the logarithm of the number of cycles to failure, then the best estimate for the mean
fatigue life would be the anti-log of the mean log A'', where the mean log A'^ for m
tests is
78
Cumulative Damage in Structural Jo i nts
log
-L 2 logA^,
(4)
The anti-log of log iV or iV is then assumed to be the number of cycles for a 50 percent
probabll-ty of failure or 50 percent probability of survival, and as such it will represent
the best average point on the ordinary S-N diagram for the particular stress level used.
Since the distribution of fatigue lives in a given population appears to be approxi-
mately normal with respect to log N, it is possible to approximate a range of log A'
wherein a certain percentage of a sufficiently large number of specimens will probably
fail, or to establish the number of cycles for a given probability of failure, pf, or of
survival, ps, where ps ^1 — pf
The standard deviation is often used as an indication of the dispersion of this type
of experimental data. It represents half the distance between the points of inflection on
the Gaussian (normal) distribution curve and is given by ff, where
2
=r 1
(logiV. — log7V)=
V
(S)
In a Gaussian distribution 68.3 percent of the observations will fall within a distance
of o- of the mean, or for these purposes within o" of log N. W. Weibull* made these
remarks in his discussion of Freudenthal's contribution to the Symposium on Statistical
Aspects of Fatigue*^*:
"The number of specimens at each stress level depends on the information wanted.
The mean or median of the fatigue lives may be sufficiently accurately estimated from
6 to 10 specimens at each stress. The scatter measured for instance by the standard
deviation may demand 20, but the distribution will not be too accurately determined
with 100 specimens at each stress."
If the distribution of fatigue test results for a given population is log-normal,
then a representation of the frequency of failure or survival versus log N will appear
as a straight line when plotted on a log-normal probabiUty paper. Of course, it is
necessary to have a sufficient number of tests of the same population to determine
accurately such a relationship, but a modification of this type of presentation can be
used for comparison purpuses for several small populations of tests on similar specimens.
If a series of m identical fatigue tests are arranged in order of increasing fatigue
life and are numbered consecutively from 1 to m, {l^n^m), the relative frequency
of failure may be taken as n/ {m + 1). Naturally, the reliability of such a value de-
creases with a smaller number of tests, such that for three or four test results in a
given population it may be entirely misleading if it is interpreted alone. Therefore, it
must be evaluated with similar data for other stress level populations for the same type
of specimen and stress cycle. There is usually less dispersion in the fatigue lives of
specimens tested at high stresses than at low stresses. Hence, a log-normal distribution
plot for a high stress level should have a greater slope than for a lower stress level.
It appears that this method provides a valuable tool for the analysis of fatigue data
where only a small number of test results can be obtained.
* Scientific director of the Bofors Company. Bofors, Sweden.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 79
D. TEST EQUIPMENT
1. Variable-Cycle Fatigue Machine
In order to study the fatigue lives of structural members subjected to various
patterns of cyclic stresses, a control unit has been developed so that the stress cycle can
be changed automatically according to prearranged patterns.
The machine on which this control is used is a W. M. Wilson-type machine, has
a maximum load capacity of 50,000 lb and is a lever-type mechanism. The lever ratio
of the walking beam is 10 to 1, and it operates at approximately 300 cycles per minute.
It may be noted from the line drawing of the machine in Fig. IS and the schematic
diagrams showing the linkage or range control mechanism in Fig. 16, that the machine
has a fixed eccentric which, in turn, drives an adjustable linkage arrangement'-*'. This
linkage allows the amplitude of the stress cycle to be changed while the machine is in
operation. One end of the linkage bar, as shown in Fig. 16, is pinned (at M) to an
adjustable quadrant which can be moved about a fi.xed center by gears and a reversible
motor.
The movement of the lower end of the linkage bar causes a variation in the ver-
tical component of movement of the bar, at point C, and hence a change in the vertical
movement of the walking beam of the machine. When the pin at M is in its upper
position, as shown in Fig. 16 (a), a maximum vertical movement of 1.57 in per cycle
is obtained at point C. Figure 16 (b) shows the pin at M in the lowest position where
this movement is reduced to 0.33 in per cycle. Thus, the desired amplitude can be
obtained by the proper positioning of the quadrant between these limits.
The mean or average cyclic load is varied by means of the gear-nut (turnbuckle)
arrangement shown in Fig. IS and 17 (a). Mechanical power is applied to this gear-nut
through a train of three spur gears in the gear-nut assembly; it is driven by a shaft
which is mounted on the walking beam. The shaft runs parallel to the axis of the
beam to a point just above the pullheads, where power is supplied by another motor
through a gear reducer. The shaft is equipped with two universal joints to take up the
angular displacements of the walking beam and the gear-nut. One of these joints is at
the fulcrum of the beam, and the other is opposite the pin through which the lever
force is applied at the eccentric end of the beam.
To eliminate the impact effect due to looseness in the gear-nut, two large compres-
sion springs were placed under the gear-nut box. These springs maintain an internal
force between the gear-nut sleeve and screw and keep the threads in constant contact
in one direction for all portions of the load cycle. With this arrangement, a smooth
load-time record has been obtained. Fig. 17 (a) shows the gear-nut assembly with these
springs in place. Fig. 17 (b) shows the quadrant or range control mechanism.
When a crack forms in an axially loaded fatigue test specimen, its over-all length
changes. This change in length is utilized in the machine to detect failure. When the
specimen begins to elongate, a micro-switch which is mounted on the fulcrum column
is activated by a bracket rigidly attached to the upper pullhead, and the machine power
is cut off.
Limit switches have also been installed on the gear-nut and quadrant assemblies
and are shown in Figs. IS and 17. These switches restrict the range of movement of
the gear-nut screw into the sleeve and the angular movement of the quadrant such that
if these ranges exceed that required by the program pattern the machine is stopped.
80 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
2. Electrical Control and Measurement System
The electrical control and measurement equipment operates between the output
signal of the load-sensing device (weighbar) on the fatigue machine and the switches
which activate the load-adjusting motors on the quadrant and gear-nut. It measures
the actual load on the specimen, regulates the maximum and minimum cyclic loads to a
predetermined program, and provides a complete permanent record of the test.
All components of the control system are shown in the block diagram in Fig. 18.
Insofar as it was possible, commercial units available in the laboratory were used in
this system. These were then modified as necessity dictated.
When the load on the machine is manually checked, the electrical signal from the
weighbar, Block A in Fig. 18, can be measured on a portable SR^ strain indicator,
Block B, or on the dynamic load measuring and recording equipment. Block C. This
signal can also be compared with readings taken from a calibrated bridge circuit, Block
D, which is electrically identical with the weighbar circuit and is arranged to give out-
puts proportional to loads on the specimen of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and SO kips. The
calibration circuit can be switched into the recording equipment circuits to establish a
scale on the dynamic records or into the portable strain indicator to establish readings
for static load determinations.
The dynamic load measuring device. Block C, is a Sanborn Model 127 direct-
writing strain recorder. This unit has been modified to insure long-time stability by the
substitution of a closely regulated power supply and resistors which have improved
temperature stability. Also, another paper speed has been obtained by attaching an
auxiliary gear unit to the drive. This provides an extremely slow speed of 1 inch per
12 minutes (3600 machine cycles). Thus, the recorder provides a record which is essen-
tially an envelope (maximum and minimum) of the load-time relationship for the speci-
men. The two standard paper speeds of 1/10 in and 1 in per sec, respectively, may be
utilized to inspect the individual cycles of loading. A sample of the record for the
slowest paper speed is shown in Fig. 19.
The electrical output from the Sanborn recorder is used to operate the load-control
equipment. This output is fed into two peak-reading voltmeter circuits, one of which
establishes a nearly constant output proportional to the maximum cyclic load, while the
other performs an identical function for the minimum cyclic load. The zero electrical
output from the Sanborn equipment is located approximately midway in the smallest
load cycle when the equipment is set up for a test because it is necessary to provide a
measurable electrical signal for both the minimum and maximum cyclic loads which
are of opposite polarity.
The time constants of the peak-reading voltmeter circuits have been set so that
the decay or drop-off in their output between machine cycles is less than the system
dead-zone. These maximum and minimum load measuring circuits are shown as Blocks E
in Fig. 18. Their outputs are fed into separate recorders (Leeds and Northrup Micro-
max units) to provide another permanent record of the load-time envelopes. These
recorders are shown as Blocks F.
The outputs of the two peak-load measuring circuits also feed into separate peak-
load indicators and control point selectors. Blocks G. These units are Wheelco Capacitrol
Controllers that have been modified by the removal of their temperature compensation
units and by increasing their dead-zone to approximately one percent of their full scale.
In these units, pointed type galvonometers are used to indicate the peak cyclic loads.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 81
The pointer in each unit also carries a small metal flag which passes between a pair
of coils and affects their tuning when the control point is reached.
This tuning change in each unit is reflected into a circuit which operates an output
relay and provides the following action. Below the control point, a low switch is
closed; above the control point a high switch closure is made; and at the control point
neither switch is closed. The programming operation is achieved by mechanically varying
the positions of the control point coils along the scale. The action of these output
switches on both the minimum and maximum peak-reading units is then used to control
the two load-correcting motors on the fatigue machine.
Thus, a total of four switch actions at the outputs of the two controllers. Blocks G,
indicate the status of the load cycle as compared with the specified program. These
switches ofjerate into a motor selector bank, Block H, that "decides" the direction in
which either or both of the load-correcting motors must be turned to adjust the load
cycle to agree with the specified program. Power is then applied to the motors through
time-delay correction circuits as indicated by the Blocks J.
It will be noted from the above discussion that this is an on-off rather than a
proportional control system; thus, it is necessary to control the rates at which the load-
correcting motors adjust the load on the specimen. These delays or interrupters have
been adjusted to provide the maximum system response commensurate with the minimum
dead-zone width.
Power is applied to a correcting motor at a signal from the motor selector bank
and for a period long enough to allow the motor to adjust the maximum or minimum
cyclic load to approximately one half of the width of the dead-zone. Then the power
is cut off for another interval as dictated by the time-delay circuit. This allows the
measuring circuits to attain new readings. The same process of "adjusting and reading"
is repeated three or four more times in an attempt to reach the dead-zone. If an error
is still present, the power is applied continually until the load value crosses the control
zone. After this action the process is repeated but in the opposite direction. It has been
found in the present series of tests that about three "on" periods generally are sufficient
to restore the load to the desired value. Some of the constants for the test system
are given in Table 2. A \-iew showing most of the load control and recording equipment
is shown in Fig. 20.
3. Programming System
The programming operation is accomplished by mechanically varying the positions
of the control-point coils in the Wheelco units along their respective scales. In the
mechanical motor-driven programming unit, the maximum and minimum load program
patterns are introduced by means of cams. Through a system of variable gearing, the
length of time for the completion of one cycle of a load-frequency pattern can be
adjusted to approximately 5, 10, 15, 30, or 60 min. In this system one cam programs
the maximum and another the minimum cyclic loads. Both cams are driven from the
same shaft, one on each face of the programmer. For the case of a constant minimum
cyclic load, as was used in the present series of tests, only one part of the programmer
was required.
One face of this programming unit is shown on the left in Fig. 21. Both cams in
this unit displace followers which travel in horizontal slides at the same level as the
cam drive shaft. Each slide then displaces a lever which, in turn, displaces another fol-
lower in a horizontal slide near the bottom of the unit. The levers which act between
these slides have adjustable fulcrums that allow adjustments of the amplitudes of both
82 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
the maximum and minimum program variations. Horizontal wires are fastened to the
lower slides and wound over pulleys on the positioning shaft of the control-point coils
in the Wheelco units. Thus, the control-point coils are displaced in proportion to the
radii of their respective cams.
E. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS AND RESULTS OF TESTS
1. Specimens and Material
Double-strap butt-type joint specimens of structural A-7 steel* and plain plate
specimens with a 1-in hole have been tested in this investigation. Details of these speci-
mens are shown in Fig. 22. The plain plate specimens and the critical or center plate
of the joints were of ^-in material.
The fastener holes were sub-drilled ii in and reamed to ^ in, with the center
and side plates securely clamped together so that they lined up precisely when the
specimens were assembled. After the joint plates were clamped and drilled, the edges
were carefully milled to the proper edge distance. These joint specimens had a tension:
shear:bearing ratio of 1.0:0.77:1.44**, and a net-section area of approximately 1.52
sq in. They were designed so that they could be tested at maximum cycUc loads up
to the capacity of the fatigue machines, or approximately 50,000 lb.
The 1-in hole in the plain plate specimen was drilled full size. The edges of the
plates were then milled to provide the desired width of specimen and to place the
hole on the center lines of the specimen. These specimens had a net section area of
approximately 0.781 sq in and were subjected to a maximum stress of 32,000 psi, or
approximately 25,000 lb.
The mechanical properties of the 1^5 -in plate material as determined by standard
laboratory coupon tests were found to be nearly constant throughout each plate; there-
fore, only the average mechanical properties are given in Table 3. Two different plate
materials were used for these specimens; they are designated as A and B. Plate A was
used for the joint specimens only, while plate B was used for both joint and plain
plate specimens.
2. Joint Fasteners
Close-fitting stud-type fasteners were used in the joint specimens instead of rivets
because their initial tension could be carefully controlled. It was desirable to control
the fastener tension and the fabrication carefully to obtain consistent results in the
fatigue tests. The studs were made of 214-in lengths of ^-in cold-rolled rod. Both ends
of the studs were threaded for a length of §^-in to receive a mild steel washer and
a heavy ^-in hex-nut.
If it is assumed that the average tensile stress in a structural rivet is approxi-
mately 30,000 psi, then a ^-in rivet would have a tension of 3,300 lb. In order that
the joints would simulate riveted connections this load was chosen for the initial tension
in the studs.
Load-elongation data were obtained for the studs at a grip of il-in, the nominal
grip for the joint specimens. The average load-elongation relationship was found to be
* Steel meeting the requirements of the specifications for ASTM Designation: A-7, "Steel for
Bridges and Buildings".
** The tension: shear: bearing ratio is the ratio of the tension area of the plate material at the
critical net section to the net section tension area, the fastener shear area, and the bearing area,
respectively.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 83^
040 lb per 0.001 in. In addition, load-torque data obtained in a bolt calibrator indicated
an average load-torque relationship of 13.7 lb per in-lb.
Since the load-torque relationship could be determined easily and quickly in the
calibrator, all of the fasteners for each specimen were calibrated. The average torque
for a fastener tension of 3,300 lb was then determined for the 9 studs of each specimen
prior to its final assembly.
The torques required to loosen the fasteners in each of the constant-cycle fatigue
specimens, after testing, were averaged for each horizontal row fastener. These torques
indicated average residual tensions in the studs, which were 62, 78, and 75 percent
of the initial 3,300 lb tension for the first, second, and third rows, respectively.*
3. Constant-Cycle Fatigue Tests
Originally, eight constant-cycle fatigue tests at two different stress levels were
planned for the joint specimens and three constant-cycle fatigue tests at one stress level
for the plain plate specimens. However, it was necessary to increase the number of tests
in order to determine the entire S-N diagram with a reasonable degree of accurac>'.
Thus, 18 joints and 28 plain plate specimens were tested, using a constant-stress cycle
of pulsating tension from a minimum of 1,000 psi average tension on the net section
to a ma.ximum tension. Failure in all of these specimens occurred at the critical net
section. For the joints the critical net section was at the first row of fasteners in the
center plate. The fatigue cracks began at the outside fastener holes and progressed
transverse to the direction of loading. When a sizable fatigue crack formed, the specimen
would elongate sufficiently at the ma.ximum cyclic load to activate a micro-switch
which would stop the test.
The constant-cycle fatigue test data are given in Tables 4 and 5. To determine a
relationship for the joint specimens which would approximate a 50 percent probability
for failure, the anti-log of the mean log A^ or log ^V was computed for stress levels of
32,000, 28,000 and 24,000 psi. It was found that these values of log N could be very
nearly plotted on a straight line when the logarithm of the average stress on the critical
net section was taken as one axis. Therefore, the finite life portion of the S-N diagram,
shown in Fig. 23, was drawn as a straight line on a log-log plot. Adopting the same
type of equation as used by Wilson"^', this part of the diagram may be expressed by
the relationship,
21,000 (4,000,000)* _ 163,500
where 4,000,000 represents the number of cycles to failure at a maximum cyclic stress
of 21,000 psi, and k is the slope of the straight line approximation for the joint speci-
mens. The value, N, represents the number of cycles to failure at a stress, S.
In a similar manner the S-N diagram for the plain plate specimens, shown in Fig.
24, was found to be expressible by the relationship,
y _ 207,700
Tests of specimens identical to these plain plates specimens, except that all mill scale
was removed by poUshing, were tested previously by Stallmeyer*^'. The resulting S-N
diagram for those tests is also shown in Fig. 24. It is immediately obvious that the
behavior of the members used in these two studies varied somewhat. The mill scale
on the plate surface apparently produces an increase in the fatigue strength.
* The "first'' row ot fasteners in i joint is defined as thai row of fasteners which is
nn the rritirat sertion of the joint.
,S+ Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
The constant-cycle fatigue test data from the joint specimens were used also to
ascertain plots indicating the relative frequency of failure versus the number of cycles
to failure for three of the stress levels used to determine the S-N diagram. These plots
were constructed by the method described previously, wherein the relative frequency
of failure at a given stress was taken as n/ {m -\- 1) for the n-th test of m ordered
test results. The order is taken according to increasing cycles to failure. These loga-
rithmic-normal probability diagrams are shown in Fig. 25.
These diagrams, which are rough approximations at best, indicate that the disper-
sions in the fatigue lives were nearly the same at all three stress levels. The values
of N have been plotted at a frequency of failure of 50 percent in these diagrams. It
may be noted that the dispersion of the results indicated for a stress of 24,000 psi
appears to be less than that for 32,000 psi. This is contrary to other more extensive
studies in that the dispersion at the lower stress levels is nearly always greater than
for higher stress levels. The scatter band, which was merely drawn in to include all
of the test data in Fig. 23, also indicates less dispersion at the lower stress levels than
at the higher levels.
The S-N diagram for these constant-cycle tests indicates an extremely long finite
life range. It has generally been found in other faitgue investigations on structural
joints that the finite life range ends at about 2,000,000 cycles. For the present tests,
however, the range extends to approximately 4,000,000 cycles, or nearly twice as long.
This fact, naturally, increased the time required for failure at the low finite-life stresses
and made the determination of the approximate location of the fatigue limit a very
time-consuming operation.
The two 50,000-lb constant-cycle fatigue machines used to determine the basic S-N
relationships are similar to the variable-cycle machine shown in Fig. 15 in both size
and construction. All three of the testing machines operate at approximately 300 cycles
per minute or 430,000 cycles in a 24-hr period. About 10 days of continuous machine
operation were required to test a joint specimen to failure at a maximum cyclic stress
of 21,000 psi. Therefore, because of the limited time available, only a few test results
were obtained in the neighborhood of the fatigue limit.
4. Variable-Cycle Fatigue Tests
Sixteen joint specimens and five plain plate specimens were tested to failure in the
variable-cycle study. Due to occasional mechanical or electrical failures in the testing
equipment some of the specimens had a portion of irregular test pattern during the
test, i.e., not all of the applied cycles followed the desired sine-wave variation. Conse-
quently, extra specimens were run to compensate for these irrgular load patterns. How-
ever, an analysis of these load patterns showed that the maximum change in number
of cycles to failure, if the specimens had run continuously with the desired pattern,
would have been 3 percent and in the majority of cases it would be considerably less
than 3 percent. This difference is negligible, and the specimens with irregular patterns
are therefore included for the purposes of this investigation.
All variable-cycle specimens were tested in pulsating tension wherein the envelope
of the maximum cyclic stresses was a sine wave. For this loading spectrum, the major
maximum stress, Sa, was always twice the magnitude of the minor maximum stress, Sa,
and the minimum cyclic stress was held constant at 1,000 psi as for the constant-cycle
tests. All tests were begun at the minor maximum stress, S„. The results of these tests
are given in Tables 6 and 7.
In thf variable-ryrlp tests, just as in the ronstant-cyrle tests, the excessive elonga
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 85
tion of the specimen accompanying the formation of a fatigue crack was used to mark
the end of the test and to stop the testing mr.chine. Failure in all of the joint specimens
occurred in the center plate at the first transverse row of fasteners except for one
specimen which failed in the grip. As for the constant-cycle tests, the cracks began
at the outside holes and progressed transverse to the direction of loading. The plain
plate specimens also failed at the net section ; the crack formed at the hole and then
progressed transverse to the direction of loading.
The computed distribution coefftcient, Pc, for a sine wave load frequency spectrum
is 0.90 (see Fig. 10) ; therefore, the computed fatigue lives, Nrr, for the variable-cycle
tests were determined by the previously derived expression,
^- = ]v7fcr' (3)
which is based on the basic S-N diagram. The predicted results for the variable-cycle
fatigue tests are given in Table 8. The table also shows the ratios of test values to com-
puted values of the number of cycles to failure, and the ratio of test to computed
values of distribution coefficient /3.
Fig. 26 shows the results of the variable-cycle joint tests as compared with the
constant-cycle S-N diagram, the variable-cycle fatigue lives predicted by the method
described in this investigation, and by Miner's theory. Fig. 27 shows similar data for
the plain plate specimens.
In computing, by Miner's theory, the expected fatigue lives for the variable-cycle
specimens, the number of cycles was determined for a cumulative cycle ratio of 1.0.
For purposes of computation, a 1,000-cycle sine wave loading spectrum from Sa to Sa
(5a = 5.4/2) was divided into 20 increments of SO cycles each. The cycle ratio for the
average stress in each increment was then computed for each increment above the
constant-cycle fatigue limit. The sum of the cycle ratios for all increments in the
loading spectrum above the fatigue limit were then summed to give the cumulative
cycle ratio per 1,000 cycles. On this basis, the number of cycles was ascertained for a
cumulative cycle ratio of 1.0 and the fatigue life predicted by Miner's theory.
The cumulative cycle ratios for the log-mean fatigue lives, Nv, for the variable-
cycle tests are given in Tables 6 and 7. The corresponding values based on the com-
puted fatigue lives, Nvc, are given in Table 8. From these data it is readily evident
that the fatigue life of the members was not as great as predicted by Miner's theory,
but in most cases was slightly greater than predicted by the analysis of this investigation.
It will be noted that the plot which shows the fatigue lives predicted by the log-
distribution method in Fig. 26 is not extended into the region of the fatigue limit of
the basic S-N diagram. This is because the spectrum-type fatigue tests of Dolan et al'^'^
displayed variable-cycle fatigue limits greater than the fatigue limits for the correspond-
ing constant-cycle tests. Therefore, it is probable that if variable-cycle test data had
been obtained for the lower stress levels in the present investigation, they too would
have displayed a fatigue limit of Sa greater than 21,000 psi which was taken as the
fatigue limit in the constant-cycle tests. The predicted cycles to failure for these lower
levels would then have been too conservative.
The majority of the specimens tested in this series did not run continuously because
of mechanical and electronic difficulties. As these problems arose and were solved,
adjustments were made in the equipment and breakdowns became less frequent. How-
ever, many of the specimens were run only during normal working hours .so that the
equipment (onld be \\'atrhed closelv when in operation. Thi."; ga\e large rest i>priods to
86 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joint?
the specimens. For years rest effects have been considered negligible'"'*, although recent
investigations have provided data which seem to disagree with this earlier data.
An analysis of the running time of the joint specimens of the present tests has
been made, and the results are shown in Fig. 28. The percentage of actual running time
to the total test time (running time plus resting time) is compared to the percentage
of test cycles to the predicted cycles. The curve has been sketched in to show the gen-
eral trend of the results. The specimens which are plotted at zero time, (B-4, K-1,
K-6) were run over the predicted value and then rested several months before testing
to failure. Although there is a great deal of scatter in the data, it appears that long
periods of rest may increase the fatigue strength of a member.
5. Static Tests
Two joints, specimens S-1 and S-2, which were identical to the fatigue test speci-
mens, were tested in static tension to obtain the general strength characteristics of this
type of specimen. Load-slip data were obtained for both tests and are shown by the
curves plotted in Fig. 29. These curves appear to have the same general shape as would
curves for similar riveted joints.
The plate material for the static specimens and two coupons were taken from
adjacent positions in the parent plate, A. The yield point and ultimate strength for these
two coupons averaged 44,700 and 67,100 psi, respectively.
Local yielding was noted in the testing of specimen S-1 at a load of 70,000 lb,
and general yielding was noted at about 76,000 lb. These loads correspond to an average
stress on the net section of 46,000 psi and 50,000 psi, respectively. At a load of 108,900
lb, the fasteners sheared suddenly. After the initial shear failure, new studs were installed,
and a tension failure was obtained at the critical net section at a load of 114,900 lb
i; 75,700 psi).
For specimen S-2, local yielding of the center plate was noted at a load of 75,000 lb,
and the joint yielded generally at approximately 80,000 lb. At a load of 108,650 lb,
this joint also failed suddenly in shear. Again the studs were replaced, and a plate failure
occurred through the critical net section at 115,600 lb.
The average ultimate shearing resistance of the studs for the two specimens was
54,800 psi. This is not greatly different from the average ultimate shearing resistance
generally obtained for structural steel rivets.
The G/d value (gage divided by hole diameter) for these joints is 5.33; there-
fore, they would be expected to have an efficiency of about 87 percent according to the
G/d method of computing the efficiencies of flat-plate riveted joints"**. The ultimate
loads and actual test efficiencies are given in Table 9. The average test efficiency obtained
for the shear failures is about 2 percent below the predicted efficiency, but the tension
failure efficiency is about 3 percent greater than the predicted efficiency. This result is
similar to that obtained in other tests, in that when initial shear failures occur at loads
closely approaching the ultimate strength, there appears to be an increase in the strength
of the plate material on subsequent refastening and testing.
F. SUMMARY OF RESULTS
,1. Summary of Previous Studies
In general, previous fatigue damage studies can be separated into the following
categories:
(1) Studies in which the changes that occur in the fatigue limit due to prestre.s.sing
al (i\-prstrpssps and unHerstresses were investigated.
I
_^____ Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 87
(2) Those wherein the effects of prestressing are studied in terms of the rhangp
in the numher of cycles to failure at a different stresiS level.
(3) Invstigations designed to study fatigue service life by subjecting test specimens
to load patterns which are repeated a relatively large number of times before failure
occurs.
The findings of studies in the first two categories indicate, in general, that cycHng
at an overstress for a portion of the fatigue life damages the specimen by causing the
fatigue limit after prestressing to be lower than the fatigue limit displayed by the
basic S-N diagram. However, there are indications that some cycling at very low over-
stresses can raise the fatigue limit perceptibly for some materials.
Understressing just below the basic fatigue limit can raise subsequently determined
fatigue limits for some materials. In some studies successive increases in the stress level
from an initial high understrejs has led to extremely long lives at final stresses con-
siderably above the initial fatigue limit. This type of manipulation is known as coaxing.
Generally, it has been observed that overstressing tends to reduce the ordinary
fatigue life at a subsequently lower overstress, and that it tends to increase the fatigue
life at a subsequently higher overstress.
Cumulative damage studies have been directed toward the expression of fatigue
damage as a function of the prestress cycle ratios. Mirer and some other investigators
assumed the fatigue damage was equal to the summation of the cycle ratios, but others
have shown that fatigue damage varies in a more complex manner with the total or
cumulative cycle ratio. Richart and Newmark proposed that damage might vary with,
a power of the prestress cycle ratio for a given prestress and test stress. They also em-
phasized that the order of application of a small number of blocks of different cyclic
stresses had a very definite effect on the fatigue life, but that as the number of appli-
cations of the pattern of blocks increased the order became less significant.
2. Summary of Present Study
In the present investigation of cumulative damage in the fatigue of structural joints,
extensive use has been made of test data from previous fatigue damage studies. In most
of these investigations tests were conducted at two or more stress levels on small rotating
beam specimens. Rotating-beam tests are relatively easy to conduct, and the cycling
rate is usually high ; therefore, many investigators have used this type of test to obtain
a large number of results in a reasonable period of time.
In the present study an attempt has been made to derive a useful empirical method
for estimating the fatigue lives of structural joints when tested under a spectrum-type
loading pattern. The method proposed in this study has been derived from the extensive
rotating beam test data obtained by other investigators. Data from two studies, in par-
ticular, have proved very useful for the present investigation. These data were obtained
by Kommers"" and Dolan, Richart and Work""'.
Kommers obtained new S-N relationships after separate series of identical speci-
mens had been subjected to various cycle ratios of a single high overstress. Thus, the
effects of this overstress were demonstrated for other stress levels. In the present stud\'
these data were used to demonstrate the changes that are likely to occur in S-N rela-
tionships which show the total cycles to failure including the cycles of the initial over-
stress. This was accomplished by merely "adding-in" the cycles of the initial overstress
or prestress to show the total cycles to failure.
This "adding-in" of the prestress cycles causes curves for prestressed specimens to
"rotate" in a clockwi.se direction about the value of the prestress on the basic S-N
88 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
diagram. The limiting rotation appears to be a vertical line through the point of rotation
on the basic S-N curve. This vertical line represents the limit as. the prestress cycle ratio
approaches unity. Furthermore, a study of this type of plot indicated that the rotation
between the basic S-N diagram and the vertical line was approximately proportional to
the prestress cycle ratio. Other test data are needed, however, to evaluate this rotation
effect further.
QuaUtatively, the rotation effect illustrates two of the important iindings of previous
fatigue damage studies. It indicates that an overstress has a damaging effect on the
fatigue hfe at a subsequently lower overstress, and that it has a healing effect on the
fatigue life at a subsequently higher overstress. Quantitatively, it indicates a range of
cycles wherein failures should occur for variable-cycle tests if the maximum cyclic
stresses are all overstresses.
If all of the maximum cyclic stresses for a given loading pattern are overstresses,
then cycling at the major or greatest maximum stress alone would cause failure at Na
cycles as determined from the basic S-N diagram. By cycling at the least or minor
maximum cyclic stress alone, failure would occur at Na cycles. Thus, the interval for
any pattern of maximum cyclic stresses can be defined by vertical lines through the
major and minor stress levels on the basic S-N diagram. The present study proposes
that the number of cycles to failure within this interval is a function of the pattern
of maximum cyclic stresses.
A review of the variable-cycle test data obtained by Dolan et al, provided infor-
mation for an evaluation of /3 in the relationship,
Nr=——^ .. • (3)
Na^^'''^
In this equation Nv is the fatigue life for a variable-cycle pattern of loading. The dis-
tribution coefficient, P, relates the cycles to failure for the variable-cycle loading to the
endpoints of the interval, Na and Na.
It was also observed from some of Dolan's test data, where the minor maximum
cyclic stress was below the initial fatigue limit, that the hfe interval could be estab-
lished by extending the basic straight-line S-N diagram to the value of the least or
minor maximum cyclic stress. Therefore, to predict the variable-cycle fatigue life by
the present method it is only necessary to define the interval of possible failure from an
accurately determined S-N relationship and to evaluate the distribution coefficient, j8,
for the loading pattern at hand.
The distribution coefficient, jS, as it is presently evaluated, may be computed as a
simple ratio of areas. For simplicity and convenience, a 1,000-cycle envelope of maxi-
mum cyclic stresses is plotted on a semi-log basis from 1 cycle to 1,000 cycles. This is
done by plotting the difference between the major and minor maximum stresses, Sa and
S„, in order of decreasing magnitude from 1 cycle to 1,000 cycles. Then the ratio of the
actual area under this plot to the area of the field on which it is plotted, is the value P.
With this information, the variable-cycle fatigue life, Nv, may then be computed.
The method presented herein has been applied to tests conducted by A. M. Freu-
denthal. This extensive program of tests with various loading patterns shows good
agreement with the method.
Sixteen variable-cycle pulsating tension fatigue tests of joint specimens and five
of plain plate specimens were conducted for this investigation. For each test the major
maximum cychc stress, 5^, was twice the magnitude of the minor maximum cychc
stress, 5a. A sine wave loading pattern was used in all cases for the variation in the
maximum cyclic stresses. The minimum cyclic stress was held constant at 1,000 psi.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 80
For purposes of comparing the predicted variable-cycle fatigue lives of the specimens
with the lives determined by tests, the representative (log-mean) fatigue life for all
duplicate specimens was considered as the anti-log of the average of the logarithms of
the cycles to failure for each test. Also, the variable cycle fatigue lives were computed
in accordance with Miner's theory.
Cumulative cycle ratios were determined from the log-mean fatigue lives for each
of the stress levels and compared with the values computed by the method presented
herein. Of course, the cumulative cycle ratio by Miner's theory is 1.0 in every case.
G. CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study of the data of previous fatigue damage investigations and
of the present variable-cycle tests indicate that it is possible to estimate, with reason-
able accuracy, the fatigue lives of structural joints subjected to variable-cycle patterns
of loading. In order to estimate the variable-cycle fatigue life of a joint by the method
outlined herein it is necessary to know the basic constant-cycle S-N relationship and
the pattern of maximum cyclic stress variation.
The range of stresses in the variable-cycle load pattern establishes an interval of
cycles to failure on the constant-cycle S-N diagram. The number of cycles to failure
falls within this interval and is established by the use of a distribution coefficient which
accounts for the distribution of stresses within the load pattern.
If it is assumed that the fatigue lives of actual structural joints, which are sub-
jected to more or less random variations of stresses, can be appro.ximated by the repeated
application of patterns of loading, wherein the cyclic stresses occur with the same fre-
quency as the service stresses, then it may be possible to apply this method of fatigue
life analysis to actual structures.
Because of the small number of tests conducted for this study, it is not possible,
at the present time, to make an accurate evaluation of the proposed method for esti-
mating the variable-cycle fatigue lives of structural joints. However, the test results
indicate the existence of a relatively good laboratory correlation between the predicted
fatigue li\-es and those obtained by tests.
Another manner of interpreting the data of this variable-cycle study would be the
use of an equivalent fatigue strength — the constant-cycle fatigue stress which provides
the same fatigue life as the variable-cycle loading. The theory presented herein pro-
vides for the test loading, a fatigue life at a given major maximum stress (sine wave
pattern and minimum stress of 1,000 psi) which is equal to the fatigue life for an
equivalent constant-cycle stress approximately 2,000 psi below the major maximum
stress. On the basis of Miner's theory, the equivalent constant-cycle stress would be
approximately 4,000 to 5,000 psi below the major maximum stress. Thus, the varia-
tion in maximum cyclic stress obtained in railway bridges may be expected to provide
a marked increase in life; an increase in life possibly equivalent to a decrease of approxi-
mately 2,000-3,000 psi in the maximum stress in constant-cycle loading.
H. BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) French, H. J., "Fatigue and the Hardening of Steels," Trumactiuns, .American
Society for Steel Treating, \ol. 21, pp. 890-945, October 1933.
(2) Committee E-9 on Fatigue, Manual on Fatigue Testing, Special Technical Publica-
tion No. 91, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., (1949)
QO C umulative Damage in Structural Joints
(.V) Moore, H. F., "How and When Does a Fatigue Crack Start?," Metals and Alloys,
Vol. 7, pp. 207-2QO, (10.^6).
(4) Kommers, J. B., "The Effect of Understressing on Cast Iron and Open-Hearth
Iron," Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 30, pp. 368-^81,
(1930).
{>) Kommers, J. B., "The Effect of Overstressing and Understressing in Fatigue,"
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 45, pp. 532-543, (1945).
(6) Lea, F. C, "Effect of Repetition Stresses on Materials," Engineering, Vol. 115,
pp. 217-219, 252-254, (1923).
(7) Swanger, W. H., and France, R. D., "Effect of Zinc Coatings on the Endurance
Properties of Steel," Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 32,
pp. 430-452, (1932).
(8) Gough, H. J., The Fatigue of Metals, Scott, Greenwood and Son, London, pp. 113-
136, (1924).
(9) Palmgren, "Die Lebensdauer von Kugellagern," Zeitschrijt des Vereines Deutsche}
Ingenieure, Vol. 68, No. 14, pp. 339-341, (1924).
(10) Grover, H. J., Gordon, S. A., and Jackson, L. R., Fatigue of Metals and Struc-
tures, Battelle Memorial Institute, Prepared for Bureau of Aeronautics, Department
of the Navy, Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C, p. 45, (1954).
(11) Miner, M. A., "Cumulative Damage in Fatigue," Journal of Applied Mechanics,
Vol. 12, pp. A-1S9-A-164, September 1945.
(12) Luthander, S., and Wallgren, G., "Determination of Fatigue Life with Stress
Cycles of Varying Amplitude," The Aeronautical Research Institute of Sweden,
FFA Report No. 18, Translated and distributed by the Royal Swedish Air Board,
Stockholm, as Translation No. 10, (1949).
(13) MuUer-Stock, H., Gterold, E., and Schulz, E. H., "Der Einfluss einer Wechselvor-
beanspruchung auf Biegezeit und Biegewechselfestigkeit von Stahl St. 37," Archiv
fUr das Eisenhuttenwesen, Vol. 12, pp. 1-148, (1939).
(14) Kommers, J. B., "Effect of Overstress in Fatigue on the Endurance Life of Steel,"
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 45, pp. 532-541, (1945).
(15) Richart, F. E., Jr., and Newmark, N. M., "An Hypothesis for the Determination
of Cumulative Damage in Fatigue," Proceedings, American Society for Testing
Materials, Vol. 48, pp. 767-800, (1948).
(16) Bennett, J. A., "A Study of the Damaging Effect of Fatigue Stressing of X4130
Steel," Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 46, pp. 693-711,
(1946).
(17) Advance Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses, "Tests of Steel
Girder Spans on the Chicago and North Western Railway," Bulletin 488, American
Railway Engineering Association, pp. 1-92, (1950).
(18) Advance Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses, "Tests of Steel
Girder Spans on the Illinois Central Railroad," Bulletin 496 American Railway
Engineering Association, pp. 147-284, (1951).
(19) Dolan, T. J., Richart, F. E., Jr., and Work, C. E., "The Influence of Fluctuations
in Stress Amplitude on the Fatigue of Metals," Proceedings, American Society for
Testing Materials, Vol. 49, pp. 646-679, (1949).
(20) Freudenthal, A. M., "Cumulative Fatigue Damage of Aircraft Structural Materials,
Part I, 2024 and 7075 Aluminum Alloy," Wright Air Development Center Tech.
Note 55-273, (Columbia University under Contract No. AF 33 (616)-2274).
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 91^
(21) Head, A. K.. "The Growth of Fatigue Cracks," published by permission of the
Commonwe-.lth of Australia, Department of Supply, May 20, 1953. Also see.
Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 44, No. 356, pp. 925-938, September, 1953.
(22) Sinclair, G. M., and Dolan, T. J., "Effect of Stress Amplitude on the Statistical
Variability in the Fatigue Life of 75S-T6 Aluminum Alloy," Transactions, Ameri-
can Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 75, No. 5, pp. 867-872, July 1953.
{I.',) Committee E-9 on Fatigue, "Symposium on Statistical Aspects of Fatigue," Spe-
cial Technical Publication No. 121, American Society for Testing Materials, Phila-
delphia, Pa.. 64 pp., (1941).
(24) Hall, W. J., and Sinnamon, G. K., "A Mechanism for Controlling Large-Scale
Fatigue Testing Machines," Proceedings, Society for Experimental Stress Analysis,
Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 203-208, (1952).
(25) Wilson, W. M., and Thomas, F. P., "Fatigue Tests of Riveted Joints," University
of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No 302, Urbana, Illinois, 114
pp. p. 74, May 31, 1938.
(20) Stallmeyer, J. E., "The Effect of Stress History on Cumulative Damage in Fatigue."
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor
of Philosophy in Engineering in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois
(1953).
(27) Wilson, W. M., Bruckner, W. H., Coombe, J. V., and Wilde, R. A., "Fatigue Tests
of Welded Joints in Structural Plates," University of Illinois Engineering Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 327, Urbana, Illinois, 1941.
(28) Schutz, F. W., Jr., "The Efficiency of Riveted Structural Joints," A thesis sub-
mitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Engineering in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois,
(1952).
92 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
TABLE 1
CO>PARISON OF FREUDENTHAL'S^^O) ^g-p f^su^xS ON
75S-T6 ALUTflNUM ALLOY VJITH COMPUTED RESULTS
Distribution
Value
of p
Difference
^T " ^C
Percent
Pattern
Test
Computed
Error
A
0.723
0.675
+0.050
+6.91
B
0.766
0.755
+0.011
+1.I^1^
C
0.582
0.660
-0.078
-13.i+0
A'
0.551
0.55i+
-0.025
-i^.55
B'
0.61+2
0.580
+0.062
+9.65
C
0.508
0.509
-0.001
-0.20
A"
0.79^+
0.776
+0.018
+2.27
B"
0.812
0.822
-0.010
-1.25
C"
0.677
0.777
-0.100
-1^.79
Total Net Error, percent
-13.68
Average Net Error, percent
-1.52
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints 9.<
TABLE 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIABLE -CYCLE TEST SYSTEM
Fatigue Machine
Capacity 50,000 lb
Minimum Amplitude of Load Cycle 2., 500 lb
Maximim Amplitude of Load Cycle 25,000 lb
Range of Mean Load 2,500 - U?, 500 lb.
Operating Frequency 5 Cycles per sec
Weighbar Calibration Constant l+lj-.S lb per
microin per in
Control System
Maximvm Rate of Load Correction* Approx. 12,000 lb per min
MsLJcimum Programming Rate** Approx. 20 min
Width of Dead Zone Approx. I5OO lb
Time Delay Correction
Time On 1 sec
Time Off 2 sec
* For a steel specimen, of 1.75 sq. ia cross section area.
** For sine wave variation used in present tests.
Q4
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
TABLE 5
AVERAGE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 5/16-IN STRUCTURAL
STEEL PLATE FOR TOST SPECIMENS
Plate
Yield*
Point,
psi
Ultimate
Strength,
psi
Reduction
of Area,
per cent
Elongation
in 8 in ,
per cent
A
k3, 100
66, 200
51. 7
26.
.9
B
45,500
66, 800
1+8.6
27.
,1+
* Lower yield point.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
95
TABLE k
RESULTS OF CONSTANT -CYCLE FATIGUE TESTS
OF JOINT SPECIMENS
Spec.
No.
Max.*
Cyclic Stress
psi
Cycles to
Failure, N,
1000 ' s
Log N
B-1
B-2
B-5
B-k
32, 000
52, 000
32,000
32, 000
137.6
162.5
185. i+
226.7
5.13862
5.21085
5.26811
5.355^5
C-5
C-1
C-2
28, 000
28, 000
28, 000
599.5
ii6l.i+
552.8
5.60130
5.66U08
5.7^257
A-J+
A "2
A-5
A-1
2k, 000
2i^,000
2k, 000
2k, 000
1,153.0
1,571.1
1,612.8
1,822.0
6.06185
6.19621
6.20757
6.26055
E-1
E-2
22, 000
22,000
2,383.9
2,389.7
D-1
D-2
21, 000
21, 000
J+,169.0
8,899.9+**
— -
H-1
20, 500
8,352.2+
---
G-1
20,000
11,1^05.3+
— -
F-1
19, 500
11,002.1+
N
Log N 1000' s
5.2i+526 175.9
5.66952 U67.0
6.l8l5i^ 1,518.9
* Stress cycles varied from a minimum tension of 1,000 psi on the
net section to a maximum tension.
** + indicates that the specimen did not fail.
96 Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
TABLE 5
RESULTS OF CONSTANT -CYCLE FATIGUE TESTS
OF PLAIN PLATE SPECIMENS
Spec.
Maximum*
Cyclic Stress
psi
Cycles to
Failure, N
Log N
No.
Log N
N
HP-1
HP -2
JP-5
JPH-7
JPH-8
JPH-9
JPH-11
52,000
185,700
207, 000
166,200
17^,200
528, i+oo--»^
147, 100
321,700
5.26881
5.51597
5.22065
5.2UIO5
5 . 516UO
5.16761
5. 507^^5
5.51970
208, 800
JPH-19
JPH-20
31,000
2U0, uoo
27^,200
5.58095
5.45807
5.40950
256,700
JPH-1
JPH-5
50, 000
726, 500
702 . 100
5.86112
5.846liO
5.85576
714.100
JPH-3
JPH-10
29,000
505,100
5i^6.000
5.70165
5.75719
5.71942
524,109 ,
JPH-2
JPH-6
JPH-12
JPH-15
28, 000
7, 016, i+00+
950, 800
857,700
852,500
6.84611
5.96886
5.95554
5.95059
6.16972
1.478.000
JPH-15
JPH-52
27, 000
868, 100
802,ifOO
5.95857
5.90439
5.92148
JPH-1 i^
26,000
25,000
7.125.700+
6.85283
6.852.85
7.125.700
JPH-29
JPH-50
1, 221, 000
760, 500
6.08672
5.88110
5.98591
965. 600
HP~5
HP-i^
JP-1
JP~2
JP-U
JPH-4
2U, 000
1, 949, 100
1,165,600
1,088,100
575,900
k, 7k8, 800
1,252,500+
6.28985
6.06655
6.05667
5.75884
6.67651
6.09778
6.15456
1, 427, 000
Stress cycles varied from a minimum tension of 1,000 psi on the
net section to a maLximum tension.
- indicates specimen had failed but micro-switch did not shut
off the machine. + indicates that the specimen did not fail.
Cumulative Damage in Struc tural Joints
97
a S
w
a
1
^
^
CJ
o
■p 3
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(U 1)
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98
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
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Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
99
<U -P « rH
-P 03 -H
;3 r-| 01 tS
ft P H fe
a § y
o 3 >3 o
o u o +^
=1=
a (D
T^
^^
0)
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■M
+J to
:i
Ph
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dJ 0)
(J
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r ■)
O -H
>^S
■P o
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100
Cumulative Damage in Struc t u ra 1 Joints
TABLE 9
ULTIMTE STRENGTHS AND EFFICIENCIES OF JOINT SPECIMENS
Specimen
First Loading,
Shear Failures
Ultimate Test Efficiency „
Load, lb per cent
Second Loading
Tension Failxires
Ultimate Test Efficiency
Load, lb per cent
S-1 108,900
85.5
iii+, 900
90.0
S-2 108,650
81+. 8
115,600 90.3
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
101
38.000
36 000
\
\
\
34,000
S. 32 000
\
\
^ \\
1 \
\
\\\
tn
(/>
K 30,000
(0
28.000
\
\
\
,
\
\\\
S
<.
^
BASIC S-N, 1
i
i
\^xj
pr
"""■^
::::::^—
R = 0.2^|
26,000
^
_?!2±U=-
"
i^
1 R=0.6-i j
i-
1- 1 "fO-P*, i
24.000
1 1 '1 1
10^
10*
I0«
CYCLES TO FAILURE AFTER CYCLING AT A PRESTRESS OF
36,000 psi FOR VARIOUS CYCLE RATIOS, R , OF THE PRESTRESS.
10^
38.000
36.000
34,000
a 32,000
to
(0
a. 30,000
1-
to
28,000
1
i
t
V.
1
1
i
^^
\
1
^
\
\
^
\
B
ASIC S-N,
\
fct
y "'^n
26,000
R=0.4i
"V.
"^
4-.
1
: R = 0.6-)
!
1 1 R = 0.8i
24.000
-1
: 1 1 *' . •
10"
10*
10^
CYCLES TO FAILURE INCLUDING CYCLES AT A PRESTRESS OF
36,000 pti FOR VARIOUS CYCLE RATIOS, R,OF THE PRESTRESS.
FIG. I RESULTS FOR ROTATING BEAM TESTS OF
SAE 1020 STEEL, KOMMERS, 1945, { 14 )
102
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
S OR LOO S
1
1
"l
2
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LOG N
CURVE l-l BASIC S-N CURVE
CURVE 2-2 CURVE INDICATING TOTAL CYCLES TO
FAILURE INCLUDING n, CYCLES AT S,,
CURVE 3-3 CURVE INDICATING TOTAL CYCLES TO
FAILURE INCLUDING n, CYCLES AT S,
AND Og CYCLES AT Sg.
FIG. 2 DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING HOW TOTAL
CYCLES TO FAILURE MAY VARY WITH THE PRESTRESS.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
10.?
38,000
36,000
V
\
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"
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R =0.6.1.
R=0.8-^
24.000
, . ,
X
10* 10^ 10'
CYCLES
TEST CURVES BY KOMMERS FOR PRESTRESS OF 36,000 psi
DAMAGE CURVES BY MINER'S THEORY
38,000
CYCLES TO FAILURE INCLUDING CYCLES AT A PRESTRESS OF
36,000 psi FOR VARIOUS CYCLE RATIOS, R, OF THE PRESTRESS.
FIG. 3 COMPARISON OF MINER'S THEORY WITH TEST RESULTS
FOR SAE 1020 STEEL, KOMMERS, 1945,(14)
104
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
inn
PERCENT OF MAXIMUM
o o <
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USED IN THESE TESTS.
MAGNITUDE OF
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PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LOADINGS
DATA FROM
® 40' GIRDER 0 78' GIRDER
• 60' GIRDER © TS'-IO" GIRDER
O 70' GIRDER
FIG. 4 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF MAXIMUM
STRESSES OBTAINED FROM AAR TESTS.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
105
a. Q. a. Q. &
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Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
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TOTAL CYCLES TO FAILURE
o Sa = 60,000 psi
• Sa= 78,000 psi
s. 6 test results for unnotched rotating
:am specimens of sae 4340 steel for load
cycle b, dolan et al, 1949, ( 19 )
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
107
130,000
A
B
"
c
120,000
\
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70000
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10,000
60,000
1
10="
10^
10'
TOTAL CYCLES TO FAILURE
O LOAD CYCLE BEGUN AT S^
• LOAD CYCLE BEGUN AT So
FIG. 7 TEST RESULTS FOR UNNOTCHED ROTATING
BEAM SPECIMENS OF SAE 4340 STEEL WITH A MINOR
STRESS AMPLITUDE OF 78,000 psi FOR LOAD CYCLE A,
DOLAN ET AL, 1949, (19)
108
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joint. s
10
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ALL CYCLES
AT Sa
i
1
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ALL CYCLES
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10,000 CYCLES
1 ^n r
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Na-
k
J
1
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ENVELOPE OF STRESS-TIME RELATIONSHIP
ksN- SLOPE OF S-N DIAGRAM
kv= SLOPE OF VARIABLE CYCLE DIAGRAM
FIG. 8 VARIATION OF DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT
^, FOR LOADING SPECTRUMS OF TWO STRESS LEVELS,
FROM TESTS OF DOLAN ET AL, 1949, ( 19 )
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
)00
130,000
1
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120,000
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•
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TOTAL CYCLES TO FAILURE
O LOAD CYCLE BEGUN AT S*
• LOAD CYCLE BEGUN AT S,
3. 9 TEST RESULTS FOR UN NOTCH ED ROTATING
.AM SPECIMENS OF SAE 4340 STEEL WITH A MINOR
RESS AMPLITUDE OF 78,000 psi FOR LOAD CYCLE G,
DOLAN ET AL, 1949, (19).
110
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
sa
\ r s =
-<Wo)
(o) FREQUENCY-DISTRIBUTION
SPECTRUM \.
SO 100
PERCENT OF TOTAL LOADINGS
AREA AECD
AREA ABCD
V|000'
^-ifJl^^-&o)]'^-°-
(b) 1000 CYCLE LOG-DISTRIBUTION PATTERN
P = 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
lo'': N, FOR A IPOO CYCLE LOADING PATTERN
FIG. 10 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND LOG-DISTRIBUTION
DIAGRAMS FOR A SINE WAVE LOADING SPECTRUM
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
111
68,000 ^^
60,300 I'-
52,600
44,900
37,200
29,500
DISTRIBUTION, PER CENT
35 4. 50 i5|
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DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS CYCLES LOG-DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS
FOR EACH 1,000 CYCLES CYCLES FOR EACH ipOO CYCLES
FIG.M DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS USED BY FREUDENTHAL
FOR TESTS ON 75S-T6 ALUMINUM ALLOY AND
DERIVED 3-CYCLE LOG-DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS.
112
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
c
68,000
60,300
52,600
44,900
37,200
29,500
68,000
60,300
52,600
44,900
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DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS CYCLES
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LOG-DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS
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FIG. 12 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS USED BY FREUDENTHAL
FOR TESTS ON 75S-T6 ALUMINUM ALLOY AND
DERIVED 3-CYCLE LOG-DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
1 1.5
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20 40 60 80 100
THOUSANDS OF CYCLES, N
20 40 60 80 100
THOUSANDS OF CYCLES, LOO N
DISTRIBUTION OF FINITE FATIGUE LIFE FOR 235 SPECIMENS
OF MILD STEEL (GERMAN ST. 37) TESTED IN REVERSED
BENDING AT 45,500 psi, MULLER-STOCK ET AL, 1930,(13).
20^
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MILLIONS OF CYCLES, N
MEAN N = 26,363,000
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LIFE
LOG N= 7.212
N = 32,630,000
°"logn= 0.413
FOR 57 SMALL
DISTRIBUTION OF FINITE FATIGUE
SPECIMENS OF 75S-T ALUMINUM ALLOY TESTED IN REVERSED
BENDING AT 30,000psi, SINCLAIR AND DOLAN. 1949, (21 ).
FIG. 14
DISTRIBUTIONS FOR FATIGUE FAILURES.
C u m u 1 a t ive Damage in Structural Joints
115
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-f ) ECCENTRIC,
40 y I" FIXED
CIRCULAR PATH OF QUADRANT
(0) POSITION OF LINKAGE ARM "o" FOR MAXIMUM RANGE
lb) POSITION OF LINKAGE ARM "a" FOR MINIMUM RANGE
FIG. 16 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF LINKAGE MECHANISM
FOR RANGE CONTROL
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
117
(a) Gear-nut mean load control.
(b) Quadrant, range control.
Fig. 17 — Views of control mechanisms for variable-
cycle fatigue testing machine.
lis
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
WEI6HBAR
PORTABLE SR-4
STRAIN INDICATOR
CALIBRATION
CIRCUIT
MAXIMUM CYCLIC LOAD
MEASURING CIRCUIT
C
DYNAMIC LOAD MEASURING
AND RECORDING EQUIPMENT
MAXIMUM CYCLIC
LOAD RECORDER
MAXIMUM LOAD INDICATOR
AND CONTROL POINT SELECTOR
MINIMUM CYCLIC LOAD
MEASURING CIRCUIT
MINIMUM CYCLIC
LOAD RECORDER
MINIMUM LOAD INDICATOR
AND CONTROL POINT SELECTOR
MECHANICAL PROGRAMMER
MOTOR SELECTOR BANK
TIME DELAY
CORRECTION
®
P
TIME DELAY
CORRECTION
®
MEAN LOAD
CONTROL MOTOR
RANGE CONTROL
MOTOR
FIG. 18 BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR ELECTRICAL
LOAD CONTROL AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
110
tig. 19 — Sample iccoid oi load pattern for present test series.
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120
Cumulati\'e Damage in Structural Joints
Fig. 21 — View of programming unit.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
121
Radius ^ -~i / "I Drilled holes with close fitting fosteners
k Drilled holes > ^ of threaded cold -rolled rod.
n
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JOINT SPECIMENS
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Radius 4
n
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r
PLAIN PLATE SPECIMENS
FIG. 22 DETAILS OF SPECIMENS
122
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CONSTANT CYCLE FATIGUE TESTS
OF JOINTS, I.OOOpsI TO MAX.,
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CYCLES TO FAILURE
• N O INDIVIDUAL TESTS
LOG-NORMAL PROBABILITY DIAGRAMS FOR
^T- CYCLE TESTS OF JOINT SPECIMENS
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
125
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'ssauxs 3-IISN31 NnmixvM uorvn
u.
126
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
a>
Z
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LU
0
UJ
Q.
W
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!
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1
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RIABLE-C
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U.
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
127
280
240
200
80
40
20
40
60
80
3
3
r o
0 \ '■
\ o
^V o o
O — '
o
_
o
ACTUAL RUNNING TIME ^ o
TOTAL TIME OF TEST ' '
FIG. 28 COMPARISON OF TEST CYCLES WITH
TIME FOR TESTING
128
Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
SPECIMEN S - 1
^o-
':^
— ■
AT 108.900 LB.'Lq-"
^
-^
J
K
/^
V SPECIMEN S-2
K
^
FAILED IN SHEAR
AT 108,650 LB.
0.02 In.
) (,
lx^
I
SLIP, IN.
FIG. 29 AVERAGE LOAD-SLIP CURVES FOR SLIP AT
FIRST ROW FASTENERS, STATIC TESTS
Advance Report of Committee 3 — Ties
Report on Assignment 4
Tie Renewals and Costs per Mile of Maintained Track
L. W. Kiitler (chairman, subcommittee), R. W. Cook, W. L. Kahler, C. M. Long,
J. W. Neikirk. H. B. Orr. C. A. Peebles.
The annual statistics compiled by the Bureau of Railway Economics, AAR, present-
ing information on cross tie renewals and cost data for 1957, are shown in Tables A
and B.
These statistics realistically reflect the reduced car loadings of the Class I roads
of the United States for that year. The 1957 total of 21,525,233 new cross ties inserted
in track was the lowest in more than SO years and represents a reduction of 1,724,216
from 1956, or 7.42 percent. Equated gross ton miles per mile of track was 241,000, or
3.54 percent less than in 1956, and all regions except the Pocahontas showed decreases
ranging from 2.62 to 6.25 percent. The Pocahontas Region inserted 5.8 percent more
ties and had an increase of 1.51 percent in equated gross ton miles.
This reduction resulted in unusually low insertions per mile of maintained track,
the low being 46, with a 5-year average of 50.8 for the New England Region, and the
high 88, with a 5-year average of 102.2 for the Southwestern Region. The United States
insertions per mile were 67, and the S-year average 74.2, both all-time lows.
The committee's 1952 report on 1951 statistics stated "for the first time in the history
of the American railroads, the 5-year average tie renewals per mile of maintained track
is below 100." Now. only 6 years later, it should be of much interest to management
that not only has the 5-year average dropped to 74.2, but the 10-year average is only
84.3. Based on 3018 ties per mile, the latter insertion figure indicates an average tie life
of 35.80 years.
Again a note of caution is advised in trying to interpret these statistics; there are
so many factors and variables which must be given consideration that it is particularly
difficult, if not impossible, to make conclusive comparisons among the individual carriers.
129
MO BPUIl) BBHOWi
Butsr * Ar«««t«alE
Bwtw t IklM
Cnadiw FKoifio (Unas in Ua. )
C«Btr«I Vervont
lfcin« C«ntr«l
X»» York Couwetiin
nit«i
aasaiT mss hsgiou!
Aim Arbor
X>ttlac&r« £ HudBor.
l>Ala«Bre,Lackasanna t ireatern
Detroit 4 Tolado Shore Line
Srie ___^_
iJnand Trunk ~eatern
Lehigh ft :^idaon RiTer
Lehi£li Jt «aw Sncland
Lelii^ Tallaj
lbnoosaJ*ela
Hvr Tork Caitral
Ser York, Chicago & St.Louia
Ker Tork, Susquehanna ft ^eatem
Pittsburgli ft Lake Srie
Pittsburgh 4 West Virginia
fcliesh
Tatla B ""' ■■ '
i ADD ACKWEOATK COST OP NBW »00D CROSS TIE RSNCTALS PER Mnjt OF UAINTAINED T»A.„ .
Cl.aa 1 roarta in the United Stat.. »nH , ^ "UNTAINED TRACK AM) RATIO OF HEW 'JOOD CROSS TIE RENEWALS TO TOTAL CROSS TIES IN UAINTAINED TRACK
and large Canadian roads, by y,„,, „j ,„^ ^^, .„^^, „, j^,, ^^, 1,53 ,^ ^,5^^ l„„lu.l,e
''°*'" "' "sure, are e«oluai„ „f ^,,^^, „j ,^,.^ tj..
Muinbor of new wood croas tie renewale
per mile of mintainad track
19S3
195*
1955
5 year
average
Aggregate cost of new wood cross tie renewals
per ndla of maintained track
Per
2.17
3.10
2.11
2.84
1.05
1.52
0.02
2.00
2.56
2.94
2.32
l-?0
3.12
3.4«
1.36
2.99
3.97
1.93
2.45
2.52
3-55
2.43
0.29
0.13
3.41
1.77
1.94
1.69
2.50
1.64
2.21
2.66
2.13
1.16
1.75
2.91
1.17
1.53
1.31
2.18
1.80
2.52
3.20
2.22
0.91
0.96
2.00
1.53
3.03
1.62
1.99
2.29
1.29
1.44
1.15
2.52
2.94
1.14
1.54
0.73
2.03
0.95
2.50
3.04
2.81
1.43
2.56
2.53
1.76
1.84
1.80
2.53
0.72
1.45
1.04
1.21
CaSRAL SASISU; RSGIOH;
Akron, Gaston ft Tounsstom
Beitinsre 1 Ohio
Besseser ft I^ke Srie
Central R.R.of H.J.
Chicago ft Eastern Illinois
Chicago ft Illinois Uidlend
latroit, Toledo ft Ironton
Elgin, Joliet 4 Eastern
Illinois Terrrinal
Litchfield 4 Madison a
Long Island
Ifissouri-Illinois
?epna. -Reading Seashore Lines
Reading Co.
StateD Island Rapi^ Transit
Yeetem tfaryland
Total
"I3B"
3.43
1.27
1.85
1.84
2.17
2.91
1.31
5.30
3.27
3.2B
2.76
2.53
4.60
1.53
1.02
1.82
l.<9
2.70
1.03
2.10
1.45
2.51
"t;5B"
1.65
1.70
4.06
2.74
0.68
1.79
1-93
1.61
3.10
1.50
2.12
2.44
1.92
1.45
1.61
0.69
1.92
2.39
1.03
3.26
2.17
1.60
"1:96"
1.40
2.48
, FOCAaOHIAS BajIOK;
;< Caeaapeake 4 Ohio
' BorfolJc 4 Vestem
RichBondfPred'burg & Potoaac
I Virginian
IMal
SOPBiBll BgSIOi;;
, n«>ia« Great Southern
Atlairta 4 St. Andrews Bay
I Atlanta 4 lert Point
! JUlantic Coast Line
i Carolina A Ilortbwegtera a
, CflRtral or Georgia
I CoBrl0trt«n 4 'Western Carolina
Cincinnati, K«w Orlaans t Tex.Pao.
CllnehfiaU
nori^ SaJt Coaat
GMrgla B.R.
I Georgia & Tlorida
j Georgia Southern & Florida
{j Galf.UDfcila 4 Ohio
niinole Central
LmiwrlUe 4 ItashriUe (Inel.l<.C.«St.L.;
aww Orleans 4 llortbaaatem
Herfolk ^uthem
PladDont 4 Uorthem 2
ttBrmjarmh 4 Atlanta g .
Z«aEoafd~Air Line
Sotfthem By.
Tennessee Central
Veetem ily.of Alal>aai
2.62
3.71
3.24
3.71
4.94
6.55
3.29
14.29
4.63
5.34
9.27
5.37
4.15
3-31
Trsr
2.26
8. 53
2.38
2.65
3.62
5.63
1.80
2.21
4.54
2.72
1.63
5.03
3.77
7.27
3.04
7.66
4.76
5.22
8.93
10.29
2.79
2.96
2.41
4.81
5.60
2.67
2.34
2.75
2.53
3.06
5.10
3.30
6.00
2.38
2.09
7.10
1.31
3.27
1.02
2.91
2.10
2.28
6.05
3.12
7.64
2.37
4.75
5.2*
3.24
2.30
6.71
3.22
^•58
2.43
2.15
3.85
6.84
Sheert 2 of 2 i
miWBSR AND AOORKGATK COST Or NBV HOOD CROSS TIK REtO:iVALS PEB ml r or ii.t.n..,.™ ~,
CU.. I ro.,1, in lh« LWt,d States .riif . .7 "*""'«» ""=>< AM, MTIO OF «V TOOD CROSS TIE RZKEmS TO TOTAL CROSS TIES IN yAINTAINED TRACK
united states and loree Canadian roade, by years, and for the averace of the five years 1953 to 1957, Incluelv,
Hotel All flEuree are exclusive of bridge and s.dtch tiee
RMd
i
iumlier of
per
Edle of
d cross tie renewals
naintained track
Ageregate cost of new wood cross tie renewals
per mile of maintained traok
Per cent new wood orosa tie renewals 1
to all tiea in traoks |
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
5 year
average
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
5y«ar
average
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
5 year
WMWBSSnUI RBOlOHi
Qiiwso t Itortli ».tem(Ino.C.St.I>.W.»0)
Chio«go OrMt Western
Chioaeo,iaimiilise,St,Paul i Faoific
GuluthiUisKtw i Iron Range
Duluth|Sout}i Shore & Atlantic
77
75
64
67
185
36
54
54
61
138
47
92
66
51
139
68
95
60
39
87
U2
44
55
105
63
86
56
55
140
♦267
297
175
218
593
tl22
214
145
223
456
♦174
305
213
196
435
♦ 257
310
213
148
426
♦316
393
164
223
348
♦ 227
304
182
202
452
2.60
2.51
2.06
2.23
6.39
1.20
1.82
1.76
2.05
1.59
3.08
2.15
1.71
2.27
3.18
1.95
1.30
2.94
3.73
1.44
1.63
2.12
2.86
1.87
1.82
Great North©r:i
Green Bey A '.Testern
Ute Superior t lahpendng
Itrjieapolis i St.Louis
89
192
77
165
74
253
54
137 .
68
130
65
131
68
135
79
100
43
57
60
76
92
53
71
154
70
125
211
331
679
209
488
163
285
683
155
146
268
401
193
368
156
285
460
253
290
151
251
220
222
294
169
284
529
206
371
2.62
2.84
6.67
2.51
5.47
1.99
2.36
B.78
1.79
1.57
2.18
4.53
2.17
1.59
2.17
4.70
2.65
1.51
1.82
2.09
2.52
1.86
2.27
5.35
2.33
l£iBpls.,St.Paul S S.S.lbrie (Inc.lIls.C.)
Northern Pacific
Spokane International
Spokane, Portland i Seattle
101
5«
432
55
93
52
471
61
90
43
240
61
67
99
42
229
96
132
89
46
334
87
94
47
341
72
346
160
1443
211
310
180
1585
236
290
147
792
235
2^
291
150
696
368
523
261
169
1235
365
-
304
165
1151
283
3.37
1.85
14.78
1.71
3.10
1.79
16.14
1.99
2.99
1.49
8.19
1.98
2.40
3.28
1.45
7.82
3.10
4.74
2.93
1.59
11.42
2.83
3.13
1.63
11.67
2.32
Total
79
62
64
68
66
68
263
206
221
244
246
236
2.61
2.05
2.13
2.24
2.20
2.25
CEK'SUL lESTSRH REGIOII:
1 AtehisoD,7opeka £ Santa Fe
Chieaeo, Burlington £ Qulncy
Chicago.SocS: Island £ Pacific
Colorado £ Southern
Colorado £ Wyordnfi
68
58
81
67
29
64
41
73
53
146
79
35
68
49
79
40
65
49
27
57
41
61
45
74
69
♦3
70
53
60
211
195
218
224
109
193
136
193
176
662
244
116
178
163
99
246
134
161
171
107
161
139
186
171
308
215
144
191
181
261
2.12
1.88
2.73
2.24
0.93
1.99
1.34
2.46
1.76
4.74
2.49
1.14
2.28
1.63
0.80
2.46
1.30
2.17
1.63
0.88
1.79
1.33
2.05
1.46
2.38
2.17
1.40
2.34
1.75
1.95
Denver £ Rio Grande Western
Fort Worth £ Denver
i Northwestern Pacific
SacraoBnto Northern
Southern Pacific Co. - Pac. Lines
79
71
245
57
74
54
64
208
61
79
48
72
251
63
74
65
93
147
79
61
65
139
48
62
59
73
198
62
70
327
225
802
196
229
216
714
212
2!1
194
239
811
199
2?3
247
315
576
309
236
246
265
490
206
242
249
252
679
224
247
2.54
2.36
8.49
1.88
2.50
1.75
2.13
7.23
2.04
2.61
1.55
2.40
8.72
2.13
2.08
3.06
5.11
2.69
1.56
2.15
4.68
1.64
1.92
2.42
6.89
2.08
Toledo, Peoria £ Western
Chion Pacific
Westam I^cifie
88
73
142
98
50
148
52
72
147
60
65
115
21
60
108
64
64
132
306
252
567
324
171
603
185
250
599
237
239
549
85
229
555
227
228
575
2.76
2.57
4.78
3.08
1.76
4.97
1.63
2.56
4.94
1.90
2.31
3.84
0.68
2.11
3.63
2.01
2.26
4.43
Total
73
64
69
66
58
66
239
204
225
226
208
220
2.41
2.10
2.28
2.17
1.89
2.17
1 SOUTIRESTSUI RSGIOU:
Kansas City Southern
' Kansas, OklahoDB i Gulf
] Louisiana * Arkansas
1 Ifissouri -Kansas-Texas Lines
Ifijssouri Pacific Lines
182
134
137
128
132
46
106
94
99
114
95
113
81
94
114
68
140
63
105
100
54
149
59
191
75
89
128
87
123
107
562
400
422
357
394
136
315
295
290
324
280
334
234
264
335
212
367
167
292
294
166
398
185
579
228
275
363
265
356
315
5.76
4.50
4.22
4.04
4.28
1.44
3.55
2.89
3.11
3.69
3.01
3.80
2.49
2.98
3.71
2.14
4.66
1.95
3.32
3.25
1.71
4.97
1.81
6.00
2.42
2.81
4.30
2.67
3.89
3.47
j St. Louis-San Francisco
St, Louis, San Francisco £ Texas
St.Louis ~^outhvestem Lines
Texas £ Nev Orleans
Texas £ pacific
; Texas Usxiean
98
149
106
139
99
84
74
74
106
129
120
67
112
100
102
128
94
90
68
81
87
140
109
73
59
97
57
120
109
83
82
100
92
131
106
232
276
437
276
396
323
243
219
221
268
375
421
243
313
301
279
380
275
256
192
258
233
436
324
223
200
307
162
387
336
239
240
305
244
395
336
2.55
3.14
4.78
3.64
4.75
3.13
2.66
2.39
2.38
3.84
4.43
3.80
2.73
3.58
3.21
3.70
4.38
2.96
2.86
2.17
2.63
3.12
4.79
3.43
2.35
1.69
3.13
2.05
4.11
3.45
2.63
2.63
3.23
3.31
4.49
3.35
Total
121
101
104
97
88
102
352
287
297
279
268
297
3.98
3.35
3.39
3.16
2.66
3.35
Grand total, Itaited States
89
70
73
72
67
74
300
230
242
247
243
252
2.96
2-31
2.43
2.36
2.22
2.46
CtXiLUK ROADSs
Camtian Ikttional
Caaadian Pacific
Ontario Northland
139
128
321
lie
102
233
112
92
194
117
87
238
"8t
156
120
99
228
406
407
1073
354
337
966
345
304
662
356
276
1026
3li7
271i
677
361
320
921
4.76
4.42
11.09
4.06
3.52
8.03
3.84
3.18
6.69
3.96
2.93
8.20
3.9U
3.00
5.29
I..12
3.1a
7.86
. ClaBfl II railroads prior to January 1, 1956. Data for prior years not availab
lotei Iilissouri Pacific Lines includesi Beamnoni,Sour Lake & ffosterr.,Mev; Orleans,
Texas & Uexico, St, Louis, Bromisville & Mexico, San Antonio, Uvalde fc Gulf,
and International-Great Northern (195^ consolidation).
Association of Ameri
from Annual Reports of Clas
Compiled by
Railroads, Bureau of Railway Economics, 7faghin^o
I the Interstate Co
[toy, 1958
0R05S lU STATISTICS (KOLUDINO SWITCH 1 BaiMB) FOR CLASS I HAMOABS I» THE ImlTED 5TAIJS Am 1
Cftlendar Year ttnded Deaember 3I, 1957
She»t 2 of 2 shesta
; CANADIAN RAILROADS
RMd
Grose ties laid In roplaoasBnt
laiss of
main-
tained
(item 25)
Estimatad
total
naintainod
tracks
(iten 24)
Average
number
of
of
Diiin-
tained
track
Number of
equated
gross
ton-miloB a
(thousandoT
Number of
equated
per mile
track
(thous.)
New wooden cross ties 1
replacement avereges l|
Hew
«ooden ties
untreated (U)
New
wooden ties
treated (T)
Total all
new wooden
ties laid
Ties
other
than
wood (S)
A second-
hand (•)
reapplied
ties
Total ties
applied
Per
to all
main-
track
Number
Uid
per
mile
of
main-
tained
Renewal
per
mtlo
track
Renewal
per
1000
equated
gross
miles
number
Aver-
age
cost
Number
Aver-
age
Number
Aver-
age
cost
2
3
*
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
lOimiSSTSKH nSOIOH:
Chicago t Kortli Ee5t9rii(C.StP.iaO)
ll Chloaeo Great ¥eaters
1 Chicago, Uilaaukee, St, Paul ft Pao,
Duluth,Uis5ab« A Iron Range
1 Duloth.South Shore « Atlnntlo
67
»2l76
1 108 458
201 668
578 462
57 190
58 913
»3.62
3.51
3.74
4.09
1 108 458
201 668
578 529
57 190
58 913
83.62
3.51
3.74
4.09
• 16 273
•186 094
1 124 731
201 668
764 623
57 190
58 913
12 685.68
1 803.46
13 205.95
1 047.91
562.62
37 730 890
5 410 123
40 291 404
3 121 740
1 666 579
2 974
3 000
3 051
2 979
2 962
42 057 949
8 342 533
53 563 651
6 815 665
1 438 595
3 315
4 626
4 056
6 504
2 557
2.94
3.73
I'.ei
3.53
87
112
44
55
(316
393
164
223
346
(cants)
9.54
8.49
4.04
3.43
Great >>orthern
Grees Bay A I'estem
IaJco Superior ft Islipaoine
Ifinneapolis ft St .Louis
400
6 093
9 769
2.13
1.52
1.01
582 140
16 601
15 166
129 878
4.41
3.64
3.49
3.37
582 540
16 601
21 259
139 647
4.40
3.64
2.93
3.20
• 84 655
9 076
667 195
16 601
21 259
139 647
209.90
10 225.20
275.35
260.93
1 520.92
600 472
31 960 680
793 008
842 790
4 557 750
2 861
3 128
2 660
3 000
2 997
994 827
56 677 835
668 913
196 472
4 740
5543
2 429
699
1.51
1.82
2.09
2.52
43
57
60
76
251
220
222
3.18
4.53
9.05
31.68
laapls.St.Paul ft S.S,U.(Iiic.lK)
KortherTi Pacific
1 SpoScane Internatiooal
Spokane, Portland A Seattle
«5
270
1.20
1.05
423 878
422 612
59 814
99 763
3.17
3.68
3.69
4.19
9 748
423 923
422 882
59 614
99 763
3.97
3.17
3.68
3.69
4.19
-
9 748
423 923
422 882
59 614
99 763
74.12
4 776.64
9 194.67
176.87
1 142.80
205 478
14 453 744
26 671 695
523 726
3 520 445
2 772
3 025
2 901
2 928
3 081
269 653
18 911 910
41 241 255
420 613
6 612 175
3 908
3 956
4 485
2 352
5 766
4.74
2.93
1.59
11.42
2.83
132
89
46
334
67
523
281
169
1 235
365
13.37
7.U
3.77
52.52
6.32
Total
16 753
1.23
3 773 258
3.72
3 790 Oil
3.71
287 022
4 077 033
57 167.22
172 370 524
3 014
242 216 366
4 236
2.20
66
246
5.80
; camiAL tBSTsm mcioK.
Atehlson.Topeka i Santa Fe
Chicago, Burlington A Quincy
Chicago, Rock Island A Pacific
j Colorado ft Southern
Colorado A VyoDine
:
[
1 122 586
473 558
583 409
34 984
7 899
3.17
3.39
3.05
3.85
4.17
1 122 586
473 558
563 409
34 984
3.17
3.39
3.05
3.65
4.17
•85 584
• 2 052
1 122 566
559 142
583 409
37 036
7 899
19 649.96
11 565.93
9 560.70
784.83
107.03
62 742 321
35 715 592
28 490 812
2 360 310
332 508
3 193
3 088
2 980
3 007
3 107
161 342 901
62 512 350
50 404 669
3 978 021
67 061
6 211
5405
5 272
5 069
627
1.79
1.33
2.05
1.48
2.38
57
41
61
45
181
139
186
171
308
2.21
2.57
3.53
3.38
1 Senrer A Rio Grande Western
Fort ¥orth A Danrer
1 llorUnmstem Pacific
Saera^Dto Northern
! Soothera Pacific Co. -Pac. Lines
618
300
2.32
2.82
156 598
97 414
58 969
13 911
74a 72s
4.08
3.54
4.26
3.87
158 598
97 414
59 787
13 911
749 025
4.60
4.08
3.53
4.26
3.87
• 29 156
• 2 792
• 408
187 754
100 206
59 787
13 911
749 431
3 090.84
1 496.85
430.45
287.36
12 001.85
9 562 300
4 536 216
1 226 067
848 517
36 602 027
3 094
3 031
2 848
2 953
3 050
19 159 347
5 095 429
1 776 996
104 072
119 431 402
6 199
3 404
4 133
362
9 951
1.66
2.15
4.88
1.64
2.05
51
65
139
48
62
246
265
490
206
242
3.97
7.79
11.65
57.00
2.43
1 Oiion Pacific R.R.
1 »eatam Pacific
'584
73
2.52
3.64
801 326
168 300
3.97
3.64
5.14
601 910
168 373
3.97
3.84
5.14
* 707
6 088
801 910
169 060
284.16
13 440.75
1 558.10
900 219
37 970 058
4 643 245
3 168
2 825
2 980
1 048 464
132 105 752
12 339 783
3 690
9 829
7 920
0.68
2.11
3.63
21
60
108
85
229
555
2.30
2.33
7.01
Total
1 775
2.52
4 275 767
3.60
4 277 542
3.60
120 699
4 398 241
74 256.81
225 930 192
3 042
569 366 269
7 667
1.89
58
206
2.71
: SOroifiKSIEUI RSGIOK:
Kansas City Southern
[ Kansas, Oklahoza A Gulf
1 Louisiana A Arkansas
ISasouri-Xansas-Texas Lines
lessouri Pacific Lines
1 310
1.50
74598
52 939
52 485
699 154
885 884
i.S3
2.67
3-13
3.04
3.05
74 596
52 939
52 485
699 154
887 194
3.07
2.67
3.13
3.04
1.05
:
74598
52 939
52 485
699 154
887 194
1 376.16
354.85
690.54
3 667.39
11 686.43
4 350 435
1 065 216
2 901 224
11 658 475
36 651 519
3 161
3 002
3 256
3 179
3 083
9 805 542
1 075 297
4 639 505
15 515 609
65 125 177
7 125
3 030
5 434
4 231
5 479
1.71
4.97
1.61
6.00
2.42
54
149
59
191
75
166
398
185
579
228
2.33
13.14
3.40
13.69
4.15
St. Louis-San Francisco
3t. Louis, San Francisco A Texaa
St.Louis Southvestsm Lines
Texas A Kev Orleans
Texas A Pacific
Tttzaa UBzican
134
.50
430 128
8 710
170 287
311 402
267 193
26 057
3.04
3.40
3-15
2.85
3.22
3.10
430 128
8 710
170 287
311 402
267 193
26 191
3.04
3.40
3.15
2.65
3.22
3.08
• 1 359
430 126
8 710
171 646
311 402
267 193
26 191
5 864.06
148.11
1 746.54
5 485.28
2 224.37
240.22
18 341 529
461 504
5 435 848
15 189 357
6 504 113
760 060
3 128
3 116
3 109
2 769
2 924
3 164
26 945 075
692 339
14 057 687
31 517 451
19 020 703
268 052
4 936
4 674
6 040
5 746
8 551
1 199
2.35
1.69
3.13
2.05
4.11
3.45
73
59
97
57
120
109
223
200
307
162
387
336
4.52
4.28
3.62
2.81
4.52
28.04
Total
1 444
1.41
2 978 837
3.04
2 980 281
3.04
1 359
2 981 640
33 885.97
103 319 280
3 049
190 882 437
5 633
2.88
88
268
4.75
Grand total - United States
193 626
2.02
21 331 607
3.64
21 525 233
3.62
556 992
22 082 225
321 673.47
970 720 544
3 018
2 115 246 938
6 576
2.22
67
243
3.69
CAHASIAII ROADS:
Canadian national
Canadian pacific
Ontario ft Uorthland
1
65 255
55651
X.80
2.1l2
3 275 706
179U566
104 246
3.02
3.23
4.33
3 3I1O 961
1 850 217
104 246
2.99
3.20
4.33
:
3 3I1O 961
1 850 217
104 246
28 705.00
21 326.17
666.13
8I1 603 257
61 578 5U
1 972 067
2 961
b
96 893 hue
2 732 490
b
U51i3
3.9U
3.00
5.29
156
3U7
677
b
6.06
16.51
£ Groas ton-ndlAs of cars and contents, plus two timea gross
plus three tinea groas ton-milea of locomotives and tenden
b Hot reportede
Compiled by
Aseociatio» of Anarioan Hailroada, Bun
from Annual Reports of Class I Rallwa;
Washington, D.C.
Advance Report of Committee 17 — Wood Preservation
P. D. Brentlinger, Chairman
Termite Control Investigation
A. DIGEST
This report describes a service test installation designed to secure data on the
protection afforded against attack by termites to southern yellow pine, coast-type Doug-
las fir and red oak timbers by the nine commercial preservatives now generally used
by the railroads. Each of the species of wood was given three different retentions of
each preservative.
The installation consists essentially of 1296 treated 2- by 4- by 18-in stakes buried
vertically to half their length in the termite-infested ground of the Austin Gary Memorial
Forest of the University of Florida near GainesvOle, Fla., as shown in Figs. 5 to 7, incl.
The specimens were treated under controlled laboratory conditions and the preserva-
tives were chemically analyzed at the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory in Madison.
Wis. The results of the chemical analysis compared with AREA specification require-
ments are shown in Table 1. The test specimens, including 30 untreated control stakes,
are distributed over 10 plots located in the test area as shown in Fig. 8.
The investigation will continue over a 15-year period, with an annual inspection
contemplated to determine the rate of termite attack.
B. FOREWORD
The termite problem exists because of man's attempt to change the ordinary proc-
esses of nature by preserving wood for his own use over considerable periods of time,
while it is the immemorial function of the termite and associated organisms to break
131
132 Termite Control Investigation
wood down and return it to the soil and the atmosphere. Among the first experiments
to determine which chemical wood preservatives were most effective in deterring termite
attack were the tests at Falls Church, Va., under the supervision of the Forest Products
Laboratory.^ Then followed similar tests on southern yellow pine specimens on an inter-
at Falls Church indicated that good protection of southern yellow pine specimens was
national basis with locations in South Africa, Australia, Hawaii and Panama.'^ The tests
obtained by use of coal tar-creosote impregnation under pressure. The international tests
are still in progress, and some of the preservatives under test are showing promise.
In 1928 the Termite Investigation Committee was promoted by the University of
California and sponsored by interested industries and some of the western railroads.
The results of the investigation of that committee, while indicative of the value of
certain preservatives, were not conclusive in that the time period of the tests covered
only three years. The Forest Products Laboratory started similar test installations in
1938, principally at Saucier, Miss., on pine specimens only, and progress reports indicate
good results with some of the preservatives being used in the test herein described.
The first tests sponsored by the AREA, started in 1939 at Florrisant, Mo., involved
the exposure of 344 specimens, each 2 in by 4 in by 2 ft long, so installed that only 6
in of their length was above ground. Specimens of southern pine were used for 18
preservatives and of Douglas fir for one preservative. An inspection was made in
1944, and a progress report appears in the Proceedings, Vol. 47. Further inspections
were anticipated, but circumstances made it necessary to discontinue the tests before
they could be made. It is thus seen that while several tests have been started, there is
but little conclusive information based on controlled exposure over a long-time period.
The present AREA-sponsored test was started with nine preservatives being used
on each of three species of wood and with three retentions of each of the preservatives.
Arrangements were made to locate the test area in the Austin Cary Memorial Forest
near Gainesville, Fla., which is controlled by the University of Florida (see Fig. 8).
This location is considered ideal in that it is in an area infested by termites and in a
climate favorable to the rapid growth of the termites; also the fact that the area is
under the supervision of the University makes it desirable because its continued avail-
ability is assured.
J. O. Blew of the Forest Products Laboratory and Dr. J. B. Huffman of the
University of Florida extended invaluable help in the preliminary work incident to the
organization of the project, and such assistance was greatly appreciated. The project
is under the general direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, and
under the immediate supervision of E. J. Ruble, research engineer structures, assisted by
L. R. Morgan, assistant research engineer structures — all of the AAR research staff.
C. TEST SPECIMENS
The pine and fir specimens were cut from l^^-in by 3%-m by 16-ft (actual size)
lumber selected from the stock pile in dealers yards. It was necessary to purchase the
oak directly from a sawmill in 2- by 4-in stock and then have it surfaced to 1^ by
3% in. The specimens were cut at the AAR Research Center, first to 20-in lengths and
then, after seasoning to an air dry condition or below, to the final 18-in lengths. The
specimens were marked so as to identify the species, stick number and piece number.
For example, in the designation F2C the letter F indicates fir species, the number 2
1 "Our Enemy, the Termite" by Thomas Elliott Snyder, Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y.,
1948.
2AWPA Proceedings, 1957, page 225.
Termite Control Investigation 133
indicates the second 16-ft length of stick that was cut, and C represents the third
specimen from the end of the stick. After 700 specimens of each species were so marked
and cut, they were bundled in groups of 30 and shipped to the U. S. Forest Products
Laboratory at Madison for controlled treatment.
D. TREATMENT
As previously mentioned, tests have been made with various preservatives which,
although not carried far enough to furnish conclusive evidence, did provide indications
as to which preservatives promised the best results. Based on such indications a selec-
tion of nine of the most promising and generally used preservatives was made, as shown
below:
1. Coal tar creosote, furnished at no charge by the Interlake Iron Corporation.
2. Chromated zinc chloride, furnished at no charge by E. I. DuPont de Nemours
and Co.
3. Tanalith, furnished at no charge by Koppers Co., Inc.
4. Pentachlorophenol, furnished at no charge by the Chapman Chemical Com-
pany.
5. Copper naphthenate, purchased.
6. Acid copper chromate (Celcure), purchased.
7. Ammoniacal copper arsenite (Chemonite), furnished at no charge by J. H.
Baxter and Company.
8. Chromated zinc arsenate (Boliden Salt), furnished at no charge by the Taylor-
Colquitt Company.
9. Chromated copper arsenate (Greensalt), furnished at no charge by Koppers
Co., Inc.
Samples of these preservatives were chemically analyzed at the Forest Products
Laboratory, and the results of this analysis compared with the AREA specification
requirements are shown in Table 1. It can be seen that in general there is close con-
formity between the actual analysis and the requirements of the AREA specifications,
and the following explanations are given to account for the differences that did occur:
Preservative No. 5 — Copper Naphthenate
AREA specifications require not less than 0.1 lb per cu ft of metallic copper in the
copper naphthenate treating solution; however, the 1.2 percent copper as shown in
the analysis when used in an 8 lb per cu ft retention very nearly results in the amount
stated in the specifications. The 4 lb per cu ft retention will, of course, be much less
than spyecification requirements, but may be valuable on a trial basis.
Preservative No. 6 — Acid Copper Chromate (Celcure)
The AREA specification for this preservative requires a chromic acid content of
1.70 percent, but AWPA Standard A-2-S6 provides only for analysis of total chromate;
hence, there was no determination of chromic acid, the content of which is adjusted
to obtain a proper pH in the treating solution.
Preservative No. 7 — Ammoniacal Copper Arsenite (Chemonite)
The AREA specification for this preservative requires an acetic acid content of
1.6 percent, but AWPA Standard A-2-S6 does not provide for analysis for acetic acid;
therefore, none was made.
134 Termite Control I n v e s t ig a t i e n
Preservative No. S — Chromaied Zinc Arsenate (Boliden Salt)
As indicated on the analysis sheet there was a deficiency of arsenic acid as such,
but there was enough additional arsenic in the sodium arsenate to result in a total
arsenic content well above the minimum required by the specification; the sodium
dichromate provides sufficient acidity to meet the requirements covering the pH of the
solution which are designed to prevent the precipitation of insoluable compounds in the
treating solution.
The preservative treatments of the specimens were completed under controlled
laboratory conditions at the Forest Products Laboratory in August 1957 (see Fig. 1).
The treatments were made in accordance with AREA Specifications for Treatment to
the desired retention shown in Table 2. The desired retentions were adopted in con-
formity with AWPA standards for field tests in that the amounts shown under reten-
tion 2 are either at or near the so-called "threshold" concentration as indicated by
previous investigations, while retentions 1 and 3 are half and double that concentration,
respectively.
Table 3 show a typical record of treatment as made by the Forest Products Labora-
tory, and a similar record was kept for each run throughout the treatment of the entire
lot of stakes. Preliminary runs were made with representative types of preservatives
with each of the three species in order to adjust treating conditions and water-borne
preservative solution concentrations to approach the desired retention. There was con-
siderable variation in the retentions of the preliminary and regular treatments, however,
particularly with the red oak and Douglas fir.
As previously stated the specimens were temporarily marked after cutting at the
AAR Research Center to show species, stick number and piece. For permanent marking,
metal tags were made at the Forest Products Laboratory, two being required for each
treated specimen. One was marked to show the species, stick number and piece, similar
to the method used in the temporary marking. This tag was mailed on the 3f^-in face
of the specimen near the top. The second tag was required to show the preservative
number and retention number, e.g., in the designation "21" the number 2 indicates the
preservative and the number 1 indicates the desired retention.
The U. S. Forest Products Laboratory realized it would be impossible to secure
the exact desired retention for each test specimen. Hence, a sufficient number of
untreated specimens were provided so that from 25 to 30 specimens were treated in
each charge according to the total number of stakes for distribution over the various
treatments. Then 10 specimens were selected for field installation having the least
variance from the desired retention, care also being taken to exclude any specimens
with heartwood or knots. After the 10 specimens were selected, an additional 6 speci-
mens of each species, preservative and desired retention were selected for installation,
which will be used for periodic extraction tests to determine the weathering rate of the
preservative as compared with the termite attack.
Preservative retentions varied widely in the stakes treated in individual charges,
particularly in the case of Douglas fir and oak. A few of the extra Douglas fir stakes
with low and medium retentions of water-borne preservatives were cut up and found
to be incompletely penetrated.
The retention in the oak specimens for the 15-year exposure tests varied from 4.3
to 5.0 lb per cu ft, with an average retention of 4.6 lb per cu ft compared with a
desired retention of 4.0 lb per cu ft.
After the specimens were treated and selected, they were bundled together in groups
of about 48, as shown in Fig. 2, and shipped to the University of Florida,
Termite Control Investigation 135
E. INSTALLATION
The site selected by the School of Forestry of the University of Florida for this
investigation is about 13^ acres in area, located about 13 miles from Gainesville, as
shown in Fig. 8. The site is a typical longleaf pine fiatvvoods area with pine, gallberry,
dwarf palmetto, wire grass and various scrub oaks constituting the major vegetation.
The particular area, of the test plot is rather open, having very little overhead cover
(see pictures, Figs. 6 and 7). The soil is a Leon fine sand with a hardpan layer
approximately 3 ft below the surface. The plot is well drained, and although the soil
has a tendency to become quite dry during droughty periods, ample moisture is avail-
able for both termites and decay. Since the test plot uses only about one-third of the
area provided by the University, ample room is available for an e.xtension of these
tests or additional investigations in the future.
The installation of the specimens was started on November 4, 1057, by members
of the AAR research staff, assisted by F. J. Fudge, timber engineer. New York Central
System, and chairman of the Subcommittee on Destruction by Termites of AREA
Committee 17, and Dr. J. B. Huffman of the School of Forestry. Extreme care was
taken to obtain a uniform distribution of each species and retention throughout all of
the 10 plots to insure impartial and uniform exposure. In order to achieve this dis-
tribution, the 10 stakes for each species, preservative and retention were placed in 10
separate piles as shown in the picture, Fig. 3. The 6 stakes of each type for the
periodic extractions and the 30 untreated control specimens were then distributed among
the 10 piles, thus making 10 piles of approximately 132 specimens in each pile.
The 10 plots were located and outlined by corner stakes as shown in Fig. 8. The
individual rows at 3 ft centers in the north and south direction were marked with
string, while the east and west rows at 4 ft centers were marked with stakes at the
borders. The holes for the test specimens were made by first forcing the special spade
shown in the picture. Fig. 4, into the ground and working it back and forth. The holes
so formed were about 2 in by 4 in by 9 in deep. The test specimens were then placed
halfway in the holes, with all identification tags on the north sides, and the soil tamped
around them by foot (see Fig. S).
A detailed record of the preservative treatment, retention and location of each
test specimen has been prepared and is on file at the AAR Research Center for
reference when insp)ections are made.
Table 1 — Chemical Analysis of Preservatives
No. 1 Coal Tar Creosote
Characteristic AREA Specification Laboratory Analysis
Water content Not more than 3.0 percent 0.1 percent
Benzol insoluble Not more than 0.5 percent 0. 14 percent
Specific gravity at 38 deg C Not less than 1.03 percent 1.087 percent
Distillate limits
Up to 210 deg C Not more than 5 percent 2.2 percent
235 deg C Range between 5 to 25 percent 10.2 percent
270 deg C Not less than 20 percent 31.3 percent
355 deg C Range between 00 to 85 percent 72.6 percent
Spec. gr. of fractions at 38 de? - *"
from 235 deg to 315 deg C Not "less than 1.025 percent 1.0432 percent
315 deg to 355 deg C Not less than 1 .085 percent 1. 1211 percent J
Coke residue Not more than 2 percent 1.54 percent
136
Termite Control Investiga ti on
Table 1— (Cont'd)
No. 2 Chromated Zinc Chloride
Treating Solution
Characteristic ■ AREA Specification
Zinc Chloride — ZnCl 2 Not less than 77 . 5 percent
Sodium Dichromate (Na2Cr 2O 72H2O) Not less than 17.5 percent
Laboratory Analysis
80.88 percent
19.12 percent
No. 3 Tanalith
Treating Solution
Characteristic AREA Specification
Sodium Fluoride — NaF Not less than 22 percent
Pentavalent Arsenic (Na2HA60 4) Not less than 22 percent
Hexavalent Chromium (Na2Cr0 4) Not less than 34 percent
Dinitrophenol (NO2) 2.C6H 3.OH. Not less than 10 percent
Laboratory Analysis
23 . 55 percent
25 . 65 percent
38.90 percent
1 1 . 90 percent
No. 4 Pentachlorophenol
Treating Solution
Charactertistic AREA Specification Laboratory Analysis
Pentachlorophenol Solution 4.5 to 5. 5 percent 4 . 95 percent
Penta Preservative 202 E is a blend of 5 percent by weight of technical pentachlorophenol in 102 E
oil. This oil has the following typical characteristics:
Key
API Gravity at 60° F 29 API — American Petroleum Institute
Viscosity at 100° F. (SUS) 40 SUS— Saybolt Universal Seconds
Pour Point °F 0 PMCC— Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Test
Flash Point, PMCC °F 190 I.B.P.— Initial Boiling Point
I.B.P 432 F.B.P.— Final Boiling Point
10% 465
50%, 516
90% - 615
F.B.P 708
% Penta Solvency at 75° F 13
No. 5 Copper Naphthenate
Treating Solution
Characteristic
Solvent — Aromatic H-B oil as follows:
API Gravity 60° F _
Viscosity 100° F (SUS) . .
AREA Specificc
Not less than 0.10 lb
Manufacturers Spec
24 (max)
ition
per cu ft
ification
Laboratory Analysis
0.096 1b per cu ft
Typical Analysis
20.5
45
Pour Point °F
Distillation Range °F
I.B.P . ..
400
Minus 10
490
10% - —
50% -
90%-..
F.B.P.
TOO
512
540
584
614
Flash Point, PMCC °F
190 (min)
230
No. 6 Acid Copper Chromate (Celcure)
Treating Solution
Characteristic AREA Specification Laboratory Analysis
Copper Sulphate (CUSO4.5H2O) Not less than 45 percent 47.3 percent
Sodium Dichromate (Na 2Cr 2O 7.2H 2O) Not less than 45 percent 52.7 percent
Chromic Acid (CrO 3) 1.70 percent None shown as such
No. 7 Ammoniacal Copper Arsenite (Ckemonite)
Treating Solution
Characteristic AREA Specification
Copper Hydroxide (Cu(OH ) 2) Not less than 55 . 7 percent
Arsenic Trioxide (As 2O 3) Not less than 38 . 7 percent
Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) 1.6 percent
Laboratory Analysis
Solution 1 Solution 2
63 . 6 percent 63 . 0 percent
36 . 4 percent 37 . 0 percent
None shown as such
Termite Control Investigation
137
Table 1 (Cont'd)
No. 8 Chromated Zinc Arsenate (Boliden Salt)
Treating Solution
Characteristic AREA Specification
Arsenic Acid (H3ASO4) Not less than 19 percent
Sodium Arsenate (XaiH ASO4) Not less than 18 percent
Sodium Dichromate (Na 2Cr20 7.2H2O) 14 percent
Zinc Sulphate (ZnSOiTHaO) Not less than 41 percent
Subject to following tolerance:
Total arsenic in both arsenic acid and
sodium arsenate. Range 2H.4 to 31 . 1 percent
Laboratory Analysis
17.6 percent
22.9 percent
16.1 percent
43.4 percent
Based on atomic weights,
total arsenic calculated as
28.45 percent.
No. 9 Chromated Copper Arsenate (Green Salt)
Treating Solution
Characteristic .iKEA Specification Laboratory Analysis
Potassium Dichromate K2Crj07 Not less than 50 percent 55.3 percent
Copper Sulphate CuS O4 5H 2© Not less than 30 percent 32.3 percent
Arsenic Pentoxide .■Vs 20 s2H 2O Not less than 10 percent 12.4 percent
Table 2 — Desired Retention of Preservatives
Retention, Lb per Cu Ft
Preservative
No. 1
No. 1. Coal-Tar Creosote 4.0
No. 2. Chromated Zinc Chloride 0.5
No. 3. Tanahth 0.25
No. 4. Pentachlorophenol 4.00
No. 5. Copper Naphthenate 4.00
No. 6. Acid Copper Chromate (Celcure) 0.50
No. 7. Ammoniacal Copper Arsenite (Chemonite) 0.25
No. 8. Chromated Zinc Arsenate (Boliden Salt) 0.50
No. 9. Chromat«d,Copper Arsenatei(Greensalt) 0.375
No. e
No.S
8.0
16.0
1.0
2.0
0.50
1.0
8.00
16.00
8.00
16.00
1.00
2.00
0.50
1.00
1.00
2.00
0.75
1..50
Table 3 — Typical Record of Treatment
Date: .\ugust 16, 1957
Preservative: Coal Tar-Creosote
Retention: 4 lb (desired)
Size of Specimen: 1^8 x 3^s x 18 in
Volume of Specimen: 0.05808 cu ft
90 lb air on at 7:56 am
Species
Oak
Specimen
Number
OlE/11
02C
04G
Untreated
Weight
Lb
2.40
2.80
2.70
Fill Cylinder at 8:11 am
175 lb pressure on at 8:15 am
175 lb pressure off at 10:15 am
26 in. final vacuum on at 10:18 am
26 in. final vacuum off at 10:48 am
Temperature: 195 to 200 deg F
Treated
Weight
Lb
2.78
3.07
2.97
Lb
Retention
Specimens
Lb/Cu Ft Selected
0.38
0.27
0.27
6.5
4.6
4.6
138
Termite Control Investigation
Fig. 1 — Treating specimens at Forest Products laboratory.
Fig. 2 — View of treated specimens.
Termite Control Investigation
139
Fig. 3 (right)— Sort-
ing specimens for ran-
dom distribution in
plots.
140
Termite Control Investigation
Fig. 5 (above) — In-
stalled specimens
showing identification
tags.
Fig. 6 (left)— Re-
cording the location
of each specimen.
Termite Control Investigation
141
Fig. 7 (both photo-
graphs)— checking dis-
tribution of specimens.
142
Termite Control Investigat ion
FIG. 8
LOCATION AND DETAIL OF TEST AREA
AUSTIN GARY
MEMORIAL FOREST SIGN
WOOD PRESERVATION
TEST AREA
scale: I"«20'
PLOT 8
PLOT 9
26'
-1
24" 10'
24'
10'
24' .
I0',9«3'=24'
1
PLOT 10
PLOT 7
PLOT 4
PLOT 1 ;
PLOT 2
DETAIL OF PLOT LOCATION
■ TEST SPECIMENS PLACED AS SHOWN
Advance Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
D. S. Bechly, Chairman
Tests of Timber Trestles on the Seaboard
Air Line Railroad
A. DIGEST
This report contains a description and analysis of data obtained during the test
of two ballasted-deck timber trestles on the Seaboard Air Line Railroad. One of these
trestles is located near Boca Raton, Fla., and the other is near Fort Lauderdale, Fla.
These locations were selected because of the relatively high moisture content of wood
that exists there.
The tests were made under regularly scheduled trains at a complete range of
speeds up to the maximum permitted. The regular way freight was used for the braking
and traction runs. Only diesel locomotives were recorded.
Stresses were obtained in the stringers, piles and bracing. The lateral bent move-
ments were measured as well as stringer deflections. Traction and braking forces were
determined by measuring bending of the piles, pressure of the bulkhead against the
embankment and axial stress in the running rails.
From an analysis of the data obtained on these two bridges, the following features
are significant:
1. The live load was not distributed uniformly to the stringers. The stringers near
the center of the bridge carried most of the load, and those under the ballast retainer
carried practically none. (See Figs. 4 and S).
2. The extreme recorded static tensile stress at the center of a span was 782 psi.
This is 122 percent of the calculated stress for an assumed simple span. (See Table 1).
3. The extreme recorded static tensile stress in continuous stringers over a bent
was 540 psi. (See Table 1).
4. Some added continuity was obtained in those stringers which extended beyond
the cap.
5. An apparent vertical movement of a bent under load relative to adjacent bents
caused a reduction of negative bending moment stress over this bent.
6. Higher stringer stresses were recorded in the end span than in the intermediate
spans. The maximum recorded total tensile stress was 962 psi. (See Fig. 17).
7. The maximum recorded total stringer tensile stress over a bent was 554 psi.
(See Fig. 9).
8. Stringer stress generally increased with speed, and most recorded maximum
stresses were less than calculated. (See Figs. 6 to 17, incl.).
9. High impacts were recorded in the stringers of one of the bridges where vertical
movement of a bent relative to adjacent bents occurred.
10. Stringer impacts generally increased with speed. (See Figs. 18 and 19).
11. The live load was not distributed uniformly to the piles; the four center piles
carried most of the load. (See Figs. 20 and 21).
12. The maximum recorded total direct load in a pile was 12.8 tons.
13. Higher stresses were recorded in the sway braces when the bolts were tight
than when they were loose, and there was an increase in stress with an increase in
speed.
143
144 Tests of Timber Trestles
14. The maximum recorded stress in the sway bracing was -f 73 psi. This is equiva-
lent to a load of 2480 lb in the brace.
15. In order to determine stringer deflections, the simultaneous bent settlement
must also be known. The maximum recorded net deflection of a stringer was 0.08 in.
16. The bracing was not partically effective in reducing lateral bent movement
of these low bents since there was very little difference in movement between tight
and loose bracing bolts.
17. The height of the bent may be a principal factor in determining the lateral
bent movement. The maximum recorded movement for these low bents was 0.12 in.
18. The highest stringer stresses resulted from a relatively small percentage of the
number of trains crossing the bridges.
19. Braking of the train across the bridges, but not stopping on them, produced
negligible bending stresses in the piles. (See Figs. 30 and 31).
20. Braking to a stop on the bridges produced small bending in the piles.
21. Most of the total longitudinal force from braking to a stop on the bridges
went into the rails. A total force in the rails of about 88 kips and 114 kips was
recorded in the short bridge and long bridge, respectively. This is approximately 49
percent and 19 percent, respectively, of the estimated live load on the bridges.
22. Braking to a stop on the bridges also created a pressure on the bulkheads
against the embankment. This was about 13 kips in the short bridge and 10 kips in the
long bridge.
23. Tractive forces produced stresses about one-third of the stresses from braking.
24. A diesel locomotive unit produced a maximum duration at 100 percent of the
static stress of 0.19 sec, and an average car produced a maximum duration at this
stress of 0.13 sec. The 100 percent static stress level may not be the critical level.
25. The total cumulative loading time at full design stress could conceivably
amount to about 71 days during the life of a timber stringer of, say, 50 years. This
permits consideration of increased fiber stresses in bending as compared to those used
for long-time loading. Further research is required to verify this.
B. FOREWORD
Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses, has an assignment for the study of
stresses of timber structures and in the past has reported on stresses in timber trestle
approaches in conjunction with steel bridge tests. Early in 1954 it was recognized
that a policy should be adopted having as its sole purpose the testing of timber struc-
tures. A field testing program Was therefore developed covering trestles of ordinary
construction and including a sufficient number of structures to establish ranges of
stress, variations in span length and height, and distribution of loads to various types
of timber trestles.
Since the strength of wood is pmrtially dependent upon its moisture content, the
geographical location of the trestle was carefully considered. It Was also considered
desirable to select locations where the climatic conditions were fairly uniform. The first
trestles in the over-all testing program were accordingly located in southern Florida
where the moisture content of the wood would be constant and relatively high.
The Seaboard Air Line Railroad suggested several possible locations, and two were
selected: bridge 996.0 near Boca Raton and bridge 1009.0 near Fort Lauderdale.
Both of these were accessible by the test truck, which was located near one end of the
trestles during the test. All instruments required for the test were installed in this
truck. Bridge 996.0 was tested in December 1944 and bridge 1009.0 in January 1955.
Tests of Timber Trestles 145
The general procedure in conducting these tests was the same for both trestles.
The SR-4 strain gages and other recording devices were placed on the various elements
of the trestle. Each gage was individually calibrated. The complete test of each trestle
was divided into five series:
Series No. 1 — Stringer Stresses.
Series No. 2 — Pile Stresses.
Series No. 3 — Stringer Deflection, Lateral Bent Movement. Bracing and Pile
Stresses.
Series No. 4 — Same as Series 3, but with Bracing Bolts Loosened.
Series No. 5 — Stresses from Braking and Traction.
Runs were secured for about a week for Series No. 1, during which time regular
trains were recorded at their normal operating speed. After a representative number
of regular speed runs were obtained, special speed runs were requested to provide a
complete range of speeds. Runs for Series Nos. 2, 3 and 4 were also secured under
regular trains, but a complete range of speeds was not required for these series. The
braking and traction runs of Series No. 5 were made with the regular way freight
which operated in this vicinity. Loaded gravel cars immediately behind the engine
were added to its regular consist to develop greater braking and traction forces.
These tests were conducted for AREA Committee 30, and were carried out under
the general direction of G. M. Magee. director of engineering research, Engineering
Division, AAR. The funds necessary for the tests and the analysis of the data were
provided by the AAR.
The conduct of the tests, analysis of data and preparation of the report were under
the immediate direction of E. J. Ruble, research engineer srtuctures. Engineering Divi-
sion, AAR, assisted in the field by F. P. Drew, assistant research engineer structures,
and M. F. Smucker, assistant electrical engineer, and in the office by D. W. Wilki,
chief draftsman, and J. S. Nardi, assistant structural engineer. This report was prepared
by Mr. Drew.
C. INSTRUMENTS
The instruments used in these tests to determine the strains in the various elements
of the trestles consisted essentially of two 12-channel oscillographs which recorded
the strains on photographic paper in response to the SR-4 electrical resistance strain
gages. A detailed description of the oscillographs and their auxiliary units is given in
AREA Proceeding, Vol. 46, 1945, page 201, and a description of the SR^ strain gage
with necessary equipment is in the Proceedings, Vol. 52, 1951, page 152.
The sensitivity of each SR-4 gage was determined that would produce a trace
deflection of about an inch during the passage of the live load. Six-inch SR-4 gages
were used on the wood surfaces, but the calibration and sensitivity were based on
steel having a modulus of elasticity equal to 30,000,000 psi. A sensitivity of 1 in =
7500 psi was used for all gages on stringers. One inch trace deflection on the oscillogram
equals a strain of 7,500/30,000,000=0.000250 in/in, and the stress in the stringer for
1 in trace deflection equals 0.000250 Ei, where Ei is the modulus of elasticity of the
timber. The gages on the piles were calibrated for a sensitivity of 1 in = 2500 psi,
and on the bracing for 1 in =1250 psi, and the corresponding stress computed as
indicated above.
The deflections of one of the stringers were measured by connecting the stringer
to a small steel cantilever beam mounted on an independent support. Deflection of
146 Tests of Timber Trestles
the stringer also deflected this steel beam, and its flexuPal strain was recorded through
the oscillograph. Three such deflection devices were used, one at the center of span
and one at the adjacent bearings. These short steel beams had a tendency to vibrate
at their own natural period, and such vibrations were transmitted to the oscillograph
record. It was found that a coil through which passed a movable core produced a
better record, and this was used on some of the runs at bridge 996 and on all runs
at bridge 1009. The deflection beams were calibrated so that 1 in trace deflection was
equivalent to 0.312 in stringer movement. The deflection coil was calibrated for 1 in
trace deflection equivalent to 0.333 in stringer movement at bridge 996 and 0.167 in
at bridge 1009.
The lateral movement of three of the bents of each trestle was measured with a
coil similar to that used for deflection. The core wire was mounted on the end of a
cap with the coil secured to a pole driven into the stream bed several feet from the
outside pile to provide an independent support.
Pressure cells were used to measure the pressure of the bulkhead against the
embankment during the braking runs. These cells, 3^4 in. in diameter and ^ in thick,
have one face which is pressure sensitive. They were installed behind the bulkhead
timbers, at a depth of 21 in, which was about in line with the mid-depth of the
stringers. The active face of the cell was placed toward the embankment with the
other face bearing against the bulkhead timber. About 1 in of soft clay was placed
over the active face, and sand backfill was used to partially fill the trench. Crushed
stone ballast completed the backfill. The response from these cells was recorded through
the oscillograph, and a sensitivity of 1 in trace deflection was equivalent to 1.4 psi
against the cell on bridge 996 and 2.8 psi on bridge 1009. The calibration of these
cells was performed in an air tank under controlled air pressure.
D. TEST SPANS AND LOCATION OF GAGES
Bridge 996
This structure, rebuilt in 1950, is a four-span creosoted timber ballast-deck pile
trestle located near Boca Raton on the railroad's main line between West Palm Beach
and Miami. The trestle crosses Canal No. 48 where the maximum distance base of rail
to ground line is 9 ft 6 in and to the water surface, 8 ft 4 in. As shown in Fig. 1,
each span is about 11 ft 0 in long and the total length, face to face of bulkhead,
is 45 ft 4 in. The bents consist of 6 driven piles each, and the intermediate bents are
braced with two 4- by 8-in sway braces each. The caps are 14 in by 14 in by 14 ft
0 in. The deck is carried by ten 8- by 16-in southern pine stringers per span. These
stringers are arranged to form a continuous lap-type deck with some of the stringers
extending beyond the face of the cap, las indicated on Fig. 2. The deck planks are 3 in
by 12 in by 13 ft 0 in with 8- by 8-in ballast retainers. The distance from base of rail
to top of deck planks is about 9J4 in. The center line of track was at the center line
of trestle. This structure is shown in Photographs 1 and 2.
The capacity of the stringers in flexure is E 105.5 based on the simple span bending
moment, 8 stringers per track, and an assumed stress of 1650 psi. This stress is for
stringers graded to Southern Pine Inspection Bureau grading rules, paragraph 282 and
283, dense structural 65 (B&SP&T). Since these stringers were treated with a preserva-
tive, no reduction is made for decay hazard, and the wet stresses are used.
Strains were measured on the bottoms of the stringers at the center line of span
and on the tops of the stringers over the center line of bent, as shown on Fig. 2. (To
place strain gages on the tops of the stringers it was necessary to remove the ballast
Tests of Timber Trestles
147
Photograph 1 — Seaboard Air Line timber trestle 996.0 near Boca Raton, Fla.
'^'^^Ml<
Photograph 2 — Trestle 996 showing supports used for measuring
lateral bent movement.
148
Tests of Timber Trestles
Photograph 3 — Seaboard Air Line timber trestle 1009.0 near
Fort Lauderdale, Fla.
between two cross ties and install shallow bulkheads to expose the stringers). Strains
were also measured on the piles as close as practical to the ground line or the water
surface, and on the sway braces near the cap end.
Strains were measured on the neutral axes of the running rails at both ends of the
trestle.
In addition to the recording of strains from stringers, the deflection of one of the
continuous stringers in span 3 was measured as well as the lateral movement of bents
2, 3 and 4, and the pressure of the south bulkhead against the embankment.
Bridge 1009
This structure, rebuilt in 1950, is a 13-span creosoted timber ballast-deck pile
trestle located near Fort Lauderdale on the railroad's main line between West Palm
Beach and Miami. The trestle crosses Cypress Creek, and the maximum distance from
base of rail to ground line is 14 ft 6 in. This creek is affected by the ocean tide, and
at high tide the distance from base of rail to water surface is 7 ft 8 in, and at low
tide 10 ft 5 in. As shown in Fig. 1, each span is about 11 ft 0 in long and the total
length, face to face of bulkheads, is 144 ft 4 in. The bents consist of 6 driven piles
each, and the intermediate bents are braced with two 4- by 8-in sway braces each.
Those bents near the center of the trestle where the height is greatest also have two
3- by 8-in sash braces. The caps are 14 in by 14 in by 14 ft 0 in. The deck is carried
by ten 8- by 16-in southern pine stringers per span. These stringers form a continuous
lap-type deck, with some of the stringers extending beyond the face of cap, as shown
on Fig. 3. The deck planks are 3 in by 12 in by 13 ft 0 in, with 8- by 8-in ballast
retainers. The distance from base of rail to top of deck planks is about lOJ^ in. The
center of track over the test spans was at the center Ime of trestle.
The capacity of the stringers in flexure is E 105.5 based on the simple span bending
moment, 8 stringers per track and an assumed stress of 1650 psi.
Strains were measured at points in this trestle as shown on Fig. 3, which are
similar in location to those on bridge 996.
Tests of Timber Trestles 149
In addition to the recording of strains from strain gages, the deflection of one of the
continuous stringers in span 12 was measured as well as the lateral movement of bents
11, 12 and 13 and the pressure of the south bulkhead against the embankment.
E. TEST TRAINS
Regular trains were used to secure all of the data comprising this report. Most
of the runs were made at the regular operating speeds, but in some instances special
movements were requested of certain trains. Only diesel locomotives are used in thi.s
territory, and those which were recorded during these tests are shown diagrammatically
on Fig. 1. The axle loads and spacings shown were supplied by the railroad.
Diesel-Electric, Two-Axle, Class 1600
These locomotives are used principally for freight service. Their rating in terms
of Cooper loading for moment at the center of an 11 -ft 0-in simple span is E 49.4.
Diesel-Electric, Three-Axle, Class 3000
These locomotives are used principally for passenger service. Their rating in terms
of Cooper loading for moment at the center of an 11 -ft 0-Ln simple span is E 43.9.
F. ANALYSIS OF FIELD RECORDS
Test Records
The test records or oscillograms were recorded on 10 in wide sensitized paper. After
each run, the run number and the oscillograph used were imprinted on the record. These
run numbers refer to the log of runs taken during the test which shows the date and
time the run was taken, the locomotive numbers, direction, speed, and other pertinent
data. During the test of these two trestles a total of 552 oscillograms were obtained.
Stress Corrections
The sensitivity of each gage was established before each test series, and each chan-
nel was carefully calibrated. During the calibration each trace is offset with a fixed
resistance, and the amount of this offset is recorded as the calibration offset. After each
run this same resistance is shunted across the circuit to produce a trace offset. If this
trace offset agrees with the calibration offset the sensitivity has remained as originally
established. If the two offsets differ the sensitivity is corrected proportionally.
Moisture Content
When the program for testing timber trestles was established, it was recognized
that the moisture content of the wood was an important property to determine, and
that the more nearly constant this property could be maintained the more valid would
be the test results when compared to future similar tests.
The moisture content of the wood was determined in the field at the time of test
by means of a Delmhorst Moisture Meter. This device determines the moisture con-
tent through its effect upon the direct current electrical resistance of the wood. Metal
probes are inserted into the wood, and the moisture content is read directly on a
calibrated scale. Two sets of probes were used, the probes in one set had points which
penetrated to a depth of ^ in and measured the moisture content at the surface and
throughout this ^-in depth ; the probes in the other set were 1 in long, and were insulated
for the entire length except at the tip. The use of ^-in tips then indicated surface
moisture as well as absorbed moisture. The use of the 1-in tips, however, would indicate
the moisture content at the 1-in depth and would not be influenced by temporary
150 Tests of Timber Trestles
fluctuations in surface moisture caused by rain, morning dew, etc. For the purposes
of this report the moisture content at the 1-in depth was used.
The moisture content of each timber was measured as near to the strain gage as
practical. The probes were inserted at right angles to the surface on which strains
were being recorded and in such a way that the flow of current was with the grain.
Separate sets of readings were taken for each test series, and when a series extended
over a period of several days, readings were taken every two or three days. The moisture
content varied considerably between each timber, but only slightly from day to day.
Average moisture contents were used for each test series. Thus, Series No. 1, bridge
996, involved only strain measurements in the stringers. Accordingly, 24 readings were
taken on three different days during the reading of runs on this series. The average
of these 72 readings was used as the moisture content of the stringers during the test
period at bridge 996. Similarly, at bridge 1009 Series No. 1 involved only stringers,
and 96 moisture readings were taken. The average moisture content of the stringers
at bridge 996 was 32 percent and at bridge 1009, 27 percent.
Series No. 2 at both trestles involved only strains in piles. These piles were sur-
rounded by water and the gage locations were close to the water surface. The wood
was not only wet on the surface, but apparently wet throughout. In many cases the
moisture meter readings were in excess of 65 percent. The wood, therefore, contained
free water in the cell cavities as well as absorbed water in the wood fibers. The average
of 48 readings was used at each bridge as the average moisture content of the piles.
At bridge 996 this average was 42 percent and at bridge 1009, 56 percent.
Series Nos. 3, 4 and 5 involved fewer moisture content readings, but an average
value was obtained as for the other two series, as follows:
Avg. Moisture Content
Series Bridge Percent
3 & 4 996 48
1009 35
S 996 47
1009 46
The air temperature during these tests remained fairly constant, and the average
throughout the testing period was 69 deg. The maximum temperature was 85 deg and
the minimum, 55 deg. The effect of this temperature variation was not considered
sufficient to change the strength properties of the wood for the purposes of this report.
When an electrical moisture meter is used to determine the moisture in creosote-
treated wood, a correction factor is applied to readings below about 20 percent. How-
ever, in the case of these trestles the moisture content was higher than 20 percent, and
thus no correction was made to the meter readings as taken.
Specific Gravity
Since the strength of wood is related to its specific gravity, it was necessary to
determine this propterty for the various elements of the bridge which were tested.
Accordingly, increment borings from the stringers, piles and bracing were obtained with
an increment borer which actually cuts out a cylindrical specimen about i^e in. in
diameter by whatever length is desired up to the length of the tool. For this test
a length of about 3 in was considered adequate. Usually two samples were obtained
at each gage location. These samples were placed in glass bottles which were marked
for identification. The small hole created by the removal of this increment boring was
then filled with creosote oil to obviate possible future decay.
Tests of Timber Trestles
ISI
These specimens were then brought into the laboratory for processing. All of these
specimens were taken from creosoted wood, and obviously the presence of the creosote
oil somewhat complicated the determination of the density of the wood itself. The
laboratory procedure was therefore divided into three steps:
Step 1 — Determination of Volume of Creosoted Wood Samples
The specimens were removed from the bottles and three pieces selected about
1>2 in long each. A pycnometer was then filled with mercury as shown in Photograph 4
and a wood specimen placed in it. The displaced mercury was weighed and the volume
of the specimen obtained.
Step 2 — Extraction of Creosote Oil
The creosote oil was removed from the specimens by dissolving it in toluene. The
apparatus for doing this is shown in Photograph S. The specimens are placed in small
cloth thimbles suspended from condenser coils. This assembly is then placed in a flask
which contains a small quantity of toluene. As the toluene boils, its vapors condense
on the coils which are kept cool by a flow of water. The condensed toluene drips over
the wood specimens washing out the creosote oil. As this cycle of vaporization and
condensation continues, the creosote accumulates in the bottom of the fliask. After
about 3>^ hr in the toluene bath, the same process is repeated using acetone. This
removes the toluene from the wood. After 2 hr in the acetone bath, the specimens are
put in an oven at 110 deg F for 12 hr. From the oven they are put in a dessicator
and allowed to cool.
Photograph 4 — Filling pycnometer with mercury for measuring
volume of wood specimens.
152
Tests of Timber Trestles
Photograph 5 — Apparatus for removing the creosote oil from wood
specimens by dissolving in toluene.
Step 3 — Determination of Density of Extracted Wood Samples
The specimens were removed from the dessicator one at a time and weighed. Their
volume was then found by mercury displacement the same as in Step 1, and the density
determined.
(The volume of the creosoted specimen obtained in Step 1 was taken only as a
precautionary measure in case the specimen became so disseminated during the toluene-
acetone cycle as to prevent an accurate volume determination after extraction).
The densities of the extracted specimens were calculated in metric units. Specific
gravity, by definition, is the ratio of the weight to an equal volume of water. Since
the weight of water in the metric system is 1 gm per cc, the specific gravity of these
specimens is the same numerically as the density.
The specific gravity to be used for any one series was the average of the specific
gravities for the separate gage locations in that series. The following values were used:
Series Bridge 996
No. 1 0.S92
No. 2 0.569
No. 3 0.573
No. 4 0.573
No. 5 0.558
Bridge 1009
0.563
0.528
0.559
0.559
0.524
Avg. 0.573
Avg. 0.547 Avg. = 0.56
Tests of Timber Trestles 153
Modulus of Elasticity
Table 12 in Wood Handbook No. 72, published by the Forest Products Laboratory,
gives strength properties of some of the commercial woods based on the test results
of small, clear specimens. The values shown for modulus of elasticity are apparent
moduli observed from deflections in flexure tests of the various wood species. This is
not the true modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain because flexure of beams in the
sizes commonly used for test includes shear deformations which add to the deflection
and which are not considered in the conventional formula for calculating modulus
of elasticity from deflection. However, for the purpose of this investigation the modulus
of elasticity is used to convert measured strains into stress. The correct modulus to use
for such conversion is the true modulus of elasticity as determined from strength tests
in axial compression.
The Forest Products Laboratory has made a few tests to determine the modulus
of elasticity in tension which indicate that the tension modulus may be 1 to S percent
higher than the compression modulus in some species. It is concluded that since there
are many values in compression and few in tension, the compression values are the best
available approximation to the true modulus of elasticity.
The following values of the true modulus of elasticity of longleaf yellow pine in
compression parallel to the grain were furnished by the Forest Products Laboratory:
Green 12% Moisture 0% Moisture
Spec. Grav. El Spec. Grav. El Spec. Grew.
0.536 1,935,000 0.582 2,229,000 0.62
Since the average specific gravity was determined to be 0.56, an adjustment to the
above values is necessary. The moisture content at the time of test varied from 27 to
56 percent, which is above the moisture intersection point of 21 percent given in the
table on page 86 of the Wood Handbook, so no adjustment for moisture content is
necessary to the tabular values of the modulus of elasticity for green wood.
The specific gravity adjustment is described on pages 88 and 89 of the Wood
Handbook. The compression modulus of elasticity viathin a species is thus directly
proportional to the 1.25 power of the specific gravity. From the tabulation above,
green longleaf yellow pine has a modulus of elasticity of 1,935,000 psi, corresponding
to a specific gravity of 0.62 based on oven-dry weight and volume. The green modulus
of elasticity corresponding to a specific gravity of 0.56 is, then,
1,935,000
■^^ — 7062V^ ~ 1,705,000 psi
This value of modulus of elasticity was used for all series and both bridges to establish
the modular ratio El/Eh, that was used to relate stress in the timber to that in steel
on which the calibration of the oscillograph was based.
G. STATIC AND DYNAMIC EFFECTS
The oscillograph deflections, when multiplied by the proper stress factors, were
tabulated and then analyzed for the purpose of determining the magnitude of the static
stresses, total impacts, maximum live-load-plus-impact stresses and other dynamic effects
of the moving loads, including the stresses developed from braking and traction.
154 Tests of Timber Trestles
1. Static Stresses in Stringers
The recorded static stress in the bottom fibers of the stringers at the center of the
test spans, as shown in Table 1, are the maximum stresses produced by slow-speed runs
(about 10 mph and slower) of each locomotive class. The calculated static stresses
shown are based on the concentrated axle loads indicated on Fig. 1, with the locomotive
positioned on the span as determined from the criteria for maximum stress. The outside
stringers are assumed to carry no live load and the entire live load is distributed
equally to eight 8- by 16-in stringers. No consideration was given to the continuity
of the stringers, and simple span bending moments were used.
The recorded static stress in each stringer for each static speed run is shown.
The maximum stress value is then compared with the calculated value in the form
of a stress factor. The average stress factor appears in the column at the right. It can
be seen that except for span 13, bridge lOOQ, all recorded values are less than the
calculated.
The extreme static stress recorded on bridge 996 was 610 psi and the stress factor
is 0.95. On bridge 1009 the values are 782 psi and 1.22, respectively.
These stress factors would be higher if the same position of locomotives was used
for the calculated stress as occurred for the recorded stress. The theoretical position for
maximum stress in the 11-ft simple span is with one wheel at center of span. Actually,
because of the continuity, the maximum recorded stress did not occur with the wheel
at the center of span. Thus, a closer correlation between calculated and recorded
stresses could be obtained by using the position for maximum stress as indicated on
the oscillogram, but this position is not normally used in the design calculation of
stringer stresses.
While it is common practice to use continuous stringers, usually no advantage is
taken of the effect of the continuity in reducing the positive bending moments. It can
be seen from Table 1 that the recorded stresses in the end spans (spans 4 and 13)
were higher than in the first intermediate spans (spans 3 and 12) and that the positive
bending moments were reduced by the continuity. Only half of the stringers in the end
spans are fully continuous, while all are continuous in the intermediate spans. Table 2
indicates the maximum recorded stresses over the bents, and it can be seen from the
relation of the maximum negative to maximum positive bending moment stresses that
at bridge 996 relatively high stresses were developed over the bents.
2, Simultaneous Maximum Recorded Stresses in Stringers
The maximum simultaneous stresses in the stringers at the center of spans or over
the bents are shown on Figs. 4 and 5.
Each of these figures contains graphs showing the stress distribution to the stringers
across the width of the deck. The top graph is for stresses at the center of the end span,
the center graph is for stresses over the bent and the lower graph is for stresses at the
center of the first intermediate span. The gage numbers refer to the location of gages
on Figs. 2 and 3. Two lines are shown for static stresses and the other is for stresses
at a higher speed. Stresses for the 1600 Class locomotive only are shown.
Bridge 996
It can be seen from the graphs of Fig. 4 that the stress distribution was such that
the outside stringers had low stresses and hence carried very little of the total load
and that the stringers toward the center of the bridge carried the highest stress. Except
for the two simple span stringers 9 and 11, this distribution was somewhat parabolic
Tests of Timber Trestles ISS
across the deck and remained nearly the same for the higher speed as for the static
speed.
The center graph shows the distribution across the deck at center of bent 4. Here
also the stringers toward the center of the bridge carried the highest stress. The stresses
are indicated for the stub stringers 16 and 19, but are not included as points on the
graph because they are not comparable to the fully continuous stringers 15, 17, 18
and 20.
Bridge 1009
The distribution across the deck for this bridge was very similar to that for bridge
996.
The stresses over the bent, however, were lower than those in bridge 996. This is
undoubtedly due to a proportionally greater vertical movement of the bent under load.
This movement was measured in connection with the stringer deflection measurements,
and a ma.ximum vertical movement of bent 13 was recorded of 0.19 in. When this
ma.ximum occurred, bent 12 had moved downward only 0.06 in. It seems logical to
conclude that bent 13 settled enough to relieve the negative moment. The oscillograms
indicate a complete reversal of stress in the stringer at this bent. It would seem that
compressive stress, or at least a relief of dead-load tensile stress, on top of the stringer
over the bent could occur only by settlement of the bent under load.
3. Maximum Recorded Stresses in Stringers
The maximum live load plus impact stresses recorded m the stringers of bridge 996
are shown on Figs. 6 to 11, incl., and of bridge 1009 on Figs. 12 to 17, incl. Each
of these figures contains a plot of maximum tensile stresses at the various speeds for
each stringer on which strain gages were placed. Stresses in the stringers are shown
for the center of two adjacent spans and over the intermediate bent. Separate graphs
are shown for the two types of diesels used. The calculated values indicated are based
on the assumptions outlined under Art. 1, preceding.
Bridge 996
All of these graphs indicate that the stresses in the outside stringers were much
less than in the inside stringers and that the stringers carrying the largest stress are
toward the center of track. This distribution of stress is somewhat parabolic, as is
indicated on Figs. 4 and S. It is apparent also that in many cases there was an increase
in stress with an increase in speed and that except for gage 10, Fig. 11, all recorded
stresses were less than the calculated static stresses.
Figs. 6 and 7 indicate the maximum stresses in span 3 and that the stringer with
gage 26 had higher stresses than those on either side. In looking at the plan of these
stringers on Fig. 2, it will be noted that stringer 26 is continuous from span 2 and
the others, 23, 24, 25 and 27, are continuous from span 4 and extend a few feet past
bent 3, which provides some end restraint that stringer 26 does not have.
Figs. 10 and 11 indicate that the stress distribution between stringers for span 4
is similar to that for span 3, but the stresses were higher even though the span lengths
are practically the same. This may be because only half of these stringers are continuous
into span 3. The others extend slightly past bent 4, and only partial continuity is
obtained there. The reduced end restraint of the stringers in span 4 permits higher
positive moments and stresses. By comparing the stresses in these two adjacent spans,
it appears that by extending the ends of continuous stringers past the supports the
156 Tests of Timber Trestles
stresses in the adjacent span are reduced. The maximum stress in span 3 was 601 psi
and in span 4 was 665 psi.
Figs. 8 and 9 indicate that the stresses in the stringers over the bent were slightly
less than those in the adjacent spans. The distribution between the various stringers
was somewhat parabolic and similar to spans 3 and 4. It is noted that two locations
indicate stresses lower than the others. The gages at these points were put on stringers
that stub ended about 3 ft beyond the bent. The fact that these stub ends were stressed
at this point indicates that they were participating in the total negative moment
resistance over the bent. Checking of stringers is often more severe near their ends, and
by extending the stringer beyond the support the checking may be confined to this
length, thereby minimizing the effect in the adjacent span.
The maximum recorded total stringer tensile stress over bent 4 was 554 psi. The
maximum stress in the stub end of a stringer was 195 psi.
Bridge 1009
These graphs indicate trends similar to those for bridge 996, namely, a parabolic
distribution of stress between stringers, the outside stringers carrying very little stress,
and an increase in stress with an increase in speed.
Figs. 12 and 13 indicate the maximum stresses in span 12 and Figs. 16 and 17 the
maximum stresses in span 13. It is very apparent that the stresses in span 13 were
higher than in span 12 even though the span lengths are the same. The explanation
for this difference is possibly the same as for bridge 996: All of the stringers in span 12
are continuous from adjacent spans whereas one- half of those in span 13 are continuous
into the next span and the others extend partially into this span.
The maximum stress in span 12 was 509 psi and in span. 13 was 962 psi.
Figs. 14 and 15 indicate the maximum stresses over bent 13, and it is noted that
these stresses are less than those in the adjacent spans. The reason for these low stresses
was discussed under Art. 2, preceding. However, it is also noted that the stresses in the
stub ends of these stringers that extended a few feet beyond the bent are nearly as
high as the fully continuous stringers. Stub end 17 is stressed nearly as high as
stringers 16 and 18, similarly for stub end 20.
The maximum stress over bent 13 was 368 psi. The maximum stress in the stub
end of a stringer was 264 psi.
4. Total Impacts in Stringers
The recorded total impacts in the stringers of bridge 996 are shown on Fig. 18
and of bridge 1009 on Fig. 19. The impacts are shown a^ a percentage of the average
recorded static stresses at the centers of spans or at the center of the bent. The total
impact percentage in each test run for a particular speed and locomotive is the increase
in stress in the member over the average stress occurring at speeds of about 10 mph
and less.
The recorded impacts are shown for only two of the continuous stringers in each
bridge. The two stringers selected are those which had high recorded maximum stresses.
No calculated impacts are indicated since the AREA design specifications for timber
bridges make no allowance for impact, and no attempt was made to separate the various
effects which contribute to the total impact.
Bridge 996
It can be seen that one value of the imi>acts is greater than 20 percent (see Fig.
18). The maximum recorded impact was 20.6 percent which occurred under a 3000
Class locomotive at 82 mph.
Tests of Timber Trestles 1S7
There seems to be an increase in impact with an increase in speed and this was
especially apparent with the 3000 Class locomotives at speeds of about 80 mph. The
impacts also were higher on span 3 than at the other two locations, but there is no
apparent reason why this should be so.
Bridge 1009
Impacts in the stringers of this bridge were noticeably higher than in bridge 996.
Most of the values are less than 60 percent with a few exceeding this. A maximum of
100 percent was recorded under the 1600 Class locomotive at 53 mph.
There was a general increase in impact with an increase in speed, but the maximum
impact did not occur at highest speeds.
These high impacts may be the result of relatively large vertical movements of
bent 13 with respect to the adjacent bents.
5. Maximum Stresses in Piles
The recorded maximum stresses in the piles of bent 4 for bridge 996 and bent 13
for bridge 1009 are shown on Figs. 20 and 21. Four gages were placed on each of the
six piles as shown. The average of these four gages are indicated as the average maxi-
mum stress in each pile for the particular locomotive and speed.
Also shown on these figures are calculated values based on the assumptions of Art. 1
preceeding, using the measured pile diameter.
It can be seen that recorded stresses of some individual piles were higher than the
calculated stresses. However, the average recorded stresses of all piles in a bent agree
closely with the calculated values.
Bridge 996
The diagrams on Fig. 20 indicate that the stress distribution between piles was
somewhat parabolic as was the case with the distribution between stringers. The outside
piles carried the least stress and the highest stress occurred on the two center piles.
It is evident that this 14- by H-in cap is not sufficiently stiff to effect a uniform dis-
tribution to the piles since the load distribution to the piles was similar to the dis-
tribution to the stringers.
The maximum average stress in a pile at this bent was 171 psi. The average pile
diameter at the gages was 13.0 in for a cross sectional area of 133 sq in. The maximum
total load in the pile from the 3000 Class locomotive was 11.4 tons.
Bridge 1009
It can be seen from the diagrams on Fig. 21 that the distribution to the six piles
was not the same as at bridge 996. The three piles on the left side of this bent have a
parabolic distribution, but the three piles on the right side do not. It is apparent that
the pile 49-52 was not carrying its share of the load as evidenced by its low stresses.
The outside pile in this case was carrying as much load as an inside pile. The cut-off
of pile 49-52 may have been lower than the others, making it necessary for the cap
to deflect before this pile could take any load.
The maximum average stress in a pile of this bent was 184 psi. The average pile
diameter at the gages was 13.1 in for a cross-sectional area of 139 sq in. The maximum
recorded total direct load in the pile from the 3000 Class locomotive was 12.8 tons.
6. Recorded Stress in Sway Braces
The recorded stresses in the sway braces of bent 4 at bridge 996 and in bents 11
and 13 at bridge 1009 are shown on Fig. 22.
158 Tests of Timber Trestles
Strain gages were placed on the edges of the braces near the cap end, as shown,
and recorded as a single strain to provide an average value.
The maximum recorded tension and compression stresses are plotted for each par-
ticular speed and locomotive. After a representative number of runs had been obtained
with the bracing bolts tight, the bolts were loosened and a few runs thus recorded.
Separate plots are presented with tight and loose bracing bolts.
With the bracing bolts tight there was a slight increase in stress with an increase
in speed. It is also noted that the highest stresses were tensile. Since there was unequal
distribution of load to the piles with the center piles carrying most of the load, it is
possible that interaction between the piles and the bracing stressed these braces in ten-
sion. Much of the bracing stress undoubtedly resulted from the lateral movement of the
bents, however.
With bracing bolts loose there was a noticeable reduction in stress, but the bracing
continued to carry some stress.
The maximum recorded stress in the bracing was a tension of 73 psi. On a 4%-
by 8-in section this is equivalent to a load of 2480 lb. The bolt size is ^ in.
7. Recorded Deflection of Stringers
The maximum recorded net deflections of a stringer in span 3 at bridge 996 and in
span 12 at bridge 1009 are shown on Fig. 23.
The net deflections are the deflections of the stringers after correcting for the
vertical movements of the supports. This correction was obtained by subtracting from
the vertical movement of the center of the stringer, the average of the vertical move-
ments of the ends of the stringer. It was found in many cases that the vertical move-
ment of the ends of the stringer exceeded the net deflections. It is apparent that any
measurements of stringer deflection must include the vertical movements of the stringer
at the supports.
The deflections at bridge 996 appear to be slightly higher than at 1009. The deflec-
tions were measured at stringers 27 and 26, respectively, and it is noted on Figs. 7
and 13 that the stresses in these stringers are about the same. For simple spans it would
be expected that for equal stresses the deflections would be the same, but since the
degree of fixity at the supports is not known this relationship cannot be definitely
established.
The maximum net deflection was recorded at bridge 996 and was 0.08 in.
8. Recorded Lateral Bent Movement
The recorded lateral bent movements in three bents at each of the bridges tested
are shown on Figs. 24 and 25. The amount of movement in inches is the maximum
recorded in each direction for the particular speed and locomotive. A representative
number of runs were made with the bracing bolts tight, and then several runs were
made after the bracing bolts had been loosened. Separate plots are shown for each
condition.
All of these diagrams indicate that the bent movement definitely increased with
speed. This was true whether the bracing bolts were tight or loose.
On bridge 996 the maximum bent movement of 0.10 in occurred when the bolts
were tight whereas on bridge 1009 the maximum occurred with the bolts loose when
the maximum movement was 0.12 in.
Apparently the bracing was not particularly effective in reducing bent movement,
since there was little difference between the loose and the tight condition of the bracing.
Tests of Timber Trestles 159
The bents at bridge 1009 are higher than at 996 and the lateral movement at bridge
1009 was greater than at 996. As might be expected the height of the bent may be a
principal factor in determining the amount of lateral bent movement.
9. Frequency of Maximum Stresses
The stresses recorded during the tests of these bridges were secured under regular
scheduled trains except those few runs which were recorded at controlled speeds. These
values indicate the frequency of occurrence of the maximum stresses in the stringers
at various locations.
The maximum stresses recorded in one stringer of each bridge at the center of a
span and at the bent are shown on the left diagrams of Figs. 26 to 29, incl.
At the upper right on these figures are shown the stress range distributions, and at
the lower right these data are shown graphically. It can be seen that generally the highest
stresses at each location were caused by a relatively small percentage of the locomotives
crossing the bridges.
10. Maximum Recorded Stresses in Bents from Braking Across the Bridge
As previously mentioned, the regular way freight was used as a test train. This
train was used to determine the effect on the structure of the train braking across the
bridges at various speeds. Alternate runs were made first with the train crossing the
bridge at a certain speed and then repeating the run at that speed, but crossing with
a hard service application of the train and engine brakes.
Figs. 30 and 31 show the maximum recorded stresses in the piles of two bents at
bridges 996 and 1009 resulting from the train crossing the bridges without braking and
with braking. The stresses at individual gage locations are shown in order to determine
the bending stresses in the piles. For instance, on Fig. 30, in the upper set of diagrams,
stresses are shown for gages 37 and 39 when the train crossed the bridge without
braking. The stress at gage 39 is higher than at 37, but this is due only to eccentricity
of the direct load and probably was caused by unequal bearing of the cap on the pile,
or possibly the pile was off-center with respect to the cap. Comparing the stresses for
gages 37 and 39 in the upper diagram with those in the lower diagram reveals that
there was no significant difference in stress. Other gage locations show a similar rela-
tionship. From these plots it can be seen that the trains braking across this bridge
(but not stopping on it) produced negligible bending stresses in the piles.
11. Stresses Produced by Longitudinal Forces
The test train was also used to determine the effect on the structure of the train
braking to a stop on the bridge at various positions and accelerating off it. In this
series of tests, stresses were recorded at each bridge in the piles of two of the bents as
close to the ground line as possible, in the rails at each end of the bridge and in the
pressure cells at one end of the bridge. Runs were recorded only under southbound
movements of the test train.
The general character of the stresses produced in the piles and rails by stopping
and starting the test train on the bridge is shown in Fig. 32. The general elevation
of bridge 1009 is shown at the top of this figure with one locomotive unit. Class 1600,
and two of the five cars of the test train shown on the bridge in position.
The traces shown on the lower half of Fig. 32 were reproduced from the oscil-
logram secured for one of these test runs. When the train stopped on the bridge, it can
be seen from the traces representing the rail gages 1 and 2 that the rails started carrying
longitudinal compressive stresses when the brakes were first applied and that these
160 Tests of Timber Trestles
stresses kept increasing until the forward movement of the train stopped. As soon as
the train stopped there was a sudden release of most of this compressive stress. It can
be seen that some compressive stress remained in the rail since the trace did not return
to the original base line, but this may be the Poisson's ratio effect of the approaching
wheels. The compressive stresses recorded in the rails for this test run were 3429 and
3150 psi as indicated on the drawing.
During the application of the brakes and until the train stopped the greatest stress
transmitted to the piles was the direct stress from the vertical load of the locomotive.
This direct compressive stress reached a maximum of 78 and 97 psi in gages 57 and 58,
respectively. After the train stopped there was a sudden change of stress in the piles.
This change of stress resulted in a recorded compressive stress in gage 57 of — 20 psi
and a tensile stress in gage 58 of + 18 psi. It can be seen that the change of stress in
the piles occurred at the same instant as the release of stress in the rails.
The traces for starting on the bridge are shown in the lower right corner of Fig. 32.
A short time after the train accelerated forward the rails and pile went into shght
tension, as indicated by the traces. After this slight tension there was a very sharp
increase in the tensile stress in the rails and a sharp release of the tensile stress in the
pile. These stresses due to starting on the bridge were recorded as + 773 and + 1100
psi for rail gages 1 and 2, respectively, and — 17 and — 13 psi for pile gages 57 and
58, respectively.
The recorded stresses from braking to a stop on the bridge, as well as the direct
stresses in the piles, are shown on Fig. 33 for bridge 996. The same type of data is also
shown on Fig. 34 for bridge 1009, but in addition recorded traction stresses from the
locomotive starting on the bridge are shown.
Bridge 996
The recorded stresses in the piles of bents 3 and 4 are shown on the left side of
this tabulation. Two stress values are indicated for each run; the top figure is the maxi-
mum stress in the pile from direct load on the pile and the bottom figure is the maxi-
mum recorded bending stress in the pile from the longitudinal force. The direct stress
is shown to indicate the relative magnitude of the bending stress, and it can be seen
that in most cases the bending stress did not exceed the average direct stress. It is inter-
esting to note that the bending stresses to each pile are more equally distributed than
the direct stresses. Whereas under direct load, the outside pile took a small percentage
of the total load to the bent, it shared about equally in resisting longitudinal forces.
On several runs no value of direct stress has been shown, because the locomotive had
not reached a position to produce a maximum stress in the pile.
The maximum stresses from braking occurred during run 132. It can be seen that
the pile bending stresses in bent 4 averaged about 30 psi. This stress was measured
at a point 4 ft 11 in be'low the top of cap. The average pile diameter is 13 in and its
section modulus is 216 in.® The force required to produce a bending stress of 30 psi
in this pile is
p_ 216 X30
59
110 lb or 660 lb per bent.
For this run, No. 132, the stresses in each rail at the south end of the bridge were
— '2673 psi and — ^2734 psi. Since the area of the 115 RE rail is 11.25 sq in and
assuming this stress spread over the total area, the total compressive force transmitted
by the rails at the south end was (2673+2734) X 11-25 ,= 60,830 lb. At this same
instant tensile stresses induced in the rails at the north end of the bridge were -{-1235
Tests of Timber Trestles 161
psi and + 1186 psi. The total tensile force transmitted by the rails at the north end
was (1235+ 1186) X 11-25 = 27,240 lb. The total longitudinal force carried by the
rails was thus 88.07 kips for this particular run. Only the first three wheels of the loco-
motive were on the bridge when this 88.07 kips force was recorded in the rails. Since
this represents 40 percent of the total load on the bridge it is apparent that the weight
of the remainder of the train also contributed to this recorded longitudinal force.
Pressure cells behind the bulkheads recorded 2.67 and 0.71 for an average of l.o9
psi during this run. This means that the bridge was being pushed against the embank-
ment by the longitudinal force. Assuming that this pressure was distributed over a
bulkhead area represented by the depth of the bulkhead and the width of the bridge
deck, 4 ft by 13 ft or 52 sq ft, the total pressure was 1.69 X 52 X 144= 12,700 lb.
Comparing the longitudinal force carried by the rails of 88.07 kips and by the
embankment of 12.7 kips and by each bent of 660 lb, it is apparent that most of the
total longitudinal force from braking went into the rails.
Bridge 1009
The tabulation of values on Fig. 34 indicates a similar relation of the bending
stresses to direct stresses as shown on Fig. 33. The maximum stresses from braking
occurred during run 250, and the average bending stress in bent 13 was about 50 psi.
This bent is about the same height as bent 4 of bridge 996, and the stress was measured
at a point 4 ft 11 in below the top of cap. The average pile diameter is 13.1 in. The
force required to produce this 50 psi bending stress is
220 X 50 ,. .
= 187 lb or 1122 lb per bent.
' ~ 59
During run 250 the stress in each rail at the south end of the bridge was — 3429
and — 3150 psi. The same rail section is used at this bridge as at bridge 996. The total
compressive force transmitted by the rail at the south end was 74,010 lb. A tensile
stress was recorded at the north end simultaneously with this, but its value could not
be accurately measured since a wheel stopped over the rail gages and distorted the
oscillogram trace. However, in proportion to the rail stress values of run 245, the total
tensile stress was probably about + 40,050 lb. Thus, the total longitudinal force carried
by the rails was about 114.06 kips for run 250. This represents IQ percent of the total
weight on the bridge of the diesel unit and two loaded cars.
The pressure cells recorded pressures of 1.18 and 1.54 for an average of 1.36 psi.
The total pressure on 52 sq ft of bulkhead is 1.36 X 52 X 144 = 10,200 lb. As in bridge
996 most of the longitudinal force went down the rail.
A few tractive stresses resulting from the train starting on the bridge were recorded,
as shown at the bottom of the tabulation on Fig. 34. Every effort was made to start
as quickly as possible and thus induce the maximum force at the rail, but the highest
stress obtained was only 1100 psi in one rail during run 250. This is only about one-third
the stress from braking. It should be noted, though, that the stresses during traction
are opposite to those during braking. There was also a slight relief of the compressive
stress on the pressure cells, indicating movement of the bridge opposite to that during
the braking runs.
It is apparent that the highest stresses from longitudinal force were the result of
braking rather than traction.
12. Duration of Stress in Stringers
It has been recognized for many years that the allowable stress in timber is related
to total duration of load. Because the magnitude and duration of impact or dynamic
162 Tests of Timber Trestles
stresses in railway trestles has been unknown, it has been standard practice to neglect
these impact stresses and to design for static stresses with allowable stresses equal to
those for long-time loading.
The Forest Products Laboratory has conducted investigations to determine the
relation of ultimate strength to the duration of load, and in its report R1916 is shown
a graph similar to Fig. 35. A similar graph also appears in the AREA Specifications
for Structural Lumber, page 7-1-21 in the AREA Manual. The ordinates of this graph
are percentages of working stresses to long-time loading stresses, with 100 percent indi-
cated as "long-time loading." It can be seen that for short durations working stresses
can be substantially increased.
Fig. 36 shows a typical oscillogram obtained during the test of bridge 996. In the
center of this figure is shown the reproduction of part of an actual oscillogram. Only
two traces are shown. The lower trace represents stress at gage 25 at center of span
during the passage of a Class 1600 locomotive. The locomotive at the top of the figure
is shown in the position which produced the stress indicated at point A. The upper
trace represents stress at gage 18, over the center of the bent, during the passage of
this same locomotive. The locomotive at the bottom of the figure is shown in position
which produced the stress indicated at point B.
The two traces show the variation of live-load stress at gages 18 and 25 as the
locomotive and cars crossed the trestle. The stringer on which these gages were placed
is 8- by 16-in and located close to the center line of one rail. The stringer is continuous
over one bent as shown. The measured stresses at gage 25 are, thus, principally tensile
and result from a positive bending moment at the center of the span. The measured
stresses at gage 18 are, of course, also tensile resulting from the negative bending
moment over the bent. Tensile strains are indicated on these oscillograms as a down-
ward deflection of the trace. These trace deflections are measured from a base fine, or
zero stress level, taken before the locomotive reaches the stringer on which these gages
are placed.
In addition to stress, the oscillogram shows time duration by the timing lines at
the top and bottom of the record. These lines are spaced on the octual oscillogram
0.01 sec apart, but for clarity only the 0.10 sec lines are indicated.
The two traces shown are of quite a different character. That for gage 25 indicates
that after each truck has crossed the span the stress returns to zero (or slightly into
compression). The trace for gage 18, however, indicates that as long as the locomotive
is over the bent the stress will not return to zero, but fluctuates between a maximum
tensile stress and a lower tensile stress.
The maximum static stress at gage 18 (upper oscillograph trace) is shown to be
396 psi, and this is taken to be 100 percent on the ordinate scale. For gage 25 the
maximum static stress is 361 psi, with the 100 percent ordinate scale at this stress level.
These live-load stresses are, of course, quite low. It must be kept in mind, how-
ever, that the original design of this stringer included dead load, the use of simple span
bending moments and a live load greater than the Class 1600 diesel. If the axle loads
on Fig. 36 had been heavy enough to produce design stresses, the general shape of the
oscillograph trace would have been the same as shown since the shape of the trace is
primarily dependent on the axle spacing and the span length and not on the axle loads.
The 100-percent static stress level can thus be considered the same as the design live-load
stress.
Duration of load and stress must be associated, and it was for this reason that
stress levels were established, based on the static stress, and indicated by the horizontal
Tests of Timber Trestles 163
lines at the SO, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 and 110 percent ordinates of Fig. 36. The duration
of stress was then determined at each gage location and at each of the above stress
levels. For instance, on the lower trace the total duration of SO percent of static stress
is then the sum of line lengths a-b and c-d. For this particular run the total loading
time was about 0.9 sec for the one unit. It can readily be seen that at the higher
stress levels the duration of stress become much less and at the 100 percent level the
loading time per unit is practically zero. On the upper trace the total duration of
stress was determined similarily. However, it is apparent here that the 50 percent level
of live-load stress was maintained for l.S sec for the full length of the locomotive.
This method of determining the duration of stress was also applied to car loading,
since some oscillograms were taken under entire trains.
Two of the continuous stringers were selected from each bridge and the cumulative
loading time determined for each of the two classes of locomotives and each run at the
various stress levels from 50 percent to 110 percent of static stress. Three separate
tabulations were made for each stringer; at the center of each span and over the center
of bent. The static stress was determined for each gage location (which was also the
100 percent stress level), and this stress level was used for all runs at that gage loca-
tion and for the runs involving that locomotive. An average time duration was then
made at each gage location, each stress level, and for each locomotive. This average
included all speeds from the static speeds of less than 10 mph to the highest speeds
recorded. These average durations were plotted and appear on Figs. 37 to 40, incl.
Each plot includes curves for duration of stress for each diesel locomotive unit and
each car. It can be seen that all of the curves bear a similarity to each other. As the
stress le\-el is reduced, the cumulative loading time increases. At the 100 percent and
110 percent level the loading time per unit or car is nearly zero. In several instances
the duration of stress per car was zero, as for gage 18 on Fig. 38. In this case none
of the cars recorded were heavy enough to equal or exceed the locomotive static stress
of S16 psi and hence no time duration was recorded at stress levels higher than SO
percent.
The 24 diagrams shown on Figs. 37 to 40, incl., can be combined, and the following
durations are the maximums from all the curves:
For a diesel locomotive unit:
at 110 percent of live-load design stress = 0.07 sec
100 = 0.19
90 = 0.80
80 = 1.16
70 = 1.38
60 = 1.74
50 = 2.09
For a car:
at 110 percent of live-load design stress := 0.09 sec
100 = 0.13
90 =0.16
80 = 0.19
70 =: 0.24
60 3= 0.29
SO = 0.37
Assun^g that the trains tested reasonably represent the general traffic that will be
carried throughout the life of the structure, which can be assumed to be 50 years, and
assuming that there will be an average of 25 trains per day each having a 3-unit loco-
motive and 100 cars, the total cumulative loading time in days at any stress level can
be obtained by adding:
164 Tests of Timber Trestles
25 X SO X 365 X 3
X duration for a diesel unit
86,400
to
25 X 50 X 365 X 100
86~400 ^ duration for a car.
The results are shown on Fig. 41, on which is also shown allowable stress in percent
of stress for long-time loading.
It appears from Fig. 41 that an appreciable increase in allowable flexural working
stresses for railway loading could be made. However, because the loading curves shown
are based on only these two tests, a specific recommendation for increased stresses is
not justified at this time.
H. CONCLUSIONS
The tests on these two ballasted-deck pile trestles afforded an opportunity to study
the effects of static and dynamic loading on stresses in the stringers, piles and bracing
under diesel locomotives at various speeds. The following statements are believed to be
reasonable conclusions from the tests reported herein and are not to be construed as
either final or complete for pile trestles.
The moisture content of the strfingers, also of the piles and bracing, was above
fiber saturation when tested, reflecting the climatic conditions at that location and
season.
Stringers
1. Static Stresses
Timber bridges are currently designed under AREA specifications on the basis of
static loading; hence the static live-load stresses measured are of particular interest.
In general, maximum static stresses in stringers were found to be below those calculated
for simple spans; the maximum stress in an individual stringer was 122 percent of
calculated.
Live loads were not uniformly distributed, and there may be w^ide variation between
adjacent stringers. Those beneath the track tended to carry approximately equal load,
and those toward the outside to carry less load. Stringers beneath the ballast-retaining
timbers carried very little live load.
The depth of ballast under cross ties in both these tests is much less than is
ordinarily used and may have had an appreciable effect on distribution of load.
Neglecting outside stringers, the maximum average simultaneous static stress
recorded at mid-span was only about 54 percent of calculated in one trestle and 65
percent in the other under the two-axle diesel. The assumption of concentrated wheel
loads in design and the effects of continuity no doubt contributed largely to this differ-
ence between calculated and recorded stresses.
The average maximum stress over a bent in these tests was less than at mid-span.
2. Impact and Maximum Total Stresses
There was an increase in impact effect with speed. Impact up to about 20 percent
of average static stress was recorded in one trestle and up to about 60 percent in
the other; the latter is believed to be influenced by abnormal vertical movement of
a bent under load. A few isolated stresses exceeded these values.
Maximum total stresses were generally below calculated static stresses at mid-
span; however, the maximum recorded in an individual stringer was 150 percent of
calculated static. Maximum total stresses over a bent were below calculated static
stress at mid-span.
Tests of Timber Trestles 1_65
3. Continuous Action
Two-span stringers act partially continuous; also the overhang of stringers beyond
supporting bents gives some continuous action. The staggering of joints combined with
these and other factors produced a complex distribution of stress; however, the
continuous action of the trestle was substantial.
4. Frequency of Maximum Stresses
Stresses approaching the maximum were produced by only a relatively small per-
centage of locomotive runs.
5. Duration of Stress
There appears to be no decided difference in the duration of stress at mid-span
between an end span and an intermediate span.
The cumulative effect of car loading on duration of stress appears to be of greater
importance than diesel locomotive loading.
The original research reported herein on duration of stress in stringers is of note-
worthy interest, reflecting a basis for utilizing certain known strength qualities of wood
in the design of wood bridges. The information developed indicates that consideration
may be given to increase fiber stresses in bending over currently allowable working
stresses for trestles subjected to ordinary traffic; however, the extent of the data
presented herein does not permit any definite recommendations.
6. Deflection in Stringers
Net deflections were measured; the ma.ximum found was 0.08 in.
Piles
Live loads were not uniformly distributed to piles. Piles toward the center line of
track generally carried the largest proportion of load, piles beneath the rails carried
somewhat less load, and outside piles still less.
Maximum total stress in most of the piles was approximately 125 to 175 percent
of calculated average static stress, with outside piles, however, generally carrying less
than the calculated stress. Corresponding values may be assumed for bearing stress of
caps on piles. There did not appear to be any definite or uniform increase in stress
with speed.
Vertical movement of a bent over and above normal elastic compression of the
timber and soil resulted in abnormal .stress distributions.
Sway Bracing
The maximum load measured in a 4- by 8-in sway brace was 2480 lb. The strength
of the bolted joint necessary to carry this load is the subject of other current investiga-
tions. The measurements made in bracing may not be very significant in view of the
low height of bents in these particular tests. It was noted that higher stresses were
recorded in bracing when bolts were tight than when loosened, indicating the importance
of keeping bolts tightened.
Lateral Bent Movements
For bents of relatively low height, sway bracing was not very effective in reducing
lateral movement.
(Text concluded on page 167)
106
Tests of Timber Trestles
TABLE 1
SEABOARD AIR LINE TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
COMPARISON OF RECORDED AND CALCULATED
STATIC STRESSES AT CENTER OF SPAN
BrtdRe 996
Average
Diesel
Recorded Static Stresses at Center of Span (+B.M.f)
Calculated
Stress Factor
Static
Max. Rec.
*Gage Numbers
Stress
Avg. Calc.
Class
Number
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Avg.
1601
75
389
407
518
178
573
197
401
382
115
0.794
1601
75
410
428
554
200
607
231
417
394
114
0.841
1600
1601
84
419
428
554
197
607
226
410
394
108
722
0.841
0.82
Span 4
1601
80
397
407
518
179
577
207
401
386
108
0.799
3007
75
403
444
552
192
610
175
392
395
110
0.952
3000
3032
67
406
417
539
178
596
179
406
401
118
641
0.930
0.94
*Gage Numbers
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
1601
41
185
318
336
478
336
53
0.662
1601
41
201
361
374
528
369
62
0.731
1600
1601
41
201
348
377
533
364
67
722
0.738
0.70
Span 3
1601
49
185
324
355
497
355
50
0.688
3032
58
212
370
385
568
373
0.886
3000
3007
50
203
333
361
485
352
55
641
0.757
0.82
3032
46
218
333
369
519
373
62
0.810
Bridge 1009
•Gage Numbers
■'
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
'-■'■ ■
1633
100
363
450
744
445
556
512
548
147
101
1.030
1633
91
329
412
719
419
541
497
529
140
69
0.996
1600
1633
90
350
447
766
456
584
535
562
162
94
722
1.061
1.03
1633
84
341
422
723
434
550
497
526
148
78
1.001
Span 13
1633
104
360
457
763
457
575
535
556
153
87
1.057
3028
101
378
487
738
484
578
541
563
165
96
1.151
3000
3028
134
391
509
782
484
591
544
539
154
94
641
1.220
1.19
♦Gage Numbers
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
1633
18
287
212
287
415
281
46
0.575
1633
22
291
235
294
415
250
50
0.575
1600
1633
25
295
218
310
419
278
46
722
0.580
0.57
1633
9
278
222
285
403
244
41
0.558
Span 12
1633
25
309
215
304
419
269
46
0.580
3028
22
320
235
300
403
272
63
0.629
3000
3028
25
248
210
273
419
288
63
641
0.654
0.64
* See Figs. 2 and 3 for location of ga^es.
Tests of Timber Trestles
167
SEABOARD AIR LINE TIMBER TRESTLE TESTS
RECORDED STATIC STRESSES AT CENTER OF BENT
Bridge 996
\Liximum
Ratio o(
Diesel
Recorded
Max. (-B. M.f)
Locomotive
R
fcordfd Static St
resses at Center of
Bent (-B.
M.f)
+ B.M.f«*
M.ix.(+B.M.f)
•Cage Numbers
Class
Number
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Avg.
1601
241
99
407
395
46
394
41
573
0.710
1601
243
99
395
395
59
408
49
607
0.672
1600
1601
252
108
394
395
59
417
41
607
0.687
0.70
1601
252
112
413
398
59
429
41
577
0.744
3032
312
132
506
499
43
524
3000
3007
311
115
524
524
50
503
59
610
0. 859
0.88
3032
318
130
540
524
67
519
38
596
0.906
Bridge 1009
•Gage Numbers
1)
16
17
18
19
20
21
1633
30
101
115
143
115
93
75
744
0.192
1633
25
137
110
150
153
97
59
719
0.213
1600
1633
38
112
126
138
106
94
76
766
0.180
0.19
1633
16
128
126
150
135
101
59
723
0.207
Bent 13
1633
43
112
126
134
115
94
81
763
0.176
3028
51
218
182
213
204
187
101
738
0.295
3000
3028
51
210
159
229
234
147
115
782
0.299
0.30
Sec Figs. 2 and 3 foi" location of gages.
•See Table I
Braking and Traction
Braking and traction tests produced only minor bending stresses in piles, confirming
the usual assumption that these forces may be neglected in the design of ordinary pile
trestles. Most of the force was carried by the rails. Traction forces were much less than
braking forces.
General
The test structures are capable of carrying much heavier loading than the diesel
locomotives used in the tests. Unit stresses measured were generally low for this reason,
and some redistribution under heavier loading can be expected.
168
Tests of Timber Trestles
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Tests of Timber Trestles
169
170
Tests of Timber Trestles
Tests of Timber Trestles
171
FIG 4
Sa L R R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
SIMULTANEOUS MAXIMUM RECORDED STRESSES IN STRINGERS
BRIDGE 996-LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
'A rB rC BASE OF RAIL — v
symbols:
A GAGES
o STATIC
. 44MPH
/\
P"— f-^
La Lb L
C ELEVATION
i l
SPANS
BENTS
900
1
1
^calculated STATIC
\
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: \ \
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SECTION CC
172
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG. 5
SAL- RR- TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
SIMULTANEOUS MAXIMUM RECORDED STRESSES IN STRINGERS
BRIDGE 1009-LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
ArB rC BASE OF RAIL y
symbols:
A GAGES
o STATIC II 13 II 12 II II II 10 II 9 II 8 1] 7 11 6 11 5 1) 4 11 311 2 11 H] SPANS
-Pf-°-f
. 46MPH 14 I 13 1 12 II 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
''A '"B '-C ELEVATION
I BENTS
1200
^CALCULATED STATIC ^ j
y
1
\
"
—7^
^.J
^ ^
*^===J
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k
^
v^
r
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^
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y i
SECTION AA
900
SECTION BB
^^
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Tests of Timber Trestle:
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TENSILE STRESS IN PSI
174
Tests of Timber Trestles
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TENSILE STRESS IN PSI
Tests of Timber Trestles
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Tests of Timber Trestles
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Tests of Timber Trestles
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TENSILE STRESS IN PSI
184
Tests of Timber Trestles
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Tests of Timber Trest li
185
FIG 18
S. A. L R. R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED TOTAL IMPACTS IN STRINGERS
BRIDGE 996
s ssssssss s
8 10
SECTION AT (t OF SPAN 4
17 18
SECTION AT t OF BENT 4
24 25
SECTION AT t OF SPAN 3
o GAGE
• GAGE
8
17
24
'
i GAGE
-
i
1
^
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&
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40 60
SPEED IN MPH
40 60 80
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
1
^ -
0 GAGE 8
• GAGE 17
en
A GAGE 24
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§ 20
Q.
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1 ".
1 4
,5
?! ^
fe'
1 '
0 GAGE
. GAGE
10
18
I
^ GAGE 25 1
1
"" \
0
aO
ni,
o»
iS'sSy '
40 60
SPEED IN MPH
40 60
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000 8 3100
186
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG. 19
a A L. R.R. TIMSER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED TOTAL IMPACTS IN STRINGERS
BRIDGE 1009
SECTION AT t OF SPAN 13
18 19
SECTION AT t OF BENT 13
25 26
SECTION AT t OF SPAN 12
.
o GAGE
• GAGE
9
16
A GAGE 25 1
«
A
»
•
0
A
i
1
O
i o
m
0 GAGE
. GAGE
II
19
A GAGE 26 1
a
0
i
1
»
o
^
\
\
^
40 60
SPEED IN MPH
40 60
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
o GAGE
• GAGE
9
18
L
A GAGE 25 1
•
•
•
o
^ ,
A
• •
9
'
o
i^
♦
A
A
z
A^
Qi
•
o
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o4=
^
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0
A
o
ii".
o GAGE
• GAGE
II
19
A GAGE 26 j
•
•
•
•
•
. •
•
••
4^
o
•
•
°o
A
ao
nAcI
^
i
40 60
SPEED IN MPH
60
40 60
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000 8 3100
Tests of Timber Trestle:
187
FIG 20
SAL RR TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
MAXIMUM STRESSES IN PILES
BRIDGE 996- BENT 4
"^
BASE OF RAIL $.0^ BRIDGE
3-0 2'-4 II j I'- 2 2'-4
ELEVATION OF BENT 4
39 43 47 51
O" "O'^O'^'O'^^^O^" "O'
SECTION GG
300
^250
z
Jg200
Ui
a:
<»I50
SlOO
1^
a.
i 50
o
0
300
«250
z
(0200
OT
(£
tfilSO
111
SlOO
UJ
BC
I 50
AVE 33- 3«
AVE 37-40 1
1
8no^
°^'
—\
—J
■ —
<5P<«i?
1
I
AVE 41-44
AVE 45-48
AVE 49-52
AVE 53-56 1
]
!
q
«^
&,
'
\
^^
0,
/-CALC
' ST
UL/
ATI
VTEO
C
—
,--,
■ — —
---
—
—
_/
--
— c
'¥
•—
—
1
1
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
AVE 33-36 1
1
1
1
L
hn
c%o[»°
>'°8"
AVE 37- 40 1
§=c
o<
fb§
2?"
Oo
o
AVE 41-44 1
i 1
Oo<
^°
0
oo
i
1
AVE 45-48 1
^b°°
0
Sh
1
AVE 49-52 1
<^
0
r"
° c
°^
y°
1 o
AVE 53-56
CALCULATED
STATIC
I J
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 OO 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000-3100
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG 21
SAL R R. TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
MAXIMUM STRESSES IN PILES
BRIDGE 1009 - BENT 13
I
ELEVATION OF BENT 13
43 47
'I r 38*1 /' 42*\ y 46^ r 50^ /* 54^^ J*
33
SECTION GG
300
2 250
■z
.0200
UJ
a:
'" 150
>
V, 100
a:
Q.
i 50
o
0
300
"5 250
a.
2
u,200
in
UJ
q:
ui 150
5i 100
</)
q:
I 50
AVE 33-36
*-
i-
O
—
AVE 53- 56
-CALCULATED
STATIC
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
AVE 37-40
ooo
^°
^
rfO
AVE 41-44
V^-
AVE 49-52
AVE 53-56 1
TED
C
*.o
s*
%
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
SPEED IN MPH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000-3100
Tests of Timber Trestles
189
FIG. 22
S fl L. R R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED STRESS IN SWAY BRACES
BASE OF RAIL
BASE OF RAIL
ALL BRACING
4x8
SYMBOLS:
+120
BENT 4
BRIDGE 996
GAGE 31
■ LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
• LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000 8 3100
O (/)
(T en
I 40 60
SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING TIGHT
GAGE 31 LOCATED ON BENT 13
GAGE 32 LOCATED ON BENT II
BRIDGE 1009
GAGE 32
o LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
o LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000 ft 3100
1
1
•
• 1
•*
■
•
• •
•
••
Cb
D
'
o 0
'^i
.8^
0
n "q
•»
1
0
i
'
■ - • •
■
I 40 60 (
SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING LOOSE
BRIDGE 996
•
•
■
• •
•
•1
•
•
•
o
a
Q
5
o
oo
O (
3
°o
•
o
p
■
8 OD
m
_oc
1
88
•
•
o
o
o
) 40 60 (
SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING TIGHT
o
(
}
•
O (
0
•
<
c
•
o
o
40 60 80
SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING LOOSE
BRIDGE 1009
190
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG. 23
SAL R R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED NET DEFLECTION AT ^ OF SPAN
BASE OF RAIL - , BASE OF RAIL -.
*
T-t
ttr
PLAN
BRIDGE 996
(t_ SPAN 3
M '-BOTTOM OF ^
H°^ STRINGERS H^
(^BENT 4 ^BENT 3
I ELEVATION i
ffl
^ SPAN 12
*
BOTTOM OF [I
STRINGERS
t.BENT 13
ELEVATION
PLAN
BRIDGE 1009
tBENT 12
•
•
o
•
•
o
•
• o
•
• «
o
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
BRIDGE 996
70 80 90 100
•
: . 1 .__
o
i >
SYMBOLS
o LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
• LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000 S 3100
40 50 60
SPEED IN MPH
BRIDGE 1009
70 80 90 100
Tests of Timber Trestles
191
FIG 24
SAL RR TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED LATERAL BENT MOVEMENT
■ BRIDGE 996
NO 3
t OF STRINGERS
ST
+ 120
+ 105
+ 090
-075
+ 060
-045
-030
+ 015
0
-015
-030
-04 5
-060 I
+ 120
+ 105
+ 090
+075
+060
+ 045
+030
+015
0
-015
-030
-045
'+060
BENT NO. 4
•
0 o
<f
•
•
'.
»
. o
0
'
•
•
BENT NO. 3
•
-fo
•
• '
°
•
*
\°
•
°»",
•
•<
. •
25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0
SPEED IN MPH SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING TIGHT
BENT NO. 2
,
<^
•
•
'
<v
#
• o
Of
OiP,
«
«
•
•
25 501- 75 100
SPEED IN MPH
BENT NO 4
BENT NO. 3
BENT NO. 2
•
0
'
•
1
•
•
"
°
•
o
.
•
°
•
•
'
25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75
SPEED IN MPH SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING LOOSE
SYMBOLS : o LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
• LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000 8 3100
25 50 75 100
SPEED IN MPH
192
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG 25
SAL R,R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED LATERAL BENT MOVEMENT
BRIDGE 1009
BENT NO, 13 / NO. 12 NO II
Lt OF STRINGERS
+ 120
+ 100
+ 080
+0G0
+ 040
+,020
0
-.020
-.040
-060
-080
-.100
-.120
+ 120
, +100
+ 080
+060
+ 040
-020
0
-020
-040
-060
+ 080
-100
-120
BENT NO. 13
••'
•
•
^
•
*
• •
•
° ^
*
••
BENT NO. 12
•
•
•
\
«
•
•
■
•
J
^
•
•
BENT NO. II
•
•
V
/
•
4
\
*
•
*
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
SPEED IN MPH SPEED IN MPH SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING TIGHT
BENT NO. 13
BENT NO. 12
BENT NO. II
"■"
•
^
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
>
•
•
•
•
-
'
25
SPEED IN MPH
100
25 50 75
SPEED IN MPH
SWAY BRACING LOOSE
o LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
• LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000 ft 3100
25 50 7!
SPEED IN MPH
Tests of Timber Trestles
193
FREQUENCY OF RECORDED STRESS
BETWEEN STATED VALUES IN PERCENT
CO
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194
Tests of Timber Trestles
FREQUENCY OF RECORDED STRESS
BETWEEN STATED VALUES IN PERCENT
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%
o
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, 0
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Tests of Timber Trestles
195
FREQUENCY OF RECORDED STRESS
BETWEEN STATED VALUES IN PER CENT
UJ
I cr
f^H
— o
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MAXIMUM RECORDED STRESS IN PSI
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106
Tests of Timber Trestles
FREQUENCY OF RECORDED STRESS
BETWEEN STATED VALUES IN PER CENT
C/3
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MAXIMUM RECORDED f.TRESS IN PSI
Oq
0 8
oo
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Tests of Timber Trestles
107
MAXIMUM RECORDED STRESSES IN PILES
BRIDGE 996
BASE OF RAIL
4 OF BRIDGE
BASE OF RAIL
({^OF BRIDGE
37 41 45
SECTION AA
SOUTH
DIRECTION OF TRAIN
57 59
SECTION BB
> 100
• GAGE 35
o GAGE 33
• GAGE 39
o GAGE 37
• GAGE 4 3
o GAGE 41
* GAGE 58
4 GAGE 57
• GAGE 47
o GAGE 45
i GAGE 60
i GAGE 59
• GAGE 51
o GAGE 49
• GAGE 55
o GAGE 53
^
,ii
1
•
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ss
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•
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)""
0^
oo
) °0
0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60
SPEED IN MPH
NO BRAKING
• GAGE 35
o GAGE 33
j
t"
^'
n
^i
• GAGE 39
o GAGE 37
«<
>••
n.
r°1
o "
• GAGE 4 3
o GAGE 4 1
* GAGE 58
a GAGE 5 7
• GAGE 47
0 GAGE 45
A GAGE 60
4 GAGE 59
>4a^
,oS
?°
kAA>
tA^
k
•
?%^
o c
I
• GAGE 51
o GAGE 49
—
.pQ
.»,
• GAGE 55
o GAGE 53
1"^^
^
—
0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60
SPEED IN MPH
BRAKING
198
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG. 31
S. A. L, R. R. TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
MAXIMUM RECORDED STRESSES IN PILES
BRIDGE 1009
1 OF BRIDGE
BASE OF RAIL--
(t.OF BRIDGE
r-7 , 2'-7 I'-l' r-5 I'-IO 2'-|
ELEVATION OF BENT 13
39 43 47 51
ELEVATION OF BENT 12
^.-, (■) ,.(:)„ A- H- -A^^ I "^^)-^ -H^-t>-f-^-f^^
41 45 49
SECTION AA
SOUTH
DIRECTION OF TRAIN
57 59
SECTION BB
. • GAGE 35
o GAGE 33
•
•
.-•
o
'<b
^o°
. GAGE 39
0 GAGE 37
s
•°<^
"w^
—
• GAGE 43
o GAGE 4 1
* GAGE 58
A GAGE 57
y
°
o
o°
A
"i.:
ftV
•
•
—
A
iAti-
. GAGE 4 7
o GAGE 45
A GAGE 60
A GAGE 59
«
o
> o
no
A
~
.*•
•S
*
. GAGE 51
0 GAGE 49
^
•' °n
3
rP
8
•
t%
.V
. GAGE 55
o GAGE 53
• c
»
8
)
^
_„
0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60
SPEED IN MPH
NO BRAKING
• GAGE 35
0 GAGE 33
. GAGE 39
0 GAGE 37
• GAGE 43
o GAGE 41
A GAGE 58
A GAGE 57
• GAGE 47
o GAGE 45
* GAGE 60
A GAGE 59
• GAGE 5!
o GAGE 49
• GAGE 55
o GAGE 53
n°°
^n
o
%o
l°o
'^n
k
o
r?.
^o«
l»
AAA
^-A
•o8
f
••
f
•
?r
o
f'
0
r P
»••
•**
f
0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60
SPEED IN MPH
BRAKING
Tests of Timber Trestles
199
200
Tests of Timber Trestles
FlCi 33
SAL R R. TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED LONGITUDINAL AND DIRECT STRESSES
BRIDGE 996
PRESSURE __J7_
CELLS ,
3 AND 4 —^^
RAIL GAGES
I AND 2
BASE OF RAIL
:.^
RAIL GAGES
29 AND 30
^^'-i
4 3 2 1
SEE FIG. 2 FOR LOCATION OF GAGES
ELEVATION
NOTE: FOR PILE GAGES ON BENTS 4 AND 5, THE TOP NUMBER INDICATES THE RECORDED STRESS VALUE
FROM VERTICAL LOADS AND THE BOTTOM NUMBER INDICATES THE RECORDED STRESS VALUE FROM
BRAKING TO A STOP ON THE BRIDGE.
RUN
NO.
STRESSES FROM VERTICAL LOADS IN PSI AND
STRESSES FROM BRAKING TO A STOP ON THE BRIDGE IN PSI
STRESSES FROM BRAKING TO A
STOP ON THE BRIDGE IN PSI
GAGES ON BENT 4
GAGES ON
BENT 3
RAIL GAGES
PRESSURE
CELLS
*DiST.
FT.
55
53
51
49
47
45
43
41
39
37
35
33
60
59
58
57
1
2
29
30
3
4
129
-42
+28
-58
-41
-83
+ 17
-105
-31
-104
+ 20
-III
-27
-99
+ 16
-140
- 35
-108
+20
-72
-31
-31
+ 17
-19
-16
-132
+27
-165
- 16
-107
+20
-130
- 13
1555
1761
+
2133
+
1876
160
0.39
-l3'-8
130
+ 19
-22
+ 17
-19
+ 17
-14
+ 16
- 19
+ 17
-17
+ 14
- 9
-38
- 5
- 66
- 16
-33
- 6
- 55
- 14
1750
1690
+
445
+
346
1,57
0.38
+29'H 1
131
+22
-30
+ 14
-25
+ 14
-19
+ 14
- 27
+ 17
-22
+ 17
-14
-130
- 6
-173
- 25
-105
- 5
-144
- 25
2138
1988
+
346
+
395
152
044
+2l'-4
132
-1 1
+ 31
-89
-55
-64
+ 17
-124
-49
-83
+20
-119
-38
-79
+ 19
-168
- 52
-89
+ 22
-91
-42
-19
+ 20
-38
-22
-144
+ 27
-192
+ 16
-121
+ 24
-170
+ 1 1
2673
2734
+
1235
+
1186
267
0.71
+ I2'-I
133
+24
-30
+ 16
-25
+ 19
- 17
+ 14
- 25
+ 17
-22
+ 17
-13
-121
- 6
-165
- 25
-102
- 9
-127
- 25
1993
1938
395
+
445
1 72
0.44
+ 2 2'-|l
134
+ 19
-28
+ 14
-22
+ 11
-19
+ 9
-25
+ 13
-25
+ 11
-13
-127
+ 6
-173
- 1 1
-108
0
-144
- 17
1847
1740
296
+
395
162
0.41
+ 19-5
135
-20
+27
-88
-42
-71
+ 14
-130
-33
-89
+ 17
-133
-27
-85
+ 14
-181
- 35
-91
+ 17
-94
-31
- 19
+ 19
-36
-17
-127
+ 24
-171
+ 8
-107
+ 17
-137
+ 6
2430
Z286
+
988
+
1 186
259
Q79
+ 9'-8
136
-42
+ 30
-60
-25
-77
+27
-108
-19
-102
+ 25
-75
- 9
-96
+ 24
-146
- 17
-107
+ 28
-71
-19
-30
+ 19
-33
-11
-126
- 9
-151
- 25
-110
- 6
-160
- 25
2041
2087
+
2124
2025
177
0.74
-4-9
*THE MINUS SIGN INDICATES THE DISTANCE THE TRAIN STOPPED SOUTH OF THE RAIL GAGE
SOUTH END OF BRIDGE AND THE PLUS SIGN INDICATES THE DISTANCE THE TRAIN STOPPED
NORTH OF THE RAIL GAGES AT SOUTH END OF BRIDGE.
Tests of Timber Trestles
201
FIG. 34
SAL, R.R. TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
RECORDED LONGITUDINAL AND DIRECT STRESSES
BRIDGE 1009
x-,i ,---
RAIL GAGES
__„,— 1 AND2
PRESSURE /
CELLS /
3 AND 4-^ "
13 12 M
BASE OF RAIL-
RAIL GAGES
29 AND 30-
SEE FIG 3 FOR LOCATION OF GAGES
ELEVATION
NOTE FOR PILE GAGES ON BENTS 12 AND 13, THE TOP NUMBER INDICATES THE RECORDED STRESS VALUE FROM
VERTICAL LOADS AND THE BOTTOM NUMBER INDICATES THE RECORDED STRESS VALUE FROM BRAKING
TO A STOP ON THE BRIDGE.
RUN
NO.
STRESSES FROM VERTICAL LOADS IN PSI AND
STRESSES FROM BRAKING TO A STOP ON THE BRIDGE IN PSI
STRESSES FROM BRAKING TO A
STOP ON THE BRIDGE IN PSI
GAGES ON BENT 13
GAGES ON
BENT 12
RAIL GAGES
PRESSURE
CELLS
°DIST.
FT.
55 1 53 1 51 49 1 47 1 45 | 43 | 41 | 39 | 37 | 35 | 33
60 1 59 1 58 j 57
1 1 2 I 29 1 30
3 1 4
STOPPING ON THE BRIDGE
244
+ 17
-13
+ 13
-15
+ 15
+ 17
+ 17
-13
+ 13
- 12
+ 3
- 7
+ 3
- 8
1023
986
+
779
+
887
Q42
Q53
34-11^
- 17
- 17
245
+40
-50
+42
-60
+45
- 80
+52
- 75
+53
-63
+ 35
-33
-100
+ 20
-135
- 8
-95
+20
-80
-12
2971
2909
+
1558
+
1627
1.20
1.50
ir-ii
246
+ 12
-10
+ 10
- 10
+ 12
+ 10
- 10
+ 12
-10
+ 10
- 7
+ 3
- 5
+ 5
~3
f63
740
536
+
682
031
038
4d-6i
- 10
247
+ 23
-2 2
+20
- 18
+20
+25
+25
-28
+20
- 15
0
- 13
0
- 13
lf05
1528
1120
+
1 134
0.81
0^98
29'-lli
- 23
- 23
248
+ 30
-25
^
-25
+25
+20
+ 30
-28
+ 25
-20
0
- 18
0
- 17
1948
1775
1510
+
1479
094
1.25
29'- 5i
- 20
- 32
249
+ 12
-10
+ 12
- 12
+ 15
+ 12
- 17
+ 13
-13
+ 8
- 8
-107
+ 3
-129
- 5
-95
+ 3
-75
- 3
682
641
+
438
+
493
Q25
0.29
18'- 7i
- 15
250
-87
+52
-147
-43
- 5
+ 50
-112
-52
- 18
+ 53
- 179
- 60
-52
+65
-212
- 53
-67
+58
-124
-48
-58
+45
-68
-35
-104
+ 15
-130
- 10
-97
+ 18
-78
-20
3429
3150
1.18
1.54
8'-ei
252
+ 12
- 12
+ 10
-12
+ 10
- 13
+ 13
- 13
+ 12
- 10
+ 10
- 8
+ 3
- 3
+ 3
- 3
584
592
+
536
+
444
Q29
Q36
I3C/- 2i
253
+ 12
- 8
+ 8
- 10
+ 12
- 12
+ 12
+ 12
- 12
+ 12
- 8
+ 3
- 3
+ 3
- 3
584
592
026
Q36
133'- Oi
- 12
254
+ 17
- 13
+ 12
- 15
+ 15
- 15
+ 17
+ 15
- 13
+ 12
- 12
+ 3
- 5
+ 3
- 5
882
784
+
682
+
592
Q35
0 50
126'- 9i
- 15
255
+ 20
- 13
+ 13
- 15
+ 15
- 20
+ 20
+ 18
- 17
+ 15
- 13
+ 5
- 5
+ 5
- 5
1023
986
Q52
Q7I
108'- ii
- 18
TRACTION
STRESSES FROM STARTING ON THE BRIDGE IN PSI
244
- 12
+ 10
- 8
+ 8
- 10
+ 10
-13
+ 13
- 12
+ 8
- 8
+ 8
+ 17
+ 12
+ 10
+ 5
+ 584
+ 592
-731
-740
+
Q09
+
0.07
34'- 1 li
245
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
-28
-28
-33
-22
+ 633
+ 493
-584
-641
+
O08
+
O04
17'- li
247
- 12
+ 10
- 12
+ 12
- 12
+ 13
- 13
+ 15
- 13
+ 12
- 12
+ 8
+ 23
+20
+ 23
+ 13
+ 633
+ 641
-974
-937
QI6
+
a 13
29'- 1 1{
248
- 13
+ 13
- 8
+ 12
- 12
+ 15
- 13
+ 17
- 12
+ 13
- 12
+ 8
+ 15
+ 15
+23
+ 15
+ 682
+ 690
-925
-937
+
0 16
+
Q 13
29'- 5^
250
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
- 12
-25
-13
-17
+ 773
+1100
-789
-838
+
O07
+
Q06
8'- 8^
THIS
OF T
IS THE DISTANCE THE TRAIN STOPPED NORTH OF THE RAIL GAGES AT THE SOUTH END
HE BRIDGE.
202
Tests of Timber Trestles
RATIO OF WORKING STRESS TO RECOMMENDED
STRESS FOR LONG-TIME LOADING (PERCENT)
Tests of Timber Trestles
20.?
FIG 36
S A L R R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
TYPICAL OSCILLOGRAM
0 5 1.0 15 2.0 2.5 3.0 3l5 4.0 45 5.0 55 6.0 6.5
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
TYPICAL OSCILLOGRAPH TRACES
at
59,500
59,500
SEABOARD AIR LINE
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
AXLE LOAD IN LBS 59,500
-i^
GAGE 18
LOCOMOTIVE LOCATION FOR STRESS AT 8
204
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG 37
SAL R. R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
AVERAGE DURATION OF STRESS
BRIDGE 996
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
SEE FIG, 2 FOR LOCATION OF GAGES.
GAGE 8
— STATIC STRESS
=536 PSI
IIU
I/) 100
lu
a:
I-
(D
., 90
0.5
1.0
2.0
2.5
50
GAGE 10
^ STATIC STRESS
= 591 PSI
N
\
V
\
\
II
\
\
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION UF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OF SPAN 4
110
a 100
cc
h-
cn
90
o
I-
<
\n 80
u.
o
70
I-
z
UJ
o
<r 60
UJ
a.
50
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OF BENT 4
\ 1
GAGE 17
1 \
^ STATIC STRESS
= 402 PSI
T ^^
\
\
^N
\
\
\
Vi
r
GAGE 18
r^
^STATIC STRESS
= 396 PSI
\
•^
N
N^
\
\
\
S
■)
'^
GAGE 24
\
\
'^STATIC STRESS
= 338 PSI
r~^\.
1
\
\
\
1
\
\
\
\
»
GAGE 25
Ko
^STATIC STRESS
= 361 PSI
I "
\5
\
\
)3
\
II
\
\
70
I-
z
UJ
^ 60
LU
a.
50
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2,5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
tOF SPAN 3
SYMBOLS:
O -O DURATION OF STRESS PER DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE UNIT
• • DURATION OF STRESS PER CAR
Tests of Timber Trestles
205
FIG. 38
SAL R R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
AVERAGE DURATION OF STRESS
BRIDGE 996
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS bOOO
FOR LOCATION OF GAGES
no
100
GAGE 8
\
\
-STATIC STRESS
= 545 PSI
^ 1
', j
\ \
no
100
3
GAGE 10
\
^STATIC STRESS
=603 PSI
\
'
\ I
\
Y
1
1
0
50
0 05 10 15 2 0 2 5 0 0 5 10 1.5 2.0 25
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OF SPAN 4
GAGE 17
I
^STATIC STRESS
=523 PSI
, c
\ ^
\
\
\
\
h
110
GAGE 18
^ STATIC STRESS
=516 PSI
0 0 5 10 15 2 0 2 5 0 0 5 10 1.5 2.0
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OF BENT 4
NO -
J
^
GAGE 24
\
lb
"^STATIC STRESS
=345PSI
\
\
\r
i
1
GAGE 25
\
\
\
^STATIC STRESS
=372 PSI
\
\
\
'^
'
\
1
\
\
6
50
0 0 5 10 15 20 2 5 0 0 5 10 1.5 2.0 2.5
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OF SPAN 3
SYMBOLS
O -o DURATION OF STRESS PER DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE UNIT.
• • DURATION OF STRESS PER CAR
206
Tests of Timber Trestli
FIG. 39
S. A. L R. R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
AVERAGE DURATION OF STRESS
BRIDGE 1009
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 1600
SEE FIG. 3 FOR LOCATION OF GAGES
\
\
GAGE 9
■.^
^STATIC STRESS
= 442PSI
,
^^
\
\
\
\
\
\
y. 100 lo
50
GAGE II
STATIC STRESS
= 515 PS I
A>-
GAGE 18
\
\
\
^ STATIC STRESS
= 143 PSI
<-<>
^o
9
\
\
H
"r
0.5 1.0 1.5 20 2,5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OF SPAN 13
110
\
\
X
GAGE 19
\
\
A,
^STATIC STRESS
= 125 PSI
9
\
\
\
\
\
\
1
\
no
100
50
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 25 0 05 10 15 20
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
i OF BENT 13
110
GAGE 25
^STATIC STRESS
= 296PSI
s^^
\
\
\
A
9
.
\
\
GAGE 26
H
\
Static stress
= 414 PSI
\
\
\
50
0 0.5 1.0 15 2 0 2 5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 20
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
4 OF SPAN 12
SYMBOLS:
O -o DURATION OF STRESS PER DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE UNIT
• • DURATION OF STRESS PER CAR
Tests of Timber Trestles
207
FIG. 40
SAL. R R TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
AVERAGE DURATION OF STRESS
BRIDGE 1009
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS 3000
SEE FIG 3 FOR LOCATION OF GAGES
GAGE 9
-STATIC STRESS
= 484 PSI
H
GAGE II
STATIC STRESS
= 543PSI
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OF SPAN 13
110 n \ 1 1 1 110 c
90 -i?-
GAGE 18
STATIC STRESS
=216 PSI
0.5 1.0 15 2.0
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
2.5
50
0 0 5 1.0 15 2.0
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
%_ OF BENT 13
V
1 ^
GAGE 25
V
^STATIC STRESS
= 287 PSI
\
\
^
^
i
1
no
itJ 100 -Q
90 y-\-
50
1
1
\
GAGE 19
9
1
\
— STATIC STRESS
= 219 PSI
9
k
1
\
9
\
9
\
\
GAGE 26
■STATIC STRESS
= 411 PSI
0 0 5 1.0 1.5 2 0 2 5
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
t OP SPAN 12
SYMBOLS :
O O DURATION OF STRESS PER DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE UNIT
• • DURATION OF STRESS PER CAR
05 10 1.5 20
DURATION OF STRESS IN SECONDS
208
Tests of Timber Trestles
FIG. 41
SAL. R.R. TIMBER TRESTLE TEST
CUMULATIVE LOADING TIME WITH RESPECT TO STRESS
- ALLOW
ABLE SI
FRESS
-CUMULATIVE LOADING
TIME FOR DIESELS
I'
1
\
\\
\\
\
\\
\
\\
\\
I
\
\^
-CUMULATIVE LOADING
I
\
\ /
TIME FOR CARS
v\
\ \
1
\ \
\
\
y
\
y^
-TOTAL CUMULATIVE
\
\
\
LOADING TIME
1
\ \
\ \
\
\ ^
v
\
\
\
\
\
100
200
300 400
DURATION OF LOAD IN DAYS
NOTE-. CUMULATIVE LOADING TIME BASED ON 25 TRAINS PER DAY WITH
FOR 50 YEARS.
500 600
3 DIESEL UNITS AND 100 CARS
Report of Committee 16 — Economics of Railway
Location and Operation
R. L. MiLNER, Chairman,
C. L. TOWLE,
Vice Chairman,
C. VV. SooBY, Secretary,
Herbert Ashton
Q. K. Baker
J. W. Barriger
C. H. Blackman (E)
C. P. Blair
J. W. Bolstad
I. C. Brewer
D. E. Brunn
H. S. Bull
W. R. Catching, Jr.
R. M. Champion, Jr.
B. Chappell
H. B. Christianson, Jr.
P. J. Claffey
F. J. Corporon
L. P. Diamond
R. .\. Gleason
F. E. Gunning
Allen Hazen
C. L. Heimbach
H. C. HUTSON
J. E. Inman
C. A. James
J. E. Jay
T. J. Lamphier
A. S. Lang
H. A. LiND
A. E. MacMillan
J. P. Maynard
R. B. MiDKIFF
M. B. Miller
H. P. Morgan
T. C. NORDQUIST
J. R. Nutter
F. N. Nye
F. B. Peter
E. C. Poole
W. E. QUINN
J. P. Ray
F. J. Richter
E. H. Roth
Geo. Rugge
A. L. Sams
H. F. Schryver (E)
H. M. Shepard
L. K. Sillcox
C. E. Stryker
D. S. SUNDEL
J. E. Teal (E)
D. K. Van Ingen
L. E. Ward
Ferdinand Wascoe
T. D. Wofford, Jr.
H. L. Woij)RIDge
C ommillee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress in study, but no report.
2. Effects of degrees of curvature on cost of track maintenance, collaborating
with Committees 4 and 5.
Progress report submitted as information page 210
3. Determination of maintenance of way expenses for various traffic volumes,
collaborating with Committee 11.
Progress report, submitted as information page 216
4. Potential applications of electronic computers to railway engineering and
maintenance problems in research, design, inventory, etc., collaborating
with Committees 11 and 30, and informally with the Railway Systems and
Procedures Association.
Progress report, submitted as information page 226
5. Methods of reducing time of freight cars between loading and unloading
points, collaborating with Car Service Division, AAR, Signal Section, AAR,
Operating-Transportation Division, AAR, and American Association of
Railroad Superintendents.
Progress in study, but no report.
209
210 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
6. Economics of improved freight stations and facilities, collaborating with
Committees 6 and 14, and with Freight Station Section, AAR.
Progress in study, but no report.
7. Engineering, maintenance and operating benefits to be derived from in-
creased joint use of railway facilities, collaborating with Committees 11,
14, and 20.
Progress report, submitted as information page 231
8. Innovations in railway operations.
Progress report, submitted as information page 23,3
9. Economics and methods of utilizing railway property, right-of-way, and
facilities to develop or increase secondary sources of railway revenue.
Final report, submitted as information page 237
10. Methods of minimizing cost of construction and maintenance of industry
tracks to improve the competitive position of railways, collaborating with
Committee 11, and with Law Department, AAR.
Progress in study, but no report.
11. Review of developments in new methods and modes of transport.
Progress report, submitted as information page 240
The Committee on Economics of Railway Location and Operation,
R. L. Milner, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 546, November 1958.
Report of Assignment 2
Effect of Degrees of Curvature on Cost of Track Maintenance
Collaborating with Committees 4 and 5
L. P. Diamond (chairman, subcommittee), J. W. Bolstad, D. E. Brunn, J. E. Inmaii,
C. A. James, A. S. Lang, R. L. Milner, F. B. Peter, E. C. Poole, A. L. Sams, L. E.
Ward.
Your committee submits the following report of progress in the gathering and
analysis of data to determine the effect of curvature upon the cost of maintaining track.
Previous progress reports on this assignment appear in the Proceedings, Vol. S3,
1952, page 946; Vol. 58, 1957, page 346; and Vol. 59, 1958, page 392. This report
presents a study of the influence of track curvature upon costs in ICC Account 218 —
Ballast. In addition, an analysis is made of the relationship among the primary ICC
material accounts and the primary labor account involved in applying these materials to
railroad track.
The analyses presented here and in previous progress reports represent individual
studies concerning the effects of track curvature on each of Account 212 — Ties, Account
214 — Rail, Account 216 — Other Track Material, Account 218 — Ballast, and Account 220
—Track Laying and Surfacing. In a future and final report the individual studies will
be summar^ized and coordinated with an over-all analysis of the influence of track
curvature on track material and labor cost accounts.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 2n
Ballast Account
ICC Account 218 is an accumulation of ballast material cost (excluding better-
ment costs) for repairs of track. Also included in this account is the cost of work-train
service and of unloading the material, as well as certain miscellaneous costs.
On a theoretical basis, considering an idealized track section, and employing the
following assumptions:
(a) raise is to be 6 in or less,
(b) ties are about 5 in deep in the ballast,
(c) ballast section is 9 ft 6 in wide across the top (AREA Standard), and
(d) side slope of the ballast section is 2:1,
the percent increase in ballast required to raise superelevated tracks as against tangent
track may be expressed as
P = --l— 1
^2 + d
where /*= percent increase, curve over tangent
e = superelevation in inches
d r= ballast under the ties in inches.
Thus, Equation 1 might be used in a theoretical determination of the influence of curva-
ture upon that portion of an account such as 218 devoted to ballast material costs.
However, recourse to actual volumes of ballast applied to differing types of railroad
over many years, like reference to accumulated costs in ICC primary accounts, may
involve additional factors not considered in a theoretical approach. Such appears to be
the case for the data presented in Table 1, Appendix A, of this report. These data were
subjected to a multiple regression analysis using the following equation
Y = K B^ R"^ 2
where Y =: accumulated volume of ballast applied, cu yd
/(r,^,C = equation constants
B = relative track curvature in a mile
sum from / ^ 0 to A^ of
M^-)
Li ^= length of the i th curve in mile, feet
Di = degree of the i th curve
N = number of curves in track mile
R = annual traffic rate, MGT/year
A probability analysis of the data in Table 1, Appendix A, indicates that there is no
significant relationship between total volume of ballast applied over an 18-year period
and either relative track curvature and annual traffic rate or both for each of the
ballast types over the 29 miles sampled. Thus, other factors, perhaps such as roadbed
stability, ballast subsidence, smoothing, and cribbing, are influential in determining
the volume of ballast required in repairs to track. These factors could mask an over-all
relationship if they could not be measured or otherwise evaluated in an analysis.
Labor and Material Accounts
.\ similar situation exists in considering the relationship of accumulated charges
between labor and material in ICC .Accounts 212 through 220. For example, .Account
212 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
220 includes the cost of labor expended in applying ties, raJils, other track materials and
ballast, which material costs are found in Accounts 212, 214, 216 and 218, respectively,
plus other costs. These other costs constitute a major portion of Account 220. They are
the cost of labor expended in alining, surfacing, gaging and shimming track, in restor^ing
track after accidents, in tightening bolts, etc. Hence, there is no simple relationship
between the accumulated costs in the labor and material primary accounts.
Further complications due to differing accounting practices among the railroad
companies exist in interpretation of the totals in the primary accounts. For example,
in Account 214 — Rail, differing salvage values over the years may be applied to deter-
mine net costs of rail, sometimes with a distinction between relay rail and scrap, some-
times not. In addition, costs are sometimes expensed to Account 214 which are not in
the category of programmed track maintenance work, such as relay rail released for
track construction. In Account 218 differing local practices might allocate differing
proportions of a given size of ballast raise to capital cost and to operating cost.
Even a moderate breakdown in primary account costs plus limited additional infor-
mation do not appear sufficient to permit use of primary account totals in determining
the effect of curvature on the cost of maintaining track. For example. Table 2, Appendix
A, presents data abstracted from a recent study regarding the relationship between
the costs in Accounts 218 and 220.
The costs are averaged over a 10-year period. The influence of traffic tonnage and
the extent of districts mainta'ined are allowed for by considering costs per million gross-
ton-miles per mile. The type of ballast in track is additional information which is
useful.
Table 3 of Appendix A presents an analysis of covariance of the data in Table 2.
This analysis demonstrates that no significant relationship between Accounts 220 and
218 can be determined based upon the information made available. Fig. 1 of Appendix
A is a graphical illustration of the analysis.
Thus, it appears necessary to obtain a more detailed breakdown of the costs in
Accounts 212 through 220 in order to determine the effect of curvature on both labor
and material costs of maintaining track. It is planned to obtain samples of sufficiently
detailed costs from at least two railroads to accomplish the objectives of this study.
Analyses of these data will be presented in a future report.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
213
Appendix A
Table 1
Volume -of Ballast Applied 1938-1955
And Associated Relative Track Curva-
ture and .uinual Traffic Rates
Total
Cu.Yds.
/mnual
Ballast
Feet of
Relative
Traffic
Applied
Ballasted
Track
Rate
.11 le
1938-1955
1337
Track
Curvature
1.39
: IGT/Yr
22.0 )
1
5270
2
2301
5196
1.43
2.5 )
3
2111
5159
1.03
2.5 )
4
2880
5241
3.14
35.0 )
5
1971
5300
1.67
3.5 )
6
4674
4939
2.50
31.5 )
7
5286
5605
2.81
12.4 ]
Stone
8
4514
5286
2.37
39.5 ]
Ballast
9
6794
5280
2.26
25.5 )
10
3578
5280
2.26
14.0 )
11
2873
5281
2.84
4.5 )
12
5218
5289
1.40
31.5 )
13
2127
5273
2.04
21.8 )
lA
3443
5378
J.38
27.0 )
15
855
5231
2.59
0.5 ]
16
3716
5271
5.20
2.5 ]
17
1706
5275
1.00
18.0 :
18
6C^00
5184
2.71
20.0 ;
19
4413
5366
3.38
35.0 ]
20
3861
5356
2.83
39.0 ;
21
4799
5287
1.53
4.0 ]
Gravel
22
7503
5271
2.60
23.5 ]
Ballast
23,
4932
5306
2.80
16.0 ,
24
6104
5260
1.58
10.0 ,
25
10011
5138
1.42
12.0
26
13604
5281
1.59
12.0 ,
27
7770
5219
1.38
43.5
28
3048
5283
1.11
14.0
29
4356
5173
1.98
10.5
214
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Appendix A
Table 2
Comparison of Accounts 218 and 220
Average Cost Per Year in Dollars Per jMGT!.I Per Mile
Rock Gravel
Chat
7
8
9
TYPES OF
A L LAS T
220
Y
218
X
107 16
12o 14
142 17
Gravel
220 218
Y X
147 29
229 43
176 24
220
218
Y
X
•?
147
20
270
26
286
26
Table 3
Analysis of Covariance of Table 2 Data
Source of
Variation
Degrees
of
Freedom
Total 8
.■jnong Ballast Types 2
Sums of Squares
and Products
622.89 33608.89 2681.11
400.22 17967.89 1472.11
Errors of Estimate
Sum of Deggges Mean
Squares Freedom Squ-^re
22068,57 7
.■jnong Divisions 6
Test of Adjusted Means
222.67 15641.00 1209.00
9076.66 5
12991.91 2
1815
Hot
6A96 Sip
Sources of Variation
ijnong Divisions
Reduction due to Regression
jjialysis of Error Variance
Degrees Sum of Mean
Freedom Squares Square
6 15641 2607
1 6564 6564 Hot Significant
:.rror of adjusted means
9(i77
1815
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
215
APPENDIX A
FIG. I
ACCOUNT 218 VS. ACCOUNT 220
^fi 275+
•gravel
15 20 25 30 35
ACCOUNT 218- YEARLY EXPENDITURE
PER MILLION GROSS TON MILES PER MILE
DOLLARS
216 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Report on Assignment 3
Determination of Maintenance of Way Expenses
for Various Traffic Volumes
Collaborating with Committee 11
J. P. Rav (chairman, subcommittee), B. Chappell, H. B. Christiansen, Jr., C. L. Heim-
bach^ H. A. Lind, R. L. Milner, T. C. Nordquist, H. M. Shepard, L. K. Sillcox,
C. W. Sooby, C. L. Towie, D. K. Van Ingen, Ferdinand Wascoe.
Your committee submits the following report of progress in the gathering of infor-
mation pertaining to the study of variable and constant maintenance of way and
structures expenses. Comment and criticism of the method herein outlined are invited.
The portion of maintenance of way and structures expenses affected by use, or
variable with traffic, has been a controversial and much discussed subject. This com-
mittee was given the task of developing a formula which would allow measurement
of the maintenance of way and structures expense affected by use. A number of drafts
were submitted to the committee members, resulting in considerable discussion and cor-
respondence. A progress report was made at the March 1956 meeting of Committee 16
and at the June 1956 meeting, culminating in publishing the outline of a proposed
method of determining variable and constant maintenance of way and structures
expense as information in Proceedings of the Fifty-Sixth Annual Convention of the
American Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 58, 1957, in anticipation of obtaining
assistance in comment and criticism from other sources. This report reflects modifica-
tions and revisions resulting from replies to the invitation for comments and criticism
on the preceding report.
Extensive changes in maintenance technology occasioned by the development of
mechanical equipment and revised maintenance standards and practices preclude the
possibility of expressing in a single comprehensive formula the relationship between
maintenance of way and structures expenses and traffic volume.
The approach or method developed has been designated as the "experience" formula
rather than a theoretical formula in that it measures fluctuations in maintenance ex-
pense with the fluctuations in traffic volume. Because of changes in the technology of
maintenance it is important that in using this method the base or experience period
be chosen so that in estimating past "normal" maintenance or in predicting future
maintenance, constantly changing technology will not cause significant variance of the
estimated normal expense from the actual expense level.
In arriving at its conclusions, the committee had before it much data and many
computations. All cannot be shown here but they can be mentioned. Only those methods
considered by the committee as most practical are shown both mathematically and
graphically.
A. SIMPLE OR STRAIGHT LINE CORRELATION
1. Many calculations were made using different years of the same railroad, adjusting
costs to a common index or cost level. (Example Chart A)
2. Calculations were made using the different divisions of the same railroad for a
number of years. (Example Chart B)
3. Calculations were made using 26 of the larger Class I railroads for different
individual years. (Example Chart C).
Computations were made on a number of bases, using the straight-Hne formula
(Text continued on page 220)
Economics of Railway Location an d Operation
217
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Economics of Railway Location and Operation
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Economics of Railway Location and Operation
219
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220 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
{y=:a-{-bx) to measure the changes in cost with the changes in traffic volume,
wherein :
y = Maintenance per mile of traci<, excluding depreciation and amortization.
X = Traffic density in total gross-ton-miles per mile of track, freight and passenger.
(I = A constant to be determined, or the maintenance cost if no traffic were
handled.
/' = The rate of change in maintenance cost with changes in traffic density.
It was found for the periods studied that calculations using method 3 above gave
the most reliable results. In applying method 3 the calculations using the following
were made:
(a) The expenses (excluding depreciation and amortization) per mile of track
and gross-ton-miles per mile of track of each railroad separately, not weighted
as to size.
(b) The expenses (excluding depreciation and amortization) per mile of track
and gross-ton-miles per mile of track of each railroad separately, giving
weight to each as to size, using gross-ton-miles as the measure for weighting.
(c) The expenses (excluding depreciation and amortization) per mile of track
and gross-ton-miles per mile of track of each railroad separately, giving
weight to each as to size, using miles of track as the measure of weighting.
The results of the calculations for methods 3 (a), 3 (b) and 3 (c) for each individ-
ual year 1954 to 1956, incl., and the 3-year average indexed to the 1957 cost level, for
26 Class I railroads, are shown in the table below. It is believed that method 3 (c) is
the most valid method.
„ on Weighted on
Year Not Weighted Gross-Ton Miles Miles of Track
(a) (b) (c)
1954 v= $1.1368 4- 0.4289a; v =: $1.3612 -f 0.3716a; y = $1.1853 + 0.4055.r
1955 'y= 1.2532 + 0.3941X y= 1.2403 -j- 0.3926x y= 1.1424 -f- 0.4098x-
1956 y= 1.0636 -f 0.43 74x y= 1.1172 -^ 0.4182x y= 1.0788+ 0.4250x
3 -Year Average
Indexed to Year
1957 y=:$1.3190-K 0.4800X y = $1.4229 -f 0.4496x y = $1.3009 + 0.4723J;
The indices used for combining the 3 individual years to a 3-year average indexed
to year 1957 are those developed and currently maintained by a major Class I railroad
and check closely indexing data used by the AAR. Index factors are:
1954 120.10
1955 116.27
1956 106.69
1957 100.00
The percent variable and constant can be determined from the average without
further adjustment.
bx
Percent variable = X 100
y
wherein x ^= gross-ton-miles (millions) per mile of track
B. MULTIPLE CORRELATION
A number of calculations were made using multiple correlation wherein three or
more variables were used. In some of these computations a separation was made
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
221
between the effects of passenger gross-ton-miles on expense and freight gross-ton-miles
on expense. The results were somewhat erratic, although indicating a higher cost for
passenger gross-ton-miles than for freight gross-ton-miles. It is possible, especially with
modern electronic data processing equipment, to deal with many independent variables
through use of multiple correlation techniques. If more detail is necessary, adequate
data are available on significant independent variables, and the results will justify
more complicated analysis; it is believed that multiple correlation should be used where
more than one independent variable is used.
Multiple correlation calculations were made from the formula:
Xi = a -f- 612.3 Xi + byA2X:i
wherein Xi is the dependent or estimated variable replacing y, and
X2 and Xs are independent variables, ie:
Xi = total maintenance of way and structures expense (excluding depreciation
and amortization)
Xa r= miles of total track in thousands
Xs =: gross-ton-miles in millions
bio.s = the change in dependent variable Xi with a given change in variable x-^
613.2 =: the change in dependent variable Xi with a given change in variable Xa
The results of multiple correlation for each individual year 1954 to 1956, incl.,
and the 3-year average indexed to 1957 cost level for the same 26 Class I railroads used
in methods 3 (a), 3 (b) and 3 (c) are to be found in the table below:
Year
1954 $1,483,420-1- $1,074 X Miles of Total Track (000) 4- $0,400 X Gross-Ton-Miles (000,000)
1955 ?l,313,310-f $1,011 " " " + 0.412
1956 $1,726,910-1- $1,189 " " " -f- 0.377
3 -year average
indexed to
year 1957:
$1,717,004 + $1,245 " " " -f 0.426 " " "
C. COMPARISON OF TEST COMPUTATIONS
The results of the computations for railroads with theoretical 5 milUon gross-ton-
miles per mile of track and 10 million gross-ton-miles per mile of track are shown below:
Simple Correlation
Gross-Ton-Miles per Mile of Track
Not
Weighted
Weighted
on Gross-
Ton-miles
Weighted
on Miles
of Track
Multiple
Correlation
(0)
5 Million:
Constant
Variable
(6)
$1,319
2,400
(c)
$1,423
2,248
(d)
$1,301
2,362
(e)
$1 , 245
2,270
Total
Percent Variable _
10 Million:
Constant
Variable
$3,719
Ii4 . r,
$1,319
4,800
$3,671
61 .2
$1,423
4,496
$3,663
64.5
$i,:ioi
4,723
.$3,515
64.6
$1,245
4,540
Total
Percent Variable __
$6,119
78.4
$5,919
76.0
$6,024
78.4
$5,785
78 5
212
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
D. COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED MAINTENANCE COSTS WITH ACTUAL
RECORDS— YEAR 1957 CONSTANT DOLLARS— FIVE CLASS I
RAILWAY SYSTEMS FOR YEARS 1954 TO 1956 INC.
Using the weighted-on-miles-of-track basis, the computations applied to five large
railroad systems distributed throughout the country over a series of years compared
with the actual results, and the difference, are shown in the following table:
Year
GTM
{Millions)
Miles
of
Track
GTM
(Millions)
per Mile
of
Track
Percent
Variable
0.4723d
0.4723d
+ 1.3009
Estimated
Dollars*
Adjusted
to 1957
Actual
Dollars
Adjusted
to 1967
Difference
Percent
Differ-
ence
(a)
1954
(b)
469,904
512,497
516,206
(e)
86,143
85,327
84,855
id)
5.455
6.006
6.083
(e)
66.4
68.6
68.8
if)
$302,822,000
324,039,000
326,116,000
$952,977,000
$318,959,976
(Q)
$ 338,401,000
353,044,000
327,574,000
$1,019,019,000
$ 318,959,976
(A)
(i)
1955
1956
Total
$66,042,000
—6.48
1957
496,307
84,316
5.886
68.1
Total $318,959,976
Variable $217,211,744
Constant $101,748,232
*Estimated dollars = 1957 constant dollars ($105,575,752) X
1
1 minus % variable
E. COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED MAINTENANCE COSTS AND ACTUAL
RECORDS FOR YEAR 1957— FIVE CLASS I RAILWAY SYSTEMS**
Assuming normal maintenance and base period of years covering a full economic
cycle which adequately reflects state of maintenance technology, it is possible to use
equation 3 (c) to predict closely what maintenance expenses for a given year will be
or should be. The following calculation illustrates this point:
GTM (Millions) = 496,307 Miles of Track :== 84,316 GTM (millions) per
Mile of Track 1=5.886
Estimating equation — y — 1.3009 + 0.4723x
Estimated Maintenance = 84,316 (1.3009 + 0.4723 X 5.886)
= $344,081,606
Actual Maintenance = 318,959,976
Percent Difference = 7.88
Any resultant difference between estimated "normal" and actual maintenance expense
should be evaluated for causative reasons. The above example might indicate under-
maintenance and/or more advanced technology. Where actual maintenance exceeds
estimated "normal" maintenance expense, correction of deferred maintenance practices
or more severe than average physical characteristics might be indicated.
F. COMMENT ON USE OF EXPERIENCE METHOD OF DETERMINING
NORMAL MAINTENANCE EXPENSE
This report is primarily for the purpose of outlining an approach to the determina-
tion of changes in maintenance expenses which can be expected for given changes in
traffic volume. It is not an attempt to derive a never-changing universal formula. The
In arliiat application only one railroad would ordinarily bo iisrd.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
223
value of this approach to the user depends entirely on the understanding and wisdom
employed in its application. False conclusions can be derived if the method is incorrectly
or inappropriately applied.
Maintenance is undergoing continuing technological change; therefore, the base
period chosen should reflect at least one full economic cycle and be representative of
maintenance practices of the year or periods being tested. Since the method attempts
only to measure the effect of traffic volume, a single railroad with significantly different
operating conditions should use judgment in applying the experience of the average of
26 roads to his unique conditions. It is suggested that the individual road's difference
from the average is reasonably constant ; therefore, a simple correction factor could be
obtained by testing its actual experience against the results of the average of the 26
railroads for a number of years.
SAI-IPLE OF CORREUTIOIJ
Easlc Stntistics
Total
GTM
(Thous)
- ' (b) '
25,476
57, 9U
101,836
130,113
158,436
Expenses
Excluding
Depreciation
(c)
$ 16,240
43,302
66,432
89,324
114.010
Miles of
track
Operated
(d)
13,965
14,010
13,567
21,848
23,432
Per Mile
of Track
Railroad
GIN
(Millions)
(b) ^ (d)
1,824
4.134
7.506
5.955
6.762
Expenses
(Thous)
(a)
A
B
C
D
E
(c) ^ (d)
$ 1.163
3,091
4.897
4.088
4.866
Total 473,775
Simple Correlation:
329,308
86,322
26.181
Per Mile of Track
GTM
Expenses
(Millions;
I
(Thousands)
Railroad
X
y
xy
A
1.824
$ 1.163
2.121
B
4.134
3.091
12.778
C
7.506
4.897
36.757
D
5.955
4.088
24.344
E
6.762
4.366
32.904
Total
26.181
$ 18.105
108.904
$ 18.105
3.327
17.090
56.340
35.462
45.725
157. 94A
KomaLl Eiiiuations
■£!y = Ka + bS.x
SLyy = aS. X
bgjc^
(1) 18.105 = 5a + 26.181b (26.131 i 5 - 5.2362)
(2) 108.904;= 26.181a + 157.9^4b ,*
(1') 94.801= 26.181a + 137.089b (l )=(l)x5.2362
14.10> 20.855b
b= 0.67623
5a = 18.105 - 26.181b
5a = 18.105 - 26.181 x 0.67623
5a = 18.105 - 17.704
5a = 0.401
a = 0.0802
+ $0,676 X GTN (000,000)
224
Economics of Railway Lo cation and Operation
Simple Correlation - Weighted on Gross Ton Miles
Trtal
Weighting
Factor
Per Mile of Track
Gross Ton Miles
cm
Exp
^nses
Railroad
(Hundred Million)
(Millions
)
(Thousands)
2
X w
w
xw
yv
xyw
A
0.255
0.^65
0.297
o.?a
0.8^8
B
0.579
2.39/;
1.790
7.398
9.895
C
1.018
7.6a
-4.985
37.a9
57.35A
D
1.301
1.1 kl
5.318
31.672
Uo ^36
E
1.53^
10.711
7.708
52.120
72. A28
A.737
J8.958
20.098
129.150
186.661
Nonnal Equations;
^vjy = Ka+ b^wx
(1) 20.098 = 4.737a + 28.958b (28.95&= 4.737=6.113"
(2) 129.150 = 28.958a + 186.661b ,
d') 122.859 = 28.958a + 177.020b (l )= (l)x6.113
6.291 = 9.641b
tt 0.65252
4.737a = 20.098 - 28.958b
4.737a = 20.093 - 28.958 x 0.65252
4.737a = 20.093 - 18.896
4.737a = 1,202
a = 0.25374
ie: $254 + $0,653 x GIM (000,000)
Sample Correlation - Weighted on Miles of Track
Weighting
Factor
Per Mil
e of Track
Miles of Track
GIM
Expenses
Railroad
(ten thousand)
(Millions)
(Thous)
2
"l
XW-,
yv-L
xyv^
X w.
A
1.397
2.548
1.625
2.963
4.648
B
1.401
5.792
4.330
17.902
23.943
G
1.357
10.186
6.645
49.879
76.453
D
2.185
13.012
8.932
53.192
77.484
£
2.343
15.843
11.401
77,094
107.134
Total
8.683
47.381
32,933
201,030
289.662
Iloiroal Equations:
-^w y = Na + b^jx
^ V-, xy= aCwnX + b^ w-, x
(1) 32.93> 8.683a + 47. 381b (47. 381 - 8.6863 = 5.4568)
(2) 201.03Ct 47.381a + 289.662b
(1 ) 179.709= 47,381a + 258.549b (l')=(l) x 5.4568
21.321= 31.113b
b = 0.68527
8.683a = 32.933 - 47.38lb
8,683a = 32,933 - 47.381 x 0,68527
8.633a = 32.933 - 32.469
8.633a = 0.464
a = 0.053433
I.e.
$53 + $0,685 X GTM (000,000)"
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
225
Multiple Correlation
Expenses
Miles
Excluding
of
GTM
Depreciation
Track
Railroad
(Billions)
(Millions)
(Thcus)
2 2
x^
^1
^2
^2 ^3
Xj^Xg X^^X X2X3
A
25.i76
16.2^0
13.965
195.021 649.027
226.792 413.730 355.772
B
57. 9U
i3.302
U.OIO
1%.280 3354.031
606.661 2507.792 811.375
C
101.836
bh.UV.
13.567
184.064 10370.571
901.283 6765.169 1381.609
D
130.113
89.324
21.8/,8
477.335 16929.393
1951.551 11622.214 2342.7C9
E
158. A36
lU.oio
23.432
549.059 25101.966
2671.482 18063.288 3712.472
Total
i73.
3^9.308
(1) ^, = i:a + b£x,
(2) 2'3^X2 = a^x^ +
86.322 1601.759 56404.933 6357.769 39372.193 9103.937
3
b-txo''
C ^XoX
2^3
(3) ixjXg = a£x + b;^x2X2 + c^'x^
(1) 329.308 = 5a + 86.822b + 473.775o (36.822 ^ 5 = 17.3644)
(2)6357.769 = 36.822a + 1601.759b + 9103. V37c '
(3)39372,193= 473.775a + 9103.937b + 56404. 9"3c (36.825 f 473.775 = 0.13326)
d') 571S.236 = 36.322a + 1507.612b + 3226.819c (l')=(l) x 17.3bU
(2) 6357.769 = 36.322a + 1601.759b + 9103.937c
(2-1') 639.533=
Cf)
(3 '-2) -57.579 =
94.147b + 877.113c (^'4.142.-i 66.('-'28=l./,1302)
557.769 = 86.322a + 1601.759b + 9103.937c t, , ,
(3' ) 7215.343 = 86.822a + 1668.387b + 10336. 773c(3 )=(3) x 0.13326
'- -' 66.623b + 1232.841c
(2-1 ), 639. 533 = 94.147b + 877.118c i ,
(3'-2) 1211.776 = 94.147b + 1742.029c (: -2)= (3 -2) xl.a302
572.243 = 864.911c
c = 0.66162
94.147b = 639.533 - 877.118c
94.147b = 639.533 - 877.118 x 0.66162
94,147b = 59, 2U
b = 0.62895
5a = 329.308 - 36.822b - 473.775c
5a = 329.308 - 36.822 x 0.62395 - 473.775 x 0.66162
5a = - 38.758
a = -57.75160
ie; - :$7,752,000 + $0,629 x miles of tot?.l t -ack (OOO) + $0,662 x GTI-l(0OO aOO)
226 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Report on Assignment 4
Potential Applications of Electronic Computers to Railway
Engineering and Maintenance Problems in Research,
Design, Inventory, etc.
Collaborating v/ith Committees 11 and 30, and Informally with the Railway
Systems and Procedures Association
F. Wascoe (chairman, subcommittee), H. S. Bull, R. M. Champion, Jr., L. P. Diamond,
C. A. James, T. J. Lamphier, A. S. Lang, H. A. Lind, George Rugge, T. D. Wof-
ford, Jr.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
One of the most noticeable and logical changes that has occurred in industry has
been the application to business problems of electronic data-processing equipment. In
the development of this trend, computers were first used by the government to solve
problems which required high-speed calculating ability. The earliest applications in
private industry were primarily in the field of accounting, with emphasis on payroll
and billing where voluminous. Simple calculations were made. As the computer tech-
nology advanced it was found that repetitive engineering calculations and very com-
plicated calculating processes could be undertaken with such equipment.
The railroad industry, like other industries, has concentrated its applications of
computers mainly to accounting problems. It is believed that with the acquisition of
electronic data-processing equipment, the railroads will find suf&dent time on this
equipment to solve engineering problems which were not previously solvable because
of time and manpower requirements.
In the discussion which follows it is necessary to use words which have taken on
somewhat special meanings in the computer field. A short glossary is given in Appendix
A to cover those words used in this report.
1. Organization and Use of Computers
The availability of a computer to the engineering departments varies considerably
among the railroads. In most companies which already have computers installed, the
control is under either the accounting department or a special department established
for processing data. In some of these companies there is free machine time on the
second and third shifts and during off-peak accounting periods, which may be used by
the engineering departments. Under the organization of some installations the pro-
gramming and operation must be done by the department in charge of the computer.
Aside from the medium and large computers which are generally linstalled foi
accounting purposes, there are a number of small computers now on the market which
are designed especially for engineering applications. These may be used advantageously
by an engineering department where the organization of the large computer installation
handicaps the engmeering department or where the larger installation is already fully
utilized. Before installing a computer of any size a thorough study is warranted to
assure that the intended use justifies a computer and that the computer selected is
sized correctly for the intended application. In the early years of computer application
to industry, several firms found that after installing a computer the expected benefits
could have been had just by rearranging the methods of doing the work.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 227
There are computer service installations which will do work on an hourly charge
or contract price basis. Some of these service bureaus are maintained in the principal
cities by the major computer manufacturers, some by universities, and some are private
firms organized solely for this purpose.
In any of these cases, the engineering department has to determine how much
of the actual programming and machine operation it should do within the department,
and how much it should have done by people outside the department.
Programming and machine operation are skills which are fully developed only by
practice. Where an engineering department has not developed sufficient demand for
computer application to keep up the skill of its own personnel, it will benefit from
using outside programmers. However, having the work done by outside programmers
still requires engineering personnel to spend time (sometimes large amounts) explaining
the problem to the programmer. Even with the most detailed explanations there fre-
qu«;ntly occurs misunderstanding because the programmer is not familiar with the
engineering nomenclature and principles involved, and the engineering personnel are not
familiar with the computer's limitations and capabilities.
If there is sufficient work in the engineering department to develop an internal
staff for setting its problems into machine programs, this method will probably optimize
the benefits of the computer to the engineering department. The present developments
in automatic coding routines offer advantages to engineering departments in lessening
the time-consuming parts of writing detailed program instructions and debugging, and
greatly reduce the amount of training necessary to familiarize personnel with the
machine. In this respect, these automatic coders replace much of the skill previously
required.
One company reports that by using the automatic coding routine available for one
of the medium-size computers they have trained engineering personnel to write their
own programs and operate the machine in one day — four hours learning the program-
ming technique and four hours of machine familiarity.
We might note that, generally, programs written with automatic coders are less
efficient of machine time, but for most engineering applications this loss of machine
efficieno.' is more than offset by the increase in programming efficiency. Aside from the
automatic coding routines, there already exists rather extensive libraries of programs
which the engineering department can use; however, as a general rule, it is highly
desirable if the engineering department has sufficient knowledge of machine use to be
able to determine that any library program actually meets the^ir requirements.
2. Types of Computer Equipment Available
Electronic computers are essentially high-speed calculators with various informa-
tion storage and comparing abilities. Appendix B is a descriptive listing of digital com-
puters with information about operating characteristics.
3. Applications of Electronic Data Computer to Engineering Problems
There is a large bibliography of references and libraries of programs for computers.
These are available either through user associations or from computer manufacturers.
Without describing them Ln detail, the engineering problems which have been .solved
through the use of computers are listed below.
a. Aeronautical Engineering
Systems evaluation
Curve fitting
228 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
P'actor analysis
Stress analysis
Vibration analysis
Fuel-oil system analysis
Electrical circuit analysis
b. Civil Engineering
(1) Soils Engineering
Pressure distribution in layered media
Design charts for relief-well systems of partially penetrating wells
Freezing and thaw^ing of soils
(2) Highway and Railway Engineering and Surveying
Cut and fill
Traverse closure
Traverse adjustment (compass and transit rules, least squares)
Transformation of coordinates (Mercator, Lambert, Local Plane, etc.)
Photogrammetric data reduction
Estimating
(3) Structural and Mechanical Engineering
Truss analysis, stresses and deflections
Analysiis of reinforced concrete, bending and direct stresses
Heat flow in concrete
Shell analysis, stress distribution
Analysis of rigid frames, moment distribution
Effects of foundation settlements
Temperature stresses
Arch analysis and design
Cam design
Critical speeds
Pipe-stress analysis
Moments of inertia
Air conditioning
(4) Hydraulic Engineering and Hydrology
Water management of a multipurpose reservoir system
Flood routing
Backwater profiles
Hydraulic network analysis— (Hardy Cross)
Flow of ground water
Flood or flow forecasting
Flood frequency analysis
Wind-wave analysis
c. Chemical Engineering
Crude oil evaluation.
Mass spectrometer analysis
Process simulation
d. Electrical and Electronic Engineering and Communications
Circuit analysis and design
Antennae design
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 229
Radar echos
Radio interference
Filter analysis
r. Mechanical Design
Critical sfjeed calculations for rotating shafts (Prohl method)
Properties of combustion constituents calculation
Gas turbine unbalanced torque calculation
f. Public Utilities
Life expectancy of equipment
Transmission losses
Demand forecasting
Flood control
Pipe line design
Calibration of standard meters
Calculation of depreciation tables
In continuing its assignment, your committee hopes to investigate the possibility of
setting up a centralized library of computer programs designed to solve railway engineer-
ing problems. In this way, it is believed that duplication of effort in parallel railroad
fields will be minimized.
Also, your committee hopes to find some programs of sufficient general interest to
present them in the Proceedings as concrete examples of the uses of computers in railway
engineering.
The use of electronic data -processing equipment for the solution of railway engi-
neering problems is in its infancy. Initially, computers no doubt will be viewed as time
savers and labor savers; that is, application will be for repetitive processes. However, as
railway engineers become facile in the use of computers it is believed that problems
which had been considered insoluble will be programmed and solved. Computers give
the railway engineer a tool with which he will not only be able to solve complex engi-
neering problems quickly and in much greater volume, but it will allow economic
evaluations of the effects of solutions to certain engineering problems as related to other
operations. This will allow the engineer to determine the best answer rather than the best
answer of a few alternative answers.
APPENDIX A
The following definitions are abstracted from the "First Glossary of Programming
Terminology" in a Report to the Association for Computing Machinery, June 19S4.
Code (noun) — ^A system of symbols and of the rules for their use in representing
information.
Computer Code (Machine Code) — the code representing the operations built into the
hardware of the computer.
Instruction Code — the symbols, names, and definitions of all the instructions which are
directly intelligible to a given computer or a given executive routine.
Operation Code — that part of an instruction which designates the operation to be per-
formed.
230 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Pseudo-Code — an arbitrary code, independent of the hardware of a computer, which
must be translated into computer code if it is to direct the computer.
Pulse Code — sets of pulses to which particular meanings have been assigned; binary
representation of characters.
Code (verb) — to prepare problems in computer code in pseudo-code for a specific com-
puter.
Coding — the list, in computer code or in pseudo-code, of the successive computer opera-
tions required to solve a given problem.
Absolute, Relative, or Symbolic Coding — coding in which one uses asbsolute, relative, or
symbolic addresses, respectively.
Automatic Coding — any technique in which a computer is used to help bridge the gap
between some "easiest" form, intellectually and manually, of describing the steps
to be followed in solving a given problem and some "most efficient" final coding
of the same problem for a given computer. Two basic forms, defined under Routine,
are Compilation and Interpretation.
Program (noun) — a plan for the solution of a problem. A complete program includes
plans for the transcription of data, coding for the computer and plans for the
absorption of the results into the system. The list of coded instructions is called
a routine.
Program (verb) — to plan a computation or process from the asking of a question to
the delivery of the results, including the integration of the operation into an exist-
ing system. This programming consists of planning and coding, including numerical
analysis, systems analysis, specification of printing formats, and any other functions
necessary to the integration of a computer in a system.
Automatic Programming — any technique in which the computer is used to help plan
as well as to help code a problem.
Optimum Programming — minimal latency coding.
Routine — a set of coded instructions arranged in proper sequence to direct the computer
to perform a desired operation or series of operations.
Executive Routine (Master Routine) — a routine designed to process and control other
routines. A routine used in realizing automatic coding
Compiler (Compiling Routine) — an executive routine which before the desired computa-
tion is started, translates a program expressed in pseudo-code into machine code
(or into another pseudo-code for further translation by an interpreter.) In accom-
plishing the translation, the compiler may be required to decode, convert, select,
generate, allocate, assemble, record.
Interpreter (Interpretive Routine) — an executive routine which, as the computation
progresses, translates a stored program expressed in some machine — like pseudo-
code into machine code and performs the indicated operations by means of sub-
routines, as they are translated.
Minimal Latency Routine — especially in reference to serial storage systems, a routine so
coded, by judicious arrangement of data and instructions in storage, that the actual
latency is appreciably less than the expected random access latency.
Sheet #1
APPENDIX B
Output
Tees.
Speed
Paper Tape 60 Ghar,/SeCo
Mag. Tape 10000 Char, /Sec c
Flexowriter 10 Char. /See,
Card Converter 100 Cards/^ln.
In-
struction
Type
Application Addregg
CB| S 1
Card Punch
Typewriter
Punch
Mag, Tape
Priater
Mage to Paper
Tape
Mag, to Teletype
Paper to Typewriter
Mag o to Typewriter
Printer
Paper Tape
Paper Tape Punch
Readout Panel
Typewriter
Punched Cards
Printing
Paper Tape
Mago Tape
Paper Tape
Paper Tape
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Mag, Tape
Cards
Punched Cards
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Paper Tape
Line Printer
Pxmched Cards
11 Char, /Sec.
8 Char ./Sec.
60 Char. /Sec.
A30 Char. /Sec.
600 Lines/ilino
20 Char, /Sec,
50 Char „ /See,
9 CharVSec.
U Min/Inquiry
24. Dig „ /Sec,
0.33 SeCoPunch
10 Char, /Sec,
66 Milseco/Dig,
Manual
100/i4in,
900 Lines/Min,
10 Char. /See,
60000 Dig/Sec,
Input Converter
Output Converter
10 Char/Sec,
60 Dig/Sec.
6000 Dig/Sec.
1800 Char/llin,
10 Milsec/Transf er
60 Char /Sec.
25000 Dig/Sec.
60 Dig/Sec,
150 Llne*/^in,
100 Cards, Min.
Printer
Paper Tape
Typewriter
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Mag, Tape
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Mag, Tape
Punch Cards
GP
CBjS
S; Portable
CB;S
1
1
3, U
GP
CBjS
GP
10 Char/Sec.
2 Dig/Sec,
7.5 Dlgo/Secc
8 Char/Sec,
60 Char/Sec.
400 Char/Sec,
8 Char/Sec,
8 or 60 Char/Sec,
6000 Char/Sec.
C;S
1l«B-.ifaetur«r
Average
Price For
Hodel System
Irf^istloi Research, III E C
PnwtlT Ospu-ker G 15 B
oiT.; vaam
BU siaac
?-:Lrrc'j^hs Ccrp.
BuH30TJ(HS
latoretics D1t=
sSXKP
UiZiEatic Corp.
^ITi-VATIC
E-101 B
CP-266 D
1000 G
Average
Rental
Per
Month
Dollars
B
Space For
Computer &
Important
Units
Cubic Ft.
158
B 30,5
3800
B Desk Size
5.7
G 550 Sq.Ft.
Divide Time
Including
Access
Micro-
seconds
17000 to 25000
16000 to 33000
Varies Progo
250 J 000
21500
230^
LISTING OF DIGITAL OjMPUTmS
-iSESi ^ Storage
Sheet #1
APPEHDH B
S:e?,
Paper Tape 200 Char„/Sec, Mag,, Drum
Mag. Tape 10000 Char„/Seo.
Flexowrlter Manual
Card Converter 100 Cards/Min.
Paper Tape 275 Char,, /Sec „ Mag.Drum
Card Puncn 17 Char„/Se:„ Mag. Drum
Mag, Tape 430 Char./Se;.
Words
3Z
2160
16
Access
Micro-
seconds
1000 to 16000
.U500
540
TZES-
Output
Speed
Paper Tape 60 Char,/Sec,
Mag, Tape 10000 Char, /Sec,
Flexowrlter 10 Char. /Sec.
Card Converter 100 Cards/i<in„
Card Punch 11 Char, /Sec.
Typewriter 8 Char ./Sec,
Punch 60 ChaTo/Sec.
Mag, Tape ^30 Char./Sec.
Card to Tape 400 CardsAlin. Mag, Core 8192 Digits 20/Char,
Key to Paper 5000 Strokes/
Tape Hr. Mag. Drum 32736 Dig, 5120
Paper to Mag.Tape 200 Char, /Sec, Mag, Tape Indefinite 5000
Keyboard Manual Mag, Drum
Paper Tape 0,5 Sec, to Read Paper Tape
Paper Tape 37 Char„/See„ Rot,Mag.Disk
Typewriter Manual Rot .Mag, Disk
Keyboard Manual
Punch Cards 900 Cards/Min. Mag. Cores
Paper Tape 10 Char, /Sec, Mag,, Cores
Keyboard Manual Mag. Tape
Mag, Tape 60000 Dig/Sec.
8500
Printer
Mag, to Paper
Tape
Mag, to Teletype
Paper to Typewriter
Mag, to Typewriter
Printer
Paper Tape
20^
16
1000 -• 32500 Paper Tape Punch
1000 - 2500 Readout Panel
Typewriter
2000 12
248 20
37200000 Dig/Reel
Punched Cards
Printing
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Paper Tape
Paper Tape
600 Lines/Min,
20 Char, /Sec.
50 Char./Sec.
9 Char, /Sec,
A Min/Inq\d.ry
24. Dig, /Sec,
0.33 Sec. Punch
10 Char. /Sec,
66 Milsec/Dig.
Manual
100/ilin.
900 Lines/^in,
10 Char ./See.
60000 Dig/Sec.
Input Converter
Output Converter
Application
CBj S
CB;S
SjPortable
CBjS
In-
■t met Ion
T7p«
Address
3, i
Sleetro Data Div.;
DIUBDI 205 £
BludseBs Machines
DlT.; DIAIiA
fcder-rfood Corp,; 50
BBXM
100
120
125>125FP F
D 181
50
120 Sq.Ft.
12680
F 1200 Sq.Ft. -COOO
G 1500 Sq.Ft. ^830
None
25-50 op/Sec„
525
22000
Paper Tape 540 Dig/Sec Mag, Drum
Keyboard Manual Mag„ Tape
Mag.Tape 6000 Dlg/Sec. Data File
Cards 211 20 Dig/Sec,
Paper Tape 1000 Char /Sec, Mag, Core
Mag.Tape I4OOOOO Words/Sec, Mag. Tape
Punch Cards 7 Milsec/Transfer
4080 850
400000 24OOOOOOO
2000000 24OOOOOO
2000-10000 Words .10
Paper Tape bO-300 Dig/Sec, Mag.Core 200-10000 Char, 34
Punch Cards 100-500 CardsAlln, Hl-Sp.Drum 58500 Char. 11000
Typewriter Manual File Drums 2 to 625 x 197000
106 Char.
Keyboard
Paper Tape
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Manual
20 Dig/Ses.
Manual
7.5 Dig/Sec,
Mag.
Mag.
Mag,
Mag.
Dnin
Drum
Drum
Tape
100
3
512
60000
18900(Excl.Acc,) Typewriter
8 Char /Sec. Mag, Dirum 1000 to iOOOO
Paper Tape 8 to 4OO Char/Sec. Mag .Drum 10 to 100
Mag.Tape 400 Char/Sec.
Typewriter 8 Char/Se:„ Mag, Drum 4OOO to IOOOO
Paper Tape 3 to 4OO Char/Sec Mag. Drum 50 to 100
Mag.Tape 6000 Chax./Se;,
Punch Cards "
33000
325
20000
8300
1670
8300
1670
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Mag.Tape
Cards
Punched Cards
Paper Tape
Mag, Tape
10 Char/Sec.
60 Dig/Sec.
6000 Dig/Sec.
1800 Char/tiin.
10 Milsec/Transfer
60 Char /Sec.
25000 Dig/Sec,
Paper Tape 60 Dig/Sec.
Line Printer 150 Lines/llln.
Punched Cards 100 Cards. Min.
Printer
Paper Tape
Typewriter
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Mag, Tape
Punch Cards
10 Char/Sec.
2 Dig/Sec.
7.5 Dig, /Sec,
8 Char/Sec.
60 Char/Sec.
4OO Char/Sec.
8 Char/Sec,
8 or 60 Char/Sec.
6000 Char/Sec.
GP
GP
C;S
Sheet #2
Output
3»-
Access
■tructlon
Micro-
seconds
Type
Speed Application
Type
Address
31200
Teleprinter
Tape Punch
Printer
7 Char/Sec o S
25 Char/Sec.
150 Lines/^in.
1
Rapid
8000
Tape Punch
Teleprinter
25 Char/Sec o S
6.7 Char/Sec.
1
Rapid
8000
Paper Tape
Teleprinter
25 Char/Sec. S
2
3
60000000
Punched Tape
Mago Tape
Flexo writer
6 to 12 Words/Sec. S
250 Words/Sec.
1 Word/Sec.
3
760
600000
800000
Printer
Sumnary Punch
100tol50 Lines/hin, BjS
50 Cards/^ino
1, 2
500
Card
Reader Punch
100 Cards/*lin.
B;
s
1, 2
520
Card
Reader Punch
100 Cards/^in
B;
s
1,2
220
Card
Reader Pvmch
155 Cards/^in,
B;
s
1,2
'
Typewriter
Tape Punch
Cathode Tube
^,
S
•
-
Keyboard
-
-
-
% - iVSOO
Card Recorder
100 Cards/)4in
C;
s
2
96 Mag. Tape
Printer
(0000/60 Words Printer
15000 Char /Sec.
150 Lines/Min.
1000 Lines/Min.
12
%tol2000
Card Reader
Printer
Cathode Tube
Mag. Tape
Tape to Card
Tape to Printer
100 Cards/^in,
150 Lines/Min.
8300 Pts./Sec.
15000 Char/Sec.
100 Cards/Min.
150 Lines/Min.
C;
s
1
17
)00~40N/Char.
)000-67N/Char
Punched Card
Mag. Tape
. Printer
100 Cards/^in.
15000 Char/Sec.
150 Lines/^in.
C;
s
1
-
Card Pimch
Mag, Tape
Printer
CRT Recorder
100 Cards/Min.
100 Cards/Min.
150 Lines/Min.
8000 Pts/Sec.
C;
s
1
7500
Paper Tape
Flexowriter
10 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
s
1
■Mofaetum-
•Bd
Rodel
Mark I
Average
Price For
System
F
Average
Rental
Per
Konth
Dollars
Space For
Computer &
^portant
Units
Cubic Ft.
Divide Time
Including
Access
Micro-
seconds
LISTING
InDut
OF DIGITAL CCMPUTERS
Storage
Output
Sheet #2
ilicatton
S
Type
Speed
200 Char/Sec.
Type
Electrostatic
Mag. Dmn
Words
768
32768
Access
Micro-
seconds
31200
Teleprinter
Tape Punch
Printer
Speed Apj
7 Char/Sec.
25 Char/Sec.
150 Llnes/ilin.
•tractlo»
Type
y*rT«Etl Ltd.;
-
^000
None
Paper Tape
Address
1
Mercury
F
'
216
3500
Paper Tape
200 Char/Sec.
Mag. Cores
Mag. Drums
1024
16384
Rapid
8000
Tape Punch
Teleprinter
25 Char/Sec.
6.7 Char/Sec.
S
1
Pegasus
F
~
250
5500
Paper Tape
200 Char/Sec,
Mag'tve Delay-
Mag, Drtms
55
4608
Rapid
8000
Paper Tape
Teleprinter
25 Char/Sec,
S
2
3:iet al;
II
G
Rocm 50' X 26' 2352
Paper Tape 300tob00 Char/Sec. Mag. Core
Mag. Tape 250 Words/Sec. Mag.Tape Bin
Flexowrlter 1 Word/Sec.
40%
400000
3
60000000
Punched Tape
Mag, Tape
Flexowrlter
6 to 12 Words/See
250 Words/Sec.
1 Word/Sec.
:. S
3
iBteraatloaal
Boslsess Machines
IBM
CPC
C
375 15480 (EkcI.Acc.)
Card Reader
100--150 Cards/^i
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Accunulator
Mechanical
9
6
48
760 Printer 100tol50 Lines/Min,
600000 Sxinmary Punch 50 Cards/hin.
800000
B;S
1, 2
6O4
B
A
73.9 17000 (ExcLAcc.)
Card
Reader Punch
100 Cards/^lin
Elect, Tubes
9
500
Card
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100 CardsAin.
B; S
1, 2
607
B
A
178.9
15700 (Kxcel,
Access)
Card
Reader Punch
100 Cards/hin.
Elect. Tubes
37
520
Card
Reader Punch
100 Cards/Mln
B; S
1,2
608
E
B
160
13420 (Excel.
Access)
Card
Reader Punch
155 Cards/Min.
Mag, Cores
40
220
Card
Reader Punch
155 Cards/l4in.
B; S
1,2
btematicnal
Bosisesi Machines;
IBM
610
C
B
31
39 Per Min.
Keyboard
Tape Reader
Manual
15/Dig./See.
Mag. Drum
84
"
Typewriter
Tape Punch
Cathode Tube
:
S
-
632
A
-
5 Sq.Ft.
-
Keyboard
-
Mag. Core
-
-
Keyboard
-
-
-
650
F
D
270
6000 - 23400
(Excl .Access)
Punch Card
Mag. Tape
200 Cards/^in
15000 Char/Sec
Mag, Drum
. Mag. Core
Mag. Tape
Dlso.Ramac
1000 2000
Words
60
500000/Unit
600000
96 - 4800
96
800000/60 Word
Card Recorder
Mag. Tape
Printer
3 Printer
100 Cards/hin
15000 Char/Sec.
150 Lines/Min.
1000 Lines/kin.
C; S
2
70^
H
G
3000 Sq.Ft
. 228 (Excl .Ace.)
Card Reader
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Card to Tape
150-250 Cards/M.
15000 Char /Sec.
250 CardsAlin.
Mag. Core
Mag. Drum
8192
8192 or
12
16384 %tol2000
Card Reader
Printer
Cathode Tube
Mag. Tape
Tape to Card
Tape to Printer
100 Cards/Mln.
150 Lines/Min.
8300 Pts./Sec.
15000 Char/Seo.
100 Cards/Mln.
150 Lines/Min,
C; S
1
705
B
G
2000 Sq.Ft
, 527(20Dig.Nos.)
Mag. Tape
Punch Cards
75 in/Sec.
250 Cards/Mm.
Mag, Core
Mag, Drtxi
Mag. Tape
40000
60000
576000
Char,
Char.
Char.
17
,8000-40N/Char,
,10000-67N/Char
Punched Card
Mag. Tape
, Printer
100 Cards/tlin.
15000 Char/Sec.
150 Lines/idln.
C;S
1
709
B
G
3000Sq.Ft„
216
Card Reader
Mag. Tape
250 Cards/Min.
90000 Dlg/Sec,
Mag. Core
Mag. Drum
4096-32768
8192 to 16384
Card Punch
Mag. Tape
Printer
CRT Recorder
100 Cards/kin.
100 Cards/Mln.
150 Lines/Min.
8000 Pts/Sec.
C; S
1
fi9
30
B
B
22
24000
Paper Tape
Flexowrlter
10 Char/Se2,
Manual
Mag, Drum
4096
7500
Paper Tape
Flexowrlter
10 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
S
1
Sheet #3
Output
Application
In-
Access
Micro-
seconds
•Tjrpe
Speed
struction
Type
Address
15000
30000
Graph Plotter
Dig, to Analog
31 Inc/Sec.
31 Inc/Sec.
Differential
Eqiiations
Simulation
-
300000
Typevfriter
7 Char/Sec.
Inventory
Control
1
50000
50000
Typevnriter
10 Char/Sec,
Inventory
Control
1
3x10^ Trans/Hr.
Keyset
Telephone
—
Stock Market
-
Random
Paper Tape
Office Machs,
10 Char/Sec.
Inventory
-
Eandcm Keyset 1.2-3.3 Trans/Sec. Railroad &
I Air Trans-
I port
200 to 10000 Paper Tape 600 Dig/^in. S 1
25000
7500
8000
576
288
17
32
16670
12500
L 6000
12500
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Punch Cards
Punch Tape
Punch Cards
Paper Tape
Punch Card
19 to 305
19 to 4 Mins,
Printer
Punch Tape
Punch Card
Mago Tape
Flexo writer
Paper Tape
Paper Tape
Pionch
Mag, Tape
Punch Cards
Paper Tape
Printer
Mag, Tape
Typewriter
Mag. Tape
M^^UgMil.
Rugged
200 Char/Sec. Business
U Cards/Sec. Data
60 Char/Sec. B
600 Cards/^in,
70 Char/Sec,
360 Cards/^in.
Translating;
GP
Paper Tape 600 Char/^in, Inventory
10 Char ./Sec,
10 Char/Sec.
17 Char/Sec.
600 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
60 Char/Sec.
600 Char/Sec,
4000 Char/ilin.
60 Char/Sec,
600 LinesAin
15000 Char/Sec.
5 Dig/Sec.
400 Words/Sec.
GP; S
C; S
Multi.
LISTING _OT DIGITAL CCMPUTERS
Sheet #3
Model
Average
Rental
Average Per
Price For Month
SysteBi Dollars
Littcc Incustries 20 /,0
Lmx
ELBCraOBICS CQRP.; b
MiC^'S'ILE D
Telergister Corp.; BID Asked Special
MicnsisQKic
Inventory F
Reservisor
MHA,MEB,MM
Spco
Purpose
Marr'iaTitjInc. C II
MIHI4C
D
SylTaniajInc.j
-
nKmic
KcTiiitaln Systans; UOA
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F
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Korroe CalcJUch, TI
Co.j HOKBOBOrr
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CiM|Miny 9CE
102D C
■stiOMl Cash
■MCUter Co.;
■jT-Umob Mfg.Co.;
304
A
Space For
Computer &
Important
Units
Cubic Ft.
0.5
9 Sq.Ft,
15 Sq, Ft.
Divide Time
Including
Access
Mlcro-
seconds
Dm
91
25600
StdJ^llitary 150
Trailer
120 None
40 700(Ekc1,Acc.)
240 8000
30
135
None
600000
38500
250 Sq.Ft„ 21100-53200
1600 Sq.Ft. 4200(20
Digit Nos.)
17600
470 to 1620
Input
Storage
Tape Fill
Curve Follower
Manual
Keyboard
Keyboard
Keyset
Telephone
Paper Tape
Punch Cards
Tape Punch
Keyset
Speed Se®__
20 Integ/ilino Mag. Dinm
62 Incretn/Sec. Mag„ Drvtn
2 Integ/Min
Words
20
40
Access
Mlcro-
seconds
15000
30000
4 Char/Sec.
4 Char/Sec „
Mag, Drum 404O 300000
Mag. Drum 8000 50000
Mag. Drum 500 50000
Mag. Drum 100000 Digits 8x10^ Trans/Hr
Paper Tape
Keyboard
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Punch Cards
Punch Tape
Punch Cards
Paper Tape
Pimch Cards
Paper Tape
Keyboard
Punch Tape
10 Char/Sec, Mag, Drum 1500000 Dig. Randran
20 Char /Sec.
1.2-3.3 Trans. Sec. Mag. Drum lto3.5 Megabits Random
600 Char/tlln. Mag. Drum 4096 1200 to 10000
Manual
200 Char/Sec.
4 Cards/Sec.
400 Char. /Sec.
600 Cards/Min.
360 Cards/Min.
600 Char/Mln.
Manual
10/Sec.
Mag. Core
Mag. Drum
Mag. Drum
Mag, Drim
Mag. Drum
Mag, Cores
Mag. Drum
Shift Reg,
Mag. Drum
40%
20000
5000
6000
4
2
10000
1
25000
7500
8000
576
288
17
32
16670
Floxowriter Manual Mag. Drum
Paper Tape 10 Char/Sec. Mag. Tape
Mag. Tape 1,6 CharAlilsec
Paper Tape
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Keyboard
Punch Cards
10 Char/Sec.
200 Char/Sec.
600 Char/Sec.
Manual
4000 Char/Min.
Mag.
Mag.
Punch Cards 1000 Cards/Min.
Paper Tape 1000 Char/Sec.
Mag„ Tape 15000 Char/Sec.
Mag,
Mag,
Mag
Dran
Tape
Core
Tape
Tape
Keyboard
Mag,, Tape
14 Words/t41n.
4OO words/Sec.
Delay Line
Mag. Tape
1024 12500
112800/Reel 6000
1024 12500
102000/Reel
1000-4000
400000
600000
2176
400000
19 to 305
19 to 4 Mins.
Output
Graph Plotter
Dig. to Analog
Typewriter
Typewriter
Keyset
Telephone
Speed
31 Inc/Sec.
31 Inc/Sec.
7 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
Paper Tape 10 Char/Sec.
Office Machs,
■tmctloi
Type
Application Addregi
Differential
Equations _
Simulation
Inventory
Control 1
Inventory 1
Control
Stock Market
Inventory
Keyset
Paper Tape
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Typewriter
Paper Tape
Punch Cards
Punch Tape
Punch Cards
Paper Tape
Punch Card
1.2-3,3 Trans/Sec.
600 Dig/t4in.
200 Char/Sec.
4 Cards/Sec.
60 Char/Sec.
600 Cards/Min.
70 Char/Sec.
360 Cards/tlin.
MgbiJgMll.
Rugged
Business
Data
Translating;
GP
Paper Tape 600 Char/Min. Inventory
Printer
Punch Tape
Punch Card
Mag. Tape
Flexowriter
Paper Tape
Paper Tape
Punch
Mag. Tape
Punch Cards
Paper Tape
Printer
Mag, Tape
Typewriter
Mag. Tape
10 Char ./Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
17 Char/Sec.
600 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
10 Char/Sec.
60 Char/Sec.
600 Char/Sec.
4000 Char/kin.
60 Char/Sec.
600 Lines/Min
15000 Char/Sec.
5 Dig/Sec.
400 Words/Sec.
GP; S
C; S
Railroad &
Air Trans-
port
S 1
Multl.
Sheet li^
Output
pplicatlon
In.
Access
Micro-
seconds
Type
Speed A
■traction
lype
Address
lab - 9350
Flexowriter
Punch Cards
Mag. Tape
10 Char/Sec.
100 Cards/iiln.
700 Dig/Sec.
Bj S
1
-
Typewriter
Printers
-
GP
1
20/5 Dig,
Paper Tape
60 Char/Sec.
C; S
1
\0.U to ^04.
Mag. Tape
Printer
Printer
Printer
Tape to Card
128000 Char/Sec.
10 InSec.
10 Char/Sec.
600 Lines/t4in.
120 Cards/^in.
GP
1
Mag. Tape to Paper - 50 Char/Sec.
Transrecorder 90 Chax/Sec.
20 Mag. Tape - GP
Uniprinter 10 Char/Sec.
Hi-Speed Printer 600 Lines/kin.
Tape to Card 120 Cards/Min.
Mag. to Paper Tape 90 Char/Sec.
Card Punch - B; S
lar. Handcan
8
17500
Card Punch
Card Punch
Keyboard
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Mag. Tape
Printer
Punch
Eeproducer
Flexowriter
B; S
File
Sort
Complete
2130 Words/Sec.
600 Lines/Min.
60 Frames/Sec.
120 Cards/kin.
Monitor
LISTING OF DIGITAL CCMPUTERS
Sheet #^
JUE\if»otur<er
:rp» Model
.'.B.Se*,Inc.j
Fhiljo Corp.; S2000
P-JTT.-Ut^s Corp.; II, III
— -V'-" Hjind; I
Average
Rental
Average Per
Price For Month
System Dollars
II
60 D
120 D
File EF
Space For
Computer &
Snportant
Units
Cubic Ft.
125
Divide Time
Including
Access
Mlcro-
seconds
9350 - UOOO
Input
Storage
^8
31 Hacks
80(Exc1, Acc)
9^3
30000 (Excl.
Access)
3950
.JZE2_
Flexoviriter
Punch Cards
Mag. Tape
Pimched Card
Pref. Tape
Mag. Tape
Paper Tape
Mag, Tape
Keyboard
Card to Tape
Paper to Mag. Tape
Transrecorder
Speed
10 Char/Sec.
100 Cards/kin.
700 Dig/Sec.
1200Words/Min.
WO Char/Sec.
750 Words/Seo,
120 Char/Sec.
TjES
Mag.
Mag.
Dnm
Tape
Words
ilOOO
50000
Access
Micro-
seconds
-^25 - 9350
Mag. Core
Mage Drum
Mago
Mag.
Core
Drum
12800 Char/Sec. Delay Line
Manual
2^0 Char/kin „
200 Char/Sec „
90 Char/Sec,
4096
1638^-24576
.1000
20/5 Dig.
40.4 to 404
949
A 138
B 130
B-E 1000 Sq, Ft.
3030
Mag, Tape 100 In/Sec.
Keyboard Manual
Card to Tape 240 Cfrds/Min,
Paper to Mag. Tape 200 Chax/Sec.
Verifier
Mag. Core 2000-10000
Scientific 110PA(1000 to 2000)25,000-50,000(946 Sq.Ft.) 486
Card Punch
Card Punch
Card Punch
Keyboard
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Mag. Tape
Tape Reader
Card Repdr.
75 Cards/Sec,
75 Cards/Sec,
Vacuum Tube
Vacuijm Tube
6
12
Large Capacity 1800000
2130 Words/Sec.
WO Fr„/Sec.
120 Cards/kin.
Mag.
Mag.
Core
Drum
4096
16304
Char. Random
17500
Output
Type
Flexovrriter
Punch Cards
Mag. Tape
Typewriter
Printers
Paper Tape
Mag. Tape
Printer
Printer
Printer
Tape to Card
Speed
10 Char/Sec.
100 Cards/tlin.
700 Dig/Sec.
60 Char/Sec.
128000 Char/Sec.
10 InSec.
10 Char/Sec.
600 Lines/kin.
120 Cards/kin.
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Typa
Application Addreai
3j 8 1
Cj S
Mag. Tape to Paper - 50 Char/Sec.
Transrecorder 90 Char/Sec.
Mag, Tape
Dnipr inter 10 Char/Sec.
Hi-Speed Printer 600 Lines/Min.
Tape to Card 120 Cards/Min.
Mag. to Paper Tape 90 Char/Sec.
Card Punch -
Card Punch -
Card Punch -
Keyboard -
Paper Tape -
Mag. Tape
Mag. Tape
Printer
Punch
Reproducer
Flexovrriter
2130 Words/Sec.
600 Lines/Min.
60 Frimes/Sec.
120 Cards/Min.
Monitor
B; S
B; S
File
Sort
Complete
CB - CciKercial Business
3 - Scientific, Engineering
GP - Seneral Purpose
CZT - Cathode Ray Tube
Z.Zk - Digital Differential Analyzer
PURCHASE DOLLARS
MONTHLY RENTAL DOLLARS
A - Under 25,000
B - 25,000 to 50,000
C - 50,000 to 75,000
D - 75,000 to 100,000
E - 100,000 to 150,000
F - 150,000 to 500,000
0 - 500,000 to 1,000,000
H - 1,000,000 and over
A - Under 1,000
B - I5OOO to 2,000
C - 2,000 to 3,000
D - 3,000 to 4,000
E - 4,000 to 5,000
F - 5,000 to 10,000
G - 10,000 and over
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 2M
Report on Assignment 7
Engineering, Maintenance and Operating Benefits to be Derived
From Increased Joint Use of Railway Facilities
Collaborating with Committees 11, 14, and 20
J. W. Barriger (chairman, subcommittee), C. H. Blackman, C. P. Blair, I. C. Brewer,
R. M. Champion, Jr., B. Chappell, H. B. Christiansen, Jr., J. E. Inman, H. P.
Morgan, J. R. Nutter, F. J. Richter, H. L. Woldridge.
This is a progress report submitted as information.
The field of "joint" railway facilities is almost unlimited and therein lies one of the
principal hopes for elimination of waste now inherent in railway transportation. The
thousands of joint-facility contracts in effect offer good testimony to the practicability
and economic feasibility of intensifying such joint usage, with resultant savings to be
realized through abandonment of obsolete duplicating facilities as well as services in
many instances.
"Joint facilities" need not be confined to a stretch of track or a particular station
but can encompass the entire railroad plant and the personnel required in administra-
tion, maintenance or operation. They may include the "pooling" of services, both freight
and passenger, to the ultimate economic advantage of the participating carriers and
the communities served.
The great problem in working out a joint-faciHty arrangement is how to divide
the benefits and assess the costs. Frequently, there are situations that involve com-
petitive traffic, and there is a natural unwillingness to surrender an advantage, which
can be readily visualized from experience; this is a real problem but is not insur-
mountable when other factors are properly weighed. Present economic conditions require
the full ingenuity of the railroad official family in consummating joint-facility arrange-
ments, one of the few steps available today for increasing railway income.
Although there are a great number of joint-facility agreements, they are gen-
erally confined to main tracks, stations, yards and terminals, whereas comparatively
little has been accomplished in the field of coordinated services, either passenger or
freight. The "duplicating" services requiring maintenance of elaborate separate facilities,
ostensibly for the purpose of providing competition, represent a burden on railroad
operating costs that is difficult to justify under existing conditions, especially in the
light of subsidization of the railway competitors in the field of transportation — water,
highway, and air. The railroads must, therefore, take fuU advantage of opportunities
to reduce their costs of "conducting transportation" for passengers and goods; intensified
use of the more favorable routes and preferred terminal locations presents an oppor-
tunity for the railroads to better cope with the ever increasing costs of operations.
It is the recommendation of your committee that the railroads thoroughly explore
the possibilities of new joint-facility projects. Such investigations should embrace all
phases of railroad operations and facilities. For convenient reference the following
classes of facilities, personnel and services are listed, and there are perhaps others which
are peculiar to certain railroads:
Road trackage
Classification yards
Delivery yards
Other freight terminals
1
232 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Passenger terminals
Major bridges — drawbridges, etc.
Car shops
Locomotive shops
Pole lines
Radio stations and networks
Teletype systems and other communications
Microwave systems
Power stations
Power transmission lines
Work equipment
Major maintenance of way machinery
Office buildings
Icing stations
Stock handling stations
Outlying traffic agencies
Station agencies
Billing bureaus
Data-processing operating centers
Locomotive fueling stations
Marine operations
Administration services
M. W. machinery shops (including highway vehicles)
Research centers
Seasonal utilization of locomotives and cars
Reclamation shops
Purchases and stores
Various accounting bureaus
LCL truck operations
Ore and coal docks
Highway truck operations
Inspection organizations
Real estate management
Blueprinting and photography services
Bridge and building design, and engineering
Car and locomotive design, and engineering
Advertising, publicity and company magazines
Welding operations
Timber and tie plants
Track scales
Loss and damage
Claims bureaus
Probability of utilizing railway trackage and station facilities on an integrated
basils for providing mass transportation in the larger communities
The benefits which may be anticipated from joint facilities will include:
1. Reduction in every phase of railway operating expenses for administration,
maintenance and operation of facilities deemed unnecessary and burdensome.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 233
2. Reduction in taxes for property abandoned.
3. Benefits from sale or lease of property and improvements no longer required
for railroad purposes.
4. In many cases valuable property may be made available for industrial devel-
opment on a basis that will provide new freight traffic for rail movement.
5. Will provide rail and other track materals that can be utilized to economic
advantage for other main, branch, yard, or industrial tracks.
6. The probabiHty of better service by the addition of modern facilities and
through the improvement of maintenance standards made possible by the
increased use of remaining facilities.
7. The possibility of more frequent freight and passenger schedules between
major communities, to the ultimate competitive advantage of the railroad
industry.
Perhaps of greatest importance to the railroad industry is the possibility of pooling
services between major points in the interest of reducing operating expenses. This is
most apparent in the case of passenger service where the utilization is far below the
availability of service, but is also applicable to freight service in many instances. One
example of service pooling is the passenger operations between the Twin Cities and
Duluth, Minn. Such arrangement can substantially reduce the cost of rendering a
higher quality of service over the "pool route", and this same idea can be effectively
extended to freight services. In many instances, especially where unprofitable branch
lines are involved, amalgamated services will produce substantial benefits by permitting
abandonment of excess trackage — ^and with the far-flung highway system covering nearly
every section of the country, such abandonment will not deprive local communities
of service which they require.
We cannot undertake in this report to prescribe the terms and conditions of joint-
facility contracts because of so many variables being involved, but there are innumer-
able precedents established which will serve as a guide for negotiating purposes, so we
commend to the AREA and railway officers in general the task of exploring the pos-
sibilities of the engineering, maintenance, and operating benefits to be derived from
increased joint use of railway facilities.
Reference is also made to the address of the subcommittee chairman on this
subject beginning on page llSl of Vol. 59, AREA Proceedings for 1958.
Report on Assignment 8
Innovations in Railway Operations
A. L. Sams (chairman, subcommittee), Herbert Ashton, J. W. Barriger, W. R. Catching,
Jr., H. B. Christianson. Jr., W. E. Quinn, F. J. Richter, L. K. Sillcox, C. W.
Sooby, D. K. Van Ingen, L. E. Ward.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
Innovation — the process of change — is a constant process in the operation of a
railroad. The alternative to change is decay, because the forces of nature and our
environment dictate that we cannot remain unchanged. The rate at which innovations
are adopted is one measure of our progress.
From the beginning of history, change has been an important factor in human
affairs. It is the outstanding characteristic of our civilization today. The period during
and following World War II will be recorded as the most dynamic in history, for this
234 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
has been the era of invention and development. One of the foremost developments has
been the substitution of the machine for manual labor in performing the operations
of many industries. In many respects the machine is superior to the human in the
performance of these operations. It is more economical and more powerful; it is less
inclined to aberration ; it can work under extreme temperature ranges. For these and
other reasons, the use of mechanical devices has been Widespread.
Mechanization and automation have occurred in the railroad industry also. Labor-
saving equipment has taken out much of the drudgery and reduced the cost of many
maintenance of way operations. New kinds of signaling systems are expediting the
movement of trains with a smaller force of operators. The use of radio and other
communication devices is increasing the efficiency of yards and terminals. More recently,
the introduction of electronic data-processing machinery has supplanted many of the
manual functions in statistical bureaus and accounting departments. The railroads can
point with pride to these achievements of the past decade.
On the other hand, it should be noted that nearly all of the recent innovations
on railroads have been developed externally and adopted by the railroads. Instead of
pursuing research and development independently, the railroads must rely on their
customers, their competitors and, principally, their suppliers for new ideas. The rail-
roads cannot hope, or afford, to do as much research work to develop new materials
and devices as their suppliers, who have a broader market and a better chance to
recover the cost of research, plus a profit. The railroads should, however, work closely
with their supply specialists to let them know their needs, make suggestions and appraise
the benefits to be derived from the new products.
Another significant observation that should be made at this time relates to the
future need for rail transportation. No system has yet been devised that can provide
mass transportation more efficiently and more economically than a railroad. While the
airplane may be faster, the highway vehicle more flexible, and the pipeline more
economical for transporting specific commodities under specific conditions, the railroad
offers a combination of these characteristics. Furthermore, another characteriistic of
increasing importance is the greater adaptability of the railroad to automation.
The purpose of this study is to stimulate thinking along the lines of innovations
in railway procedures by directing attention to some of the problems now facing us.
A few suggestions are included in this report. Additional ideas are requested from other
hiembers for inclusion in further reports on this subject.
Specific Suggestions
One of the steps in engineering planning is the showitig on plans by appropriate
Colors proposed new construction and facilities to be removed. Usually one is shown
by red lines and the other by yellow lines. Several copies of the prints are usually
I'equired, and a considerable amount of work is involved in their preparation. A desir-
able improvement in their procedure would be effected by a simple blue printing
process which would print the desired color lines. This would be accomplished by
drawing the lines on the original tracing with substances which react to light, and the
sensitized printing paper to produce the desired colors. The substances used must be
easily removed without damaging the original tracing.
Train movements are expedited by good communications between the dispatcher
and the train and engine crews. Two-way radio is now being used for this purpose,
but is not considered entirely suitable for transmitting train orders. If radio-operated
teleprinter facilities were available for transcribing train orders direct to the locomotive
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 235
and caboose, the intermediate operator could be abolished and greater efficiency would
result. It would be necessary to provide both sending and receiving equipment on the
locomotives and cabooses to insure receipt and understanding of the orders.
One of the problems in relaying rail in track is the positioning of the tie plates
under the new rail. A suggested solution is to place the tie plates, using a template
against the opposite rail, and hold them in position with staples until the rail is spiked.
Diesel locomotives require an adequate supply of water for cooling purpose and
for the generation of steam to heat passenger cars. The presence of scale-forming
minerals is objectionable, and water containing these minerals must be softened. The
usual procedure is to establish resin-type water-softening plants at locations where the
locomotives are supplied with water. These plants must be regenerated periodically
with salt. A new method of removing or rendering harmless the objectionable minerals
is desired, one which will not require the frequent attention necessary with the present
type.
Great progress has been made in the development and use of plastics during the
recent years. There are many potential applications of plastics to the railroad industry.
Plastic pipes and conduits may prove to be satisfactory substitute for metal pipes in
areas where corrosion or electrolysis is a problem. Plastic coatings can be used to
prevent weathering of exposed metal parts. Some consideration has already been given
to the use of plastic material as a substitute for cross ties. Structural uses of epoxy
adhesives in railroad work has been submitted as a research project for the AAR.
Such adhesives might be considered for bonding tie plates to ties, providing a pad and
a sealant. They may be cast or molded to form a substitute for the cut spike, used
as a chemical sealant for joining rail ends in place of conventional rail joints, or used
instead of welding. Undoubtedly many more applications will be discovered as plastics
are improved and developed.
High-speed electronic computers and data-processing machines are now in use on
several railroads to perform accounting and statistical work. Study is now being given
to engineering and other problems to which these machines can be applied. One of the
assignments of Committee 16 (see report on assignment 7) is to suggest new applications
of electronic computers. As we learn more about the characteristics of the machines,
many new uses will present themselves. A possible use that has been presented is a
central accounting system for all railroads to record car movements and determine per
diem charges. Interchange reports would be prepared on sensitized forms and forwarded
to the headquarters of the system. The central system could act as a clearing house
for per diem charges, debiting or crediting each of the member roads monthly. Another
application of data-processing equipment on an individual railroad is as a central
filing and recording system. All necessary statistics would be transmitted to and stored
by the central unit. From these records all accounting and statistical functions would
be performed by the machine. Correspondence files, engineering drawings and similar
documents would be recorded on microfilm and the microfilm inserted in punch cards
for filing. Closed circuit television with receiving units located at strategic points would
provide a means of viewing the documents, and teleprinter service would quickly
furnish the desired information in printed form.
The known uses of radioactive materials suggest that these may have applications
to railroad work. One such application would be radioactive signaling devices to replace
the present systems of signaling. Another application might be equipment for identifying
cars automatically.
The operation of freight yards anfl terminals offers man\' opportunities for innova-
2Sb Economics of Railway Location and Operation
tions to reduce costs and to improve the efficiency and safety of the work. Much
progress has been made along these lines in recent years, particularly in the operation
of retarder classification yards. One possible improvement in this area is the use of an
endless chain arrangement to move cars from the receiving yard to the crest of the
hump. This would eliminate the need for the humping locomotive and would provide
better control over the humping operation. Another suggestion to perform the humping
operation without using a hump locomotive is to install a series of hydraulic rams
between the receiving yard and crest of hump to push the cut of cars. In either case
some provision would be necessary to do the trimming in the classification yard. Th'is
could be accomplished by using a remote-controlled robot locomotive. Still a third
suggestion to eliminate the hump locomotive is the robot hump engine, operated by the
conductor 'in the hump office by remote control equipment. In the latter arrangement,
the robot hump locomotive could be used to trim and perform other operations. Also,
in hump classification yards the use of retarders instead of skates would reduce the
cost and improve operating efficiency.
Comment was made earlier in this report on the adaptability of the railroads to
automation. The rails that carry the trains also guide them and can be used to transmit
instructions to them. A railroad is an economical transportation system because a small
crew of men is adequate to control a large train. The disadvantage of this system is the
delay caused by the accumulation of small units into trainload lots. Dispatchment of
individual carload lots would eliminate this objectionable delay. Small-lot dispatchment
is economical and practical only if each car contains a power unit for locomotion and
if the movement can be made without a crew. Automatic operation without a crew
can be accomplished by a tape on the car to define the position of each switch on the
route from origin to destination. Devices must be installed to insure proper separation
of cars or trains to provide adequate braking distance, and to stop the forward progress
at destination.
To eliminate the excessive costs and delays associated with our present system of
terminal operations, it may be possible to change our practices and do away w-ith most
of our passenger and freight terminals. Our passengers would meet the trains by car,
and shippers would be served door to door by piggy back.
The maintenance of our rolling stock is a fertile area for the institution of innova-
tions. Freight cars can be built to run from shopping to shopping without attention to
draft gears, brakes, trucks, bearings, wheels, etc., but it will require provision for the
same and very careful policing when cars are released from shops for such a term of
service (5 to 7 years). Supplementary inspections, as nearly automatic and frequent
as economically possible, must also be made. Electronic equipment for locating internal
defects must be installed at terminals and other strategic points. To reduce the damage
to equipment and lading and the delays in transit caused by derailments, automatic
devices to detect broken flanges, loose and broken wheels and hot boxes should be
provided at frequent intervals along the main tracks.
The widespread adoption of trailer-on-iflat-car operation has stimulated thinking
on other methods of packaging commodities for transportation. The handling of mail
and express shipments by piggy back in passenger trains could reduce cost and expedite
this operation at passenger terminals. The use of pallets for the mechanized handling
of LCL freight, mail, express and baggage is also suggested.
Improvement in freight train operation might be effected by spacing diesel units
throughout the train instead of placing all units at the head end. The operation of all
units could be synchronized and controlled by radio from the leading unit. The spacing
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 237
might be so arranged that at important intermediate terminals and junction points a
unit would be placed with set-out cars and used to make the switch.
The most costly item of material in maintenance of way is cross ties. Undoubtedly
this cost could be reduced by better inspection methods to supplement visual inspec-
tion. This might be accomplished by inducing vibrations in the tie with a portable
oscillator, interpreting the results in terms of the physical condition and remaining life
of the tie.
Report on Assignment 9
Economics and Methods of Utilizing Railway Property, Rights-
of-way, and Facilities to Develop or Increase Secondary
Sources of Railway Revenue
F. J. Corporon (chairman, subcommittee), J. W. Bolstad, Q. K. Baker, I. C. Brewer,
D. E. Brunn, B. Chappell, F. B. Peter, H. F. Schryver, C. E. Stryker, J. E. Teal.
This is a final report, presented as information.
A compilation of ideas submitted as applicable to the scope of the assignment is
presented herein for consideration by those who are interested in the possibilities of
enhancing economic stability for their railroad by developing or increasing secondary
sources of revenue.
The ideas are merely listed without detailed discussion thereof. As the railroads
differ from each other, the economies to be realized and the methods of application of
the various ideas must be analyzed and studied in the light of the peculiarities of the
particular railroad that might be interested.
The listings are grouped under general classifications as a convenience to continuity
of thought:
1. Executive, Financial and Legal
a. Joint use of legal facilities.
b. Consulting work for foreign railroads and governments.
c. Contract operation of other railroads, terminal companies, industrial railroads,
real estate organizations, etc.
2. Real Estate and Taxation
a. Rent unused buildings and terminal property to others.
b. Dispose of excess width, on line, of right-of-way where possible.
c. Make use of right-of-way beyond normal width.
d. Make geologic investigation for presence of underlying oil or minerals.
e. Realize full market value of right-of-way cut off from further use by public road-
ways on right-of-way.
f. Sell or lease air rights.
g. Lease right-of-way for pipe lines, power lines, airway beacons, radio and guidance
systems, automobile parking, etc.
h. Assemble, develop and sell real estate as industrial districts served by all phases
of transportation.
3. Personnel
a. Perform medical examinations for other railroads, terminal companies and
industries.
238 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
b. Qualify employees for other railroads, terminal companies and industries.
c. Recruit and train technical personnel and specialists for other railroads, terminal
companies and industries.
d. Joint use of consultants and technical specialists.
e. Provide consultants and technical speciahsts on a fee basis for other railroads,
industries and governments.
4. Public Relations
a.. Sell souvenirs, timetables, books, old equipment, etc., to railfan organizations
and the pubhc.
b. Provide public inspection of outstanding railroad operating interests on a paid
admission basis.
c. Enlarge scope of employee magazines for subscription and news-stand sale to the
public.
5. Research and Development
a. Joint use of research facilities,
b. Make railroad research facilities available to others on a rental, fee or contract
basis.
6. Accounting
a. Joint use of electronic computers.
b. Perform accounting for other railroads, car companys, etc.
c. Rental of time on computing faciUties at night or off hours,
7. Trafflc
a. Joint tariff files for other railroads, terminal companies and private car com-
panies.
b. Handle traffic cases and matters for other railroads and terminal companies on a
fee basis.
c. Use passenger sales facilities, so qualified, as travel agencies for all forms ol
connecting transportation.
d. Operate traffic and rate education courses on a fee basis,
8. Operating
a. Use of employees to handle part-time jobs on a contract basis.
b. Rental of unused tracks to other companies for storage of cars.
c. Consolidated operation of piggy back terminals on a fee basis.
d. Operate central yard facihties for other railroads, including freight terminals, port
facilities, marine equipment, etc., on a contract or fee basis.
e. Provide operating facilities for fan clubs, historical railroad clubs, etc.
f. Provide point to point movement of automobiles and auto passengers on a per
car basis.
9. Purchasing, stores and insurance
a. Joint store houses on a fee basis.
b. Sell old records for waste paper.
c. Construct and operate warehouses, market terminals, etc., for other railroads and
industries.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 239
d. Sell material or perform service in treating plants, reclamation plants, frog and
welding plants, quarries and gravel pits to others.
e. Operate centralized scrap reclamation and sales yards for use of railroads on a
fee basis.
10. Mechanical
a. Use shop facilities to perform work for smaller railroads, industries and private
car lines,
b. Lease of cars for storage purposes, temporary housing, etc.
c. Off-season rental of locomotives and car equipment to other railroads and
industries.
d. Perform wood and metal work for others in company shops.
11. Engineering
a. Perform engineering for railroads and others on a consulting basis.
b. Furnish consulting engineering service for cities and towns on line
c. Furnish water supply service for smaller communities,
12. Bridges and Roadway
a. Joint use of bridges.
b. Use bridges for advertising.
c. Reclaim bridge timbers and sell as blocking.
d. Pulverize old ties, timber, etc., for animal bedding, etc.
e. Rent off-season or excess equipment to other railroads or industries.
f. Larger railroads to perform maintenance of way and bridge work for smaller
railroads and other industries.
g. Lease advertising space on trucks.
h. Conversion of bridges to rail-highway use on a toll basis,
i. Lease billboard space on right-of-way.
13. Communications and Signals
a. Sell obsolete relays, communication equipment and material to hobbyists and
others.
b. Perform circuit design and layout work for others.
c. Lease pole line and facility space to telephone and power companies.
d. Operate consolidated PBX and communications centers for other railroads.
e. Off-peak rental of teletype circuits
14. Miscellaneous
a. Purchase and rental of unloading and freight-handling equipment to industries.
b. Operation of automobile and truck rental organizations at terminals.
c. Construct and lease operation of motels, cabins, etc., in resort or other suitable
areas under real estate companies
240 Economics of Railway Location a nd Operation
Report on Assignment 11
Review of Developments in New Methods and Modes of Transport
F. J. Richter (chairman, subcommittee), C. H. Blackman, C. P. Blair, C. L. Heimbach,
T. J. Lamphier, A. S. Lang, J. R. Nutter, F. N. Nye, A. L. Sams, C. E. Stryker,
D. S. Sundel, H. L. Woldridge.
Your committee submits the following as the first in a series of reports on this
assignment.
The Use of Pipelines for the Long-Distance Transportation
of Solids
Introduction
The solids-carrying pipeline is an ingenious form of transportation which has only
recently begun to attract attention as a possible competitor of the more established
carriers. Although the physical principles involved and instances of their application to
short-distance pipelines are not unfamiliar to most railway engineers, the construction
of lines for long-distance transportation is an innovation which merits special attention.
Railroad engineers should know — because railroad management must know- — the extent
to which such lines might be competitive under any given set of circumstances.
Concurrent with this study by Committee 16, Committee 13— Water, Oil and
Sanitation Services, has also been investigating this development. It is natural that both
groups should study the same problem. Committee 13 is investigating the problem
primarily from the standpoint of the techniques involved, whereas this particular report
places greatest emphasis upon the origin of the development and its economic character
as a mode of transportation of certain types of commodities.
Two major solids lines are already in operation in this country, one handling
freight which would otherwise have moved by truck, the other handling freight which
was moving by rail. The first of these is a 6-in line, 72 miles long, which moves
250,000 tons of gilsonite annually from Bonanza, Utah, to Gilsonite, Colo.^ The gil-
sonite, which has a density 1.05 times that of water, is crushed into particles whose top
size is 8-mesh. These are held in suspension in a water slurry which is almost 45 per-
cent solids by weight. A 300-hp reciprocating pump discharges 325 gal of slurry per
minute into the line, the power requirements being almost identical with those for an
equal volume of clear water. (It is estimated that the installation of an intermediate
booster pump could increase the capacity of the line to more than 600,000 tons an-
nually.) The line has been in successful operation since April 1957, and is producing
transportation savings estimated at $4 per ton over an alternative 200-mile haul by
highway.
The other installation is the Consolidation Coal Company's 10-in coal slurry
line which extends 108 miles from Georgetown to Eastlake, Ohio." This line can handle
1,250,000 tons of coal per year, and according to recent estimates should save some
$0.75 per ton over existing rail freight charges. The coal particles are 14-mesh and
under, and the water slurry in which they are carried contains nearly 50 percent coal
1 See Robert K. Bond, "Engineering Design, Testing, and Operation of the Gilsonite Solids Pipe
Line," paper presented at the ASME Petroleum Engineering Conference, Tulsa, Okla., September
1957. See also Elton Sterrett, "American Gilsonite Pipeline Successfully Handles Slurries," Pipe Line
News, August S, 1957, pp. 78-79.
2 See Clarence A. Dauber, "Pipeline Coal Transportation," Coal Age, April 1957.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 241
by weight. The Hne has three pumping stations, each equipped with three 4S0-hp
reciprocating pumps, any two of which can handle the load together. Extensive pilot
plant studies were made to determine hydraulic characteristics before the hne was
built, but considerable difficulty was encountered in getting the full-scale terminal
equipment into satisfactory operation. After many months of testing, the line began
regular operations in April 1958.
The Nature of Solids Pipelines
Basically these lines are very similar to conventional fluid pipelines handling water.
The difference in this case is that the moving stream of water carries a large number
of small solid particles in suspension, the designers having made use of the fact that
above a certain minimum velocity these particles will not settle out. Physically, this is
the same phenomenon that one observes in the sediment-carrying ability of an open
stream.
The introduction of solid particles into the fluid stream makes necessary a number
of special design features not common to conventional pipeHnes. The most important
of these are the preparation and recovery plants required at the ends of the line. At the
input end the material to be piped must be crushed and screened to reduce its particle
size to an acceptable maximum. The particles must then be mixed with water in the
proper proportion for pumping. If the preparation plant does not operate continuously
but the pipeline does, the prepared slurry must be stored (and continuously agitated) in
tanks or ponds. At the discharge end of the line, equally complicated equipment may
be required to dewater and dry the solid material so it can be put to its desired use.
(The drying plant for the coal line previously mentioned cost .$2,000,000 to install.)
As might be expected, conventional centrifugal pumps are not suitable for handling
slurries containing heavy concentrations of solid materials because of clogging of the
vanes and abrasion of the volutes and impeller blades. The use of pumps with semi-
open impellers and a reduced number of vanes can overcome some of the problems
involved, but only at the cost of volumetric efficiency. Reciprocating pumps are more
satisfactory, and in general more readily adaptable to solids-line service. Both the gil-
sonite and the coal lines use reciprocating pumps, those for the coal line having been
designed originally for mud-jacking operations.
These lines present other problems, too. Extra pipe-wall thickness is usually re-
quired to provide for the abrasion of the solid particles on the bottom half of the
pipe in particular. Maximum curvature must be limited to prevent excessive erosion
of the side walls. Maximum gradients must be limited as well, because the particles
have a tendency to roll backwards on a steep ascent. (In the case of the coal hne,
experiments showed that this maximum should be no more than 18 percent.) Finally,
some precautions are necessary to prevent plugging of the line; these may be shutoff
valves, standby water reservoirs at the pumping stations, or special provisions for
back-flushing of the line.
The Advantages of Solids Pipelines
In general, solids pipelines do not possess any advantages over other forms of
transportation which are not also enjoyed by straight fluids pipelines. Some of these
advantages, however, are quite significant.
One obvious advantage of a pipeline i.s that there are no moving vehicles tu main-
tain. The extreme simplicity of the permanent way (the pipe) reduces maintenance
requirements even further. In addition, the lack of discrete vehicles greatly simplifies
242 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
the problem of movement control, as compared, for instance, with railroads and high-
ways. As a result, the total manpower required for operation is very small, a distinct
advantage in an era of rising labor costs.
In pipelines the resistance to motion which must be overcome is quite low (though
significantly not so low as in the case of railway transportation.) This, coupled with
the lack of vehicle deadweight and the absence of empty return trips, means that
power requirements are also low. Fluid pipelines enjoy a great advantage in this
respect, for the ratio of net to gross tons to be moved is exactly 100 percent. Solids
pipelines do not possess such a marked advantage, however, since the water portion of
the slurry is in effect dead weight to move ; but the 45 percent net-to-gross ratio of the
gilsonite and the SO percent ratio of the coal line still compare favorably to truck and
rail operations where empty back-haul is involved.
Another advantage of pipelines is the much simplified right-of-way problem encoun-
tered in their location. Because the restrictions on grades and curvature are less severe,
the costs of land and grading are generally much lower than would be the case for a
railroad or a highway. While solids lines, as pointed out above, are more restricted
than fluids lines, they share this advantage. They also share the advantage of light
loadings, which greatly reduce the cost of any bridges or other supporting structures
which may be required.
The Disadvantages of Solids Pipelines
At the same time, solids pipelines have some disadvantages which must be con-
sidered serious. The first and foremost of these is their ability to handle very limited
types of traffic. To be transportable in a solids line, a material must be one that:
(1) can be reduced to a small particle size and still retain its commercial value; (2)
will not lose this commercial value because of a certain amount of abrasion; (3) will
not be damaged by contact with water (or whatever transporting medium is in use) ;
(4) can be economically dewatered or dried at the discharge end of the line, or can
be used in slurry form without dewatering; (5) does not contain chemicals which
will cause excessive corrosion of the interior of the pipe ; and (6) Will not segregate
unduly so as to cause blockage of the fine. Clearly, the number of materials which could
meet all of these conditions is somewhat limited. Among those which might, however,
are many which presently move by rail in large volumes.
The second disadvantage of solids pipelines is that they are relatively inflexible
as to origin and destination. The equipment required both for slurry preparation at
the initial terminal and for dewatering and drying at the discharge terminal will in
most cases be both extensive and non-portable. Thus, unlike most fluids pipelines, it is
not possible to add branches or extensions easily. The result is that a solids line is
not likely to be economical except where the source of supply and the consuming
market are both fixed geographically and certain to last for a long period of time.
A third consideration is that the first cost of a solids line per unit of annual
capacity is higher for most usual situations than would be the case for highway or
railway transportation. For the Ohio coal line, for instance, first costs (excluding
research) were on the order of $0.08 per annual net ton-mile of capacity, while a
single-track rail line used at or near capacity might have had a first cost well below
$0.02 per annual net ton-mile of capacity. The question of how much capacity is
needed in a given situation is the crucial one to ask; it most probably would not have
been feasible to build a railwaj^ line to move only 1,250,000 tons of coal per year.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 243
One other cost factor is important. As yet the physical characteristics of solids
pipelines are only imperfectly understood. Thus, research costs are very high (more
than $2,000,000 in the case of the coal line), which puts this form of transportation
at a serious disadvantage. Some research on the subject is now underway, however,
which together with the experience gained in existing lines may soon remove this
disadvantage.
Discussion — Solids Pipelines vs Railroads
In situations where a limited amount of material is to be moved each year, solids
pipelines can offer serious competition to the railroads. This presumes, of course, that
the material to be moved is one which can meet the criteria set forth in the foregoing
and that both the line origin and destination are fLxed. Within these limitations, over-all
pipeline costs are likely to be well below the fully allocated costs of rail transportation,
particularly in a situation where no railroad yet exists. Where a parallel rail line does
exist, however, fully allocated pipeline costs could well be higher than the marginal
(i.e., out-of-pocket) cost of railroad movement.
The Ohio coal line, for instance, was designed for an over-all movement cost of
about 1.5 cents per net ton-mile. Of this only IS percent, or about 0.23 cents per net
ton-mile represents out-of-pocket expense. It is certainly conceivable that the fully
allocated rail costs might be as low as this l.S cents figure. (In this case the freight
rate seems to have been well over 3 cents per net ton-mile).
Even with fully allocated rail costs of 2 cents, the out-of-pocket rail cost should
have been less than 1.5 cents and perhaps as low as 1 cent per net ton-mile (that is,
50-75 percent of total costs). Thus, for an entirely new route a solids pipeline may
have the edge; but where there is already a railroad the solids line may come out
second best, if the railroad is permitted to set its rates at or near the marginal cost
of its operations.
There is a third type of competitive situation which is also conceivable — that in
which a solids line and a railroad have both existed previously and are competing for
some new form of traffic. (The possibility that a pipeline could handle more than one
type of solid material is technically quite feasible.) Under these circumstances each
could price at marginal cost, and on that basis the pipeline would be by far the cheap-
est. This advantage would be due largely, of course, to the very small labor costs
involved in operating the pipeline. It is important to notice that railroad operations are
susceptible to much improvement in this respect, so that in the future these economic
relationships may change.
The conclusions are somewhat obvious; if the railroads can reduce their out-of-
pocket operating costs and if they are permitted to price their services on this basis
when necessarj^, solids pipelines may not pose any serious competitive threat. The
exception to this will be only in the case of new routes where the total traffic volumes
are too low to justify railroad construction. Today, of course, railroad out-of-pocket costs
are still quite high, and marginal pricing is frequently prohibited by the ICC; so the
development of solids pipelines cannot be ignored. Only two such lines have been dis-
cussed in this report, one which carries gilsonite and one which carries coal, but other
operative lines carry clay (9 miles) in Georgia and mill tailings (7J^ miles) in Ontario.
Research is already underway, moreover, to determine the adaptability of sand, lime-
stone, and pelletized taconite to transport bv solids pipeline.
244 E c onomics of Railway Location and Operation
Selected Bibliography
In addition to those already cited, the following references are of particular interest:
1. "Slurry Pipelines Raise Special Problems," The Oil and Gas Journal, Feb. 4,
1957, p. 104.
2. D. H. Stormont, "Pipelines Carry Solids," The Oil and Gas Journal, Sept. 16,
1957, pp. 189-192.
3. R. C. Worster and D. F. Denny, "Hydraulic Transport of Solid Materials in
Pipes," Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, vol. 169 (1955), pp. 563-
586.
4. L. J. Timms, "An Investigation of Pipelines for Long-Distance Transportation of
Solids," unpublished thesis, Mass. Inst, of Technology (1958).
Report of Committee 9 — Highways
C. I. Hartsell, Chairman,
J. M. Trissal,
Vice Chairman,
R. W. Mauer, Secretary,
W. S. AUTREY
F. N. Barker
Bernard Blum (E)
G. B. Blatt
C. M. Carnahan
R. B. Carrington
A. C. Cayou
H. B. Clarkson
M. H. CORBYN
F. C. Cunningham
H. E. Bearing
R. Dejaiffe
J. R. Derieux, Jr.
A. D. DUFFIE
W. R. Dunn, Jr.
E. R. Englert
J. T. FiTZPATRICK
S. B. Gill
P. J. Harnish
Wm. J. Hedley
J. T. Hoelzer
J. A. Holmes
W. H. Huffman
D. W. Hughes
M. Johnson (E)
J. A. Jorlett
J. E. K. Krylow
J. R. Latimer
J. F. Mark
H. L. Michael
E. S. Miller
F. T. Miller
H. G. Morgan (E)
R. E. Nottingham
G. P. Palmer (E)
R. J. Pierce
W. C. Pinschmidt
D. D. Rosen
R. E. Skinner
P. H. Slack
H. E. Snyder
R. F. Spars
P. D. Tracy
T. M. Vanderstempel
V. R. Walling (E)
R. Westcott
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To The American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 246
2. Merits and economics of prefabricated types of highway-railway grade
crossings.
Progress statement, presented as information page 246
3. Merits of various types of highway-railway grade crossing protection, col-
laborating with Signal Section, AAR.
No report.
4. Recommended device to guard highway-railway crossing signs and signals
from damage by vehicular traffic, collaborating with Signal Section AAR.
Final report, submitted as information page 247
5. Recommended protection at highway-railway grade crossings where one-
way traffic on the highway crosses one or more tracks on the railway,
collaborating with Signal Section, AAR.
Final report, with plans and requisites submitted for adoption and publica-
tion in Manual page 240
The Committee on Highways,
C. T. Hartsell, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin .S46, November 19.S8.
24 S
246 Highways
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
J. M. Trissal (chairman, subcommittee), B. Blum, C. M. Carnahan, A. C. Cayou,
H. B. Clarkson, R. Dejaiffe, A. D. Duffie, W. R. Dunn, E. R. Englert, J. T.
Fitzpatrick, C. I. Hartsell, F. T. Miller, H. G. Morgan, D. D. Rosen, P. D. Tracy.
Your committee offers the following recommendation with respect to Chapter 9 of
the Manual:
Page 9-2-1
RECOMMENDED USE OF HIGHWAY-RAILWAY
GRADE CROSSING SIGNS
In the second column of the table, change the last sentence of paragraphs 2, 4, 5
and 6 to read as follows: "Reflecting medium may be reflector buttons or reflex-
reflecting material."
This change is recommended in order to describe the materials properly and to
make the wording conform with other descriptions.
Report on Assignment 2
Merits and Economics of Prefabricated Types of Highway-
Railway Grade Crossings
R. E. Nottingham (chairman, subcommittee), F. B. Barker, R. B. Carrington, Jr.,
M. H. Corbyn, H. E. Bearing, Raymond Dejaiffe, T. L. Gibson, S. B. Gill, C. I.
Hartsell, J. T. Hoelzer, W. H. Huffman, J. R. Latimer, J. F. Mark, R. W. Mauer,
R. J. Pierce, R. E. Skinner, P. H. Slack, R. F. Spars, J. T. Ward, Raymond
Westcott.
Your committee has secured data from several railroads covering the original cost
and service results of various types of prefabricated materials for highway-railway
grade crossings.
Accurate figures on maintenance costs are difficult to get, since in only a few cases
are the installations considered a test. In most cases no attempt is made to separate
the maintenance costs from other operating expenses.
Prefabricated treated timber slabs have been widely used by several railroads for
the past 10 years. It now appears that a service life of about 15 to 20 years may be
expected in the average installation where sound timber is used and good maintenance
practices are followed.
Certain types of metal grating material used indicate a 20-year life expectance
under favorable conditions, although the average life of a lighter weight metal grating
material has been only about 8 years because of rust action and failure to keep dirt
from clogging up the grating in the traffic lanes.
The rubber slab crossings under observation were first installed about 4 years ago.
These include 10 main line and 9 industrial track installations. This type of crossing
material is giving good service with practically no maintenance expense. Most of the
rubber slab installations are subject to dense highway traffic, which caused failure in
Highways 247
other types of material used after a short period of time. The committee is walchinj;
these installations with interest.
Some long life records of 20 to 30 years have been made where concrete slal)s
were installed; however, most roads have found them unsuitable to present-day traffic
conditions and are replacing them with other material.
Your committee is checking on several other matters related to the track structure
and paving in highway-railway grade crossings, such as the use of rubber tie plate
pads through crossings, the use of metal strips as flangeway guards, and the substitu-
tion of bituminous material for the filler blocks in flangeways. These items are not
of such nature as to require a separate investigation. The conclusions of this committee
will be presented after more information is available.
This report is offered as information. Your committee desires to study this assign-
ment further, and recommends that the subject be continued.
Report on Assignment 4
Recommended Device to Guard Highway-Railway Crossing
Signs and Signals from Damage by Vehicular Traffic
Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR
F. C. Cunningham (chairman, subcommittee), C. M. Carnahan, A. C. Cavou, H. B.
Clarkson. J. R. Derieux, A. D. Duffie, W. R. Dunn, C. I. Hartsell, D. W. Hughes,
Maro Johnson, J. A. Jorlett E. S. Miller, F. T. Miller, H. G. Morgan, R. E.
Nottingham, Palmer H. Slack. V. R. WaUing.
This assignment was undertaken because the AREA does not have a recommended
device to protect grade crossing signs and signals from damage by vehicles. Highway
traffic is constantly increasing, improved highways are being constructed and additional
crossing signals provided. Unprotected signals are frequently severely damaged by
vehicles.
Your committee has investigated the present use of protective barriers. It was
found that several different types have been constructed, all being centered about the
signal mast, including (1) a large concrete pier, (2) a steam locomotive tire supported
by pieces of rail, (3) a section of large diameter corrugated pipe supported by pieces
of rail, (4) a barrier completely fabricated of rails, and (5) posts made of rails or
wood. At least one state approves the use of the circular type of protection. While
the above designs do afford protection, a vehicle .striking the barrier directly may sustain
some damage.
A later development is the guard-rail type barrier placed diagonally so that a
vehicle striking it would ricochet and be diverted back to the traveled portion of street
or highway, with minimum damage to the vehicle as well as protecting the signal.
This design is in general use, particularly on federal highways, guarding open spaces,
etc. Several states approve the use of this design to protect crossing signs and signals;
in fact, at least one state requires such an installation where federal aid is involved
in the cost of the signals.
The accompanying drawing (see next page) illustrates several of these devices.
Your committee recommends that the report and drawing be accepted as information
and that the subject be discontinued.
248
Hi g h ways
€>
PAVEMENT
SIGNAL FDN.-
_^J@—©
(L TRACK
t TRACK
SIGNAL FDN
PAVEMENT
PLAN
I
SIGNAL MAST
BARRIER
GROUND
CONCRETE
ENCASEMENT
OPTIONAL
ELEVATION
NOTE'
SOME VEHICLE BODIES PROJECT
ONE FOOT BEYOND WHEELS.
BARRIER TO BE LOCATED
ACCORDINGLY AND OF SUFFICIENT
SIZE FOR FULL PROTECTION.
POSTS MAY BE OF STEEL RAILS,
WOOD OR STEEL MEMBERS.
® BARRIER OF CORRUGATED METAL
OR WOOD,
(g) BARRIER OF CORRUGATED METAL.
(C) BARRIER OF CORRUGATED METAL
OR LOCOMOTIVE TIRE,
(g) BARRIER OF STEEL RAILS.
TYPICAL BARRIERS TO PROTECT HIGHWAY-RAILWAY CROSSING
SIGNALS FROM DAMAGE BY VEHICULAR TRAFFIC
Highways 249
Report on Assignment 8
Recommended Protection at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings
Where One-Way Traffic on the Highway Crosses
One or More Tracks on the Railway
Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR
D. W. Hughes (chairman, subcommittee), W. S. Autrey, G. B. Blatt, A. C. Cayou,
S. B. Gill, P. J. Harnish, Wm. J. Hedlev, W. H. Huffman, J. E. K. Krylow,
J. F. Mark, H. L. Michael, E. S. Miller, R. J. Pierce, W. C. Pinschmidt, P. D.
Tracy, T. M. Vanderstempel, Maro Johnson, V. R. Walling.
This is a final report, including recommendations submitted for adoption and
publication in the Manual.
A progress report on this assignment, including a series of drawings showing signal
aspects designed to provide basic minimum protection at highway-railway crossings for
one-way highway traffic, was presented at the 1957 annual meeting and may be found
in the Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, pages 444 to 456, incl.
These plans were subsequently revised as the result of a joint meeting of representa-
tives of Committee 9 and of the Signal Section, AAR, on December 10, 1957, the
revised plans having the approval of both Committee 9 and the Signal Section, so far
as the signal aspects are concerned.
The revised plans, designated as Figs. 3 A to 3j, incl., (excluding Fig. 31), are
presented herewith with the recommendation that they be adopted and published in
the Manual as pages 9-3-6.1 to 9-3-6.9, incl., as a guide for various authorities in
protecting highway-railway grade crossings where one-way traffic on the highway
crosses one or more tracks on the railway. Local conditions, the laws of the various
states, policies of the various highway authorities and the individual railways may
require additional features not indicated on the plans.
In connection with the adoption of the aforementioned plans, your committee
recommends revision of certain other material in Chapter 9, as presented below:
Page 9-3-1
RECOMMENDED USE OF HIGHWAY-RAILWAY GRADE
CROSSING SIGNALS
In the second column of the table, at the end of the item reading "Cantilever
flashing-light signal, as shown on pages 9-3-12 or 9-3-13", add the words "located
as shown on pages 9-3-6.2. 9-3-6.3, 9-3-6.5, 9-3-6.6 and 9-3-6.7."
To the corresponding item in the third column add the following page numbers:
9-3-6.2, 9-3-6.3, 9-3-6.5. 9-3-6.6 and 9-3-6.7.
Pages 9-3-2 and 9-3-3
REQUISITES FOR HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSING SIGNALS
On page 9-3-2, add the following to the paragraph under Art. 1. Purpose: "for one-
way or two-way traffic."
On the same page, add the following to the paragraph under Art. 2. Aspect:
"except that back-to-back lamp units may not be required for one-way highway
traffic."
250
Highways
111
_i
o
1- TRACK ,-
h
IK-
1
1
ONE OR MORE TRACKS
LANES
^^
o
-\
— - =^
tTRACK r
h-
1 ^'"-
J
-rpjiJ.
-^rO-zi
•N
/
"^CEN
TER OF BASE FOR
1-
3 1
5
CRO
SSm6 PROTECTION
UJ
a
-J
O
I
If)
1
UJ
o
Q
U
2
Ul
o.
Ul
UJ
Ul
O
J
O
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAL LOCATION PLAN FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING -LIGHT SIGNALS
WITH OR WITHOUT GATES FOR ONE-WAY HIGHWAY
TRAFFIC
RIGHT ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3A.
Highways
2S1
ONE OR MORe TRACKS
CENTER OF BASE FOR
CROiSlNG PROTECTION
-CENTER OF BASE FOR
CROSSING PROTECTION
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAl LOCATION PLAN FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING-LIGHT SIGNALS
WITH OR WITHOUT GATES FOR ONtWAY HI&HWAY TRAFFIC
RIGHT ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3B.
252
Highways
ONE OR MORE TRACKS
li. o
CEHTER OF BASE FOR''
CROSSING PROTECTION
OR''
t-
TION
z
UJ
Z
Ul
a
1
a
!$
o
^
Q
u
4>
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
'
i/ ii
r
"^CENT
1-
CRO
z
2
of
UJ
fe
S
UJ
M
o
lU
'CENTER OF BASE FOR
CROSSING PROTECTION
TYPICAL LOCATION PLAN FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING-LIGHT SIGNALS
WITH OR WITHOUT GATES FOR ONE-WAY HIGHWAY TRAFFIC
R\6HT ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3C.
Highways
253
6' MINIMUM
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAL LOCATION PLAN FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING-LIGHT SIGNALS
WITH OR WITHOUT GATES FOR ONE-WAV HIGHWAV TRAFFIC DIVIDED HIQHWAY
RIGHT ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3D.
254
Highways
J a
6' MINIMUM
ONE OR l*0R6TR^CKS
CENTER OF BASE FOR
^. CROSSING PROTECTION^
i 3
CENTER OF BASE FOR
CROSSmCi PROTECTION
%
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAL LOCATION PLAN FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHINQ-MGHT SIGNALS
WITH OR WITHOUT CiATES FOR ONE-WAV HICiHWAY TRAFFIC DIVIDED HIGHWAY
RIGHT ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3E.
Highways
255
T^V^
^^-f
fe'MIKIMUM
O 3
is
z
fki
'T-.V "^l/,
j
1
"T
<t TR^CK r
— r
1 '^\ N
CENTER OF BASE FOR
^^^
F^
CENTER OF BASE FOR
"aj a
UI
^
1-
CR0SSIN6 PROTECTION
a
a
UJ
S
ui
CROSSING PROTECTION f
d 1
Of
-*
5
liu ^
!rt
s 1
3
3
oU o^
z
o
UJ a.
O
X
to
o
u. o '^°-
•<
o
UJ
v3
O
'+ i
(O
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAL LCCKTION PLAN FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING-LIGHT SIGNALS
WITH OR WITHOUT GATES FOR ONE-WAV HIGHWAY TRAFFIC- DIVIDED HIGHWAY
RIGHT ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3F.
256
Highways
LESS THAN 6
.tT-
■n
2; ^6'-
"v^
ONE OR MORE TRKCKS
CENTER OF BASE FOR
CROSSING PROTECTION
^ r6--|
Oluj
^ TRACK
^^:^
r
g
z
-6'i Si
s<^
-r
CENTER OF BASE FOR^
K.A^
1
Ul
a
CROSSING PROTECTION
s
3
>
l«/»
(A
0
a
^|z
0
0
J?
0
5
fe
.-u
s
z
Ui
fe
V)
o
V9
0
UJ
TMO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAL LOCATION PLAN FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING-LIGHT SIGNALS
WITH OR WITHOUT (jATES FOR ONE-WAY HIGHWAY TRAFFIC DIVIDED HIGHWAY
RIGHT ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3G.
Highways
2S7
6' MINIMUM
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAL LOCATION PLAN fCOMPOSITE) FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING LICHT
SIGNALS AND GATES TOR ONE-WAY HIGHWAY TRAFFIC DIVIDED HIGHWAY
NOTE- FOR FLASHING LIGHT SIGNALS ONLY SEE FIG.3A,3B.30,3E,AMD3G
ACUTE AN6LE
PLAN
Fig. 3H.
258
Highways
6' MINIMUM
TWO OR MORE TRACKS
TYPICAL LOCATION PLAN (COMPOSITE) FOR AUTOMATIC FLASHING LIGHT
SIGNALS AND GATES FOR ONE -WAY HIGHWAY TRAFFIC DIVIDED HI6HWAY
NOTE -FOR FLASHING LIGHT SIGNALS ONLY SEE TIG. 3Bi3C;3E,AND3F
OBTUSE ANGLE
PLAN
Fig. 3J.
Report of Committee 13 — Water, Oil and Sanitation
Services
R. C. Archambeault H. M. Hoffmeistkr
W. F. Arksey a. W. Johnson
R. A. Bardwell C. O. Johnson
R. C. Bardwell (E) J. J. Laudig
^^ R. O. Bardwell H. L. McMullin
'W^r ,*^ V. C. Barth G. F. Metzdorf
J. M. Bates C. F. Muelder
M. R. BosT J. Y. Neal
I. C. Brown John Norman
T. W. Brown A. B. Pierce (Ej
P. J. Calza J. C. Roberts
V. R. Copp N. B. Roberts
R. E. CouGHLAN J. P. Rodger
B. W. DeGeer (E) E. O. Salners
C. E. DeGeer E. R. Schlaf
D. E. Drake H. E. Silcox (E)
J. J. Dwyer R. M. Stimmel
C. E. Fisher T. A. Tennyson, Jr.
R. S. Glynn A. G. Tompkins
H. M. ScHUDLicH, H. E. Graham H. W. Van Hovenberg
Chairman, X. I. Gray C. B. Voitelle
D. C. Teal, E. M. Grime (E) E. M. Walters
Vice Chairman,, T. L. Hendrix, Jr. J. E. Wiggins
E. C. Harris, Secretary, T. W. Hislop, Jr.
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual. *
Progress report, including recommended revifions page 2bO
2. Prevention of corrosion in steam and condensate lines.
Final report, presented as information with the recommendation that the
material be published in the Manual a year hence page 26.^
3. Design, construction and operation of coach-servicing facilities to comply
with regulations of U. S. Public Health Service, collaborating with Joint
Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 271
4. Cathodic protection of pipe lines and steel storage tanks, collaborating
with the Electrical Section, AAR.
Progress report, presented as information page 271
5. Transportation of solids by pipelines, collaborating with the Pipeline Divi-
sion, ASCE, and other interested organizations.
Progress report, presented as information page 274
6. Railway waste disposal, collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway
Sanitation, AAR.
Detailed progress report, presented as information page 276
7. Inspection and maintenance of diesel fuel oil storage tanks.
Brief progress report, presented as information page 278
2SQ
260 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
8. Methods of controlling; spillage of fuel oil at diesel fueling and unloading
stations.
Brief progress report, presented as information page 279
9. Disinfectants, deodorants, fumigants and cleaning materials, collaborating
with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
Detailed progress report, presented as information page 280
10. Railroad aspects of radioactive substances, collaborating with Joint Com-
mittee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
Brief progress statement, presented as information page 287
11. Methods of heating fuel oil to permit winter-time use of high-pour-point
'economy" grade fuel oil.
Progress statement, presented as information page 288
The Committee on Water, Oil and Sanitation Services,
H. M. ScHUDLicH, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 546, November 1958.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
D. C. Teal (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Arksey, R. A. Bardwell, M. R. Bost,
T. W. Brown, R. E. Coughlan, J. J. Dwyer, H. E. Graham, T. W. Hislop, A. W.
Johnson, C. F. Muelder, J. C. Roberts, E. R. Schlaf, C. B. Voitelle, E. M. Walters,
J. E. Wiggins, R. C. Bardwell, A. B. Pierce.
Your committee feels that certain recommended practices now appearing in Chapter
13 of the Manual have been made out of date or completely obsolete by changing times
and improved methods. In particular, some of the current Manual material on wood
water tanks, track pans, pumps, etc., is no longer applicable.
This year we have reviewed Parts 1, 2 and 3 of Chapter 13 and offer the following
recommended action with respect to the various specifications and recommended prac-
tices contained therein:
Pages 13-1-1 and 13-1-2
SUPPLY
Reapprove without change.
Page 13-1-3
USE OF TREATED WOOD FOR WATER TANKS
Delete.
Pages 13-2-1 to 13-2-16, incl.
PUMPING PLANTS
Reapprove with the following revisions:
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 261
Page 13-2-1 — Change paragraph under Sec. B. Steam Equipment, to read: "At
points where it is necessary to maintain a steam plant for other purposes, as at engine
terminals, steam-operated equipment may prove economical."
Page 13-2-3— Under Sec. F. Deep Well Equipment, delete the first paragraph,
which is ambiguous.
Substitute the following for the present second paragraph under Sec. F: "The most
common types are the deep-well reciprocating pump, the deep-well centrifugal turbine
pump, the submersible turbine pump, the air lift and the jet pump. When choosing a
deep well pump, consideration should be given to the following features."
Page 13-2-4 — Delete the third paragraph from top of page relative to the Moyno
pump.
Add the following paragraph at middle of page, just above Sec. G: "Jet pumps
have been found particularly adaptable for use in small drinking water wells because
of their low initial cost, their simplicity and low maintenance requirements, and the
ease with which they can be removed from a well for repairs."
Page 13-2-7 — Under Art. 2. Suction Lines, change the fourth paragraph to read:
''Genuine wrought iron pipe with welded or flanged joints is preferred for suction lines.
Special care should be taken to make all joints absolutely tight, and the suction line
should be laid with a slight grade toward the source of supply."
Page 13-2-8 — Second paragraph from top of page, concerning discharge lines:
Delete the last sentence, which reads "The use of lead for joints is usual, although
under certain conditions other materials may be used to advantage."
Page 13-2-8 — Under Art. 5. Service Lines, change paragraph (a) to read: "Service
pipe materials may be divided into two general classes: the ferrous materials, of
which genuine wrought iron, wrought steel and cast iron are examples, and the non-
ferrous materials represented by lead, copper, brass, cement-asbestos and plastics. The
ferrous materials are usually cheaper but the non-ferrous materials are more durable
under certain conditions. Steel or cast iron pipe lined with cement or a bituminous
material are also available."
Delete paragraph (f) concerning pre-caulked joints.
Change paragraphs (g) and (h) at bottom of page to (f) and (g).
Page 13-2-16 — Delete entire Sec. N. Standardizing Valves and Packing for Water
Service Pumps.
Page 13-3-1
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CAST IRON PIPE AND SPECIAL CASTINGS
Delete present specifications and substitute therefor the following: "Cast iron pipe
and fittings shall conform to the latest American Standards Association (ASA) Specifica-
tions A-21 covering kind and class of material desired."
Page 13-3-1
SPECIFICATIONS FOR HYDRANTS AND VALVES
Delete present specifications and substitute therefor the following: "Hydrants and
valves shall conform to the latest American Water Works Association (AWWA)
Specifications C-500 covering kind and type of material desired."
262 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Pages 13-3-2 to 13-3-5, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR LAYING CAST IRON PIPE
Page 13-3-2 — Under Art. 1. Material, delete the second and third paragraphs con-
cerning specifications for cast iron pipe and fittings, etc. Change the fourth paragraph
to read: "Lead for bell and spigot joints shall be first-class pig lead containing not less
than 99.5 percent pure lead."
Page 13-3-3 — Change the wording of Art. 7 from "Making Joints" to "Beil and
Spigot Joints."
Page 13-3-4 — Delete Art. 8. Prepared Joints, in its entirety and substitute therefor
the following:
8. Mechanical Joints
The last 8 in outside of the spigot and inside the bell of mechanical joint pipe shall
be thoroughly cleaned to remove oil, dirt and other foreign matter from the joint,
and then painted with soapy water.
The cast iron gland is then slipped on the spigot end of the pipe with the lip
extension toward the socket or bell end.
The rubber gasket shall be painted with soapy water and placed on the spigot end
with the thick edge toward the gland.
The section of pipe shall be pushed forward to seat the spigot end in the bell and
the gasket pressed into place within the bell, being careful to have it evenly located
around the entire joint.
The cast iron gland shall be moved into position for bolting, all bolts inserted and
nuts screwed up tightly with fingers.
All nuts shall be tightened with a suitable (preferably torque-limiting) wrench.
The torque for various sizes of bolts shall be as follows:
Size Range of Torque
(Inches) Foot-Pounds
Vs 40-60
H 60-90
1 70-100
1% 90-120
Nuts spaced 180 deg apart shall be tightened alternately in order to produce an
equal pressure on all parts of the gland.
Page 13-3-4 — Eliminate the parentheses in the paragraph under Art. 9.
Pages 13-3-6 and 13-3-7
SPECIFICATIONS FOR WOOD WATER TANK
Reapprove without change.
Pages 13-3-8 to 13-3-11, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR TANK HOOPS
Reapprove without change.
___^ Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 263
Pages 13-3-11 to 13-3-13, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL SUBSTRUCTURES FOR
WOOD WATER TANK
Reapprove without change.
Pages 13-3-14 to 13-3-16, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER SUBSTRUCTURES
FOR WATER TANKS
Reapprove without change.
Pages 13-3-17 to 13-3-27, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR WELDED STEEL TANKS FOR WATER
OR OIL STORAGE
Reapprove without change.
Report on Assignment 2
Prevention of Corrosion in Steam and Condensate Lines
J. J. Dwver (chairman, subcommittee), R. A. Bardwell, I. C. Brown, T. W. Brown,
P. J." Calza, B. W. DeGeer, D. E. Drake, E. C. Harris, A. W. Johnson, H. L.
McMullin, C. F. Muelder, J. P. Rodger, E. O. Salners, R. M. Stimmel, D. C. Teal,
A. G. Tompkins.
Corrosion in steam and condensate lines causes damage costing several million
dollars each year. Your committee has studied ways and means of alleviating these
losses, and presents its findings below. The subject is covered in three parts, viz., (1)
discussion of the topic, with mechanical and design aspects, (2) use of volatile chem-
icals in the steam to neutralize acids-^the neutralizing amines, and (3) use of chem-
icals to form a film barrier on metal surfaces — the filming amines. This is a final
report, presented as information, with the recommendation that the materia! be sub-
mitted as Manual material next year.
1. Discussion
Steam condensate presents a very serious problem from the standpoint of piping
maintenance, for it is generally of a corrosive nature and highly aggressive to piping
materials. The greatest danger is due to deleterious gases which the pure condensate
has absorbed. Of these, dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide account for practically
all of the corrosion found in condensate lines.
Carbon dioxide is generally the primary cause of return line corrosion. The major
portion of this gas encountered in the steam cycle results from the decomposition of
the bicarbonate or carbonate content of the boiler feedwater. Because of the carbonate
and bicarbonate breakdown which takes place in the boiler, carbon dioxide is present
in all types of steam regardless of the feedwater conditioning, except when feedwater
is pure distilled water or equal. When the steam condenses, the carbon dioxide is ab-
sorbed by the condensate and forms a carbonic acid solution which is aggressive to both
264 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
the ferrous and nonferrous metals commonly found in return systems. Concentrations
of 5 ppm or less are seldom troublesome, except where large amounts of steam are
involved.
Dissolved oxygen present in an aqueous solution containing carbon dioxide has
been found to produce a corrosive environment two to ten times more severe than
would occur if only the carbon dioxide were present. The action of oxygen in acceler-
ating a corrosive attack is briefly as follows: when water is in contact with a ferrous
material, the initial corrosive action is the displacement by the iron of positively charged
hydrogen ions from the water. The hydroxyl ions, with which the hydrogen ions were
originally combined, unite with the soluble iron ions to form ferrous hydroxide. The
liberated hydrogen ions migrate to the surface of the metal and form a protective film.
If this film is left undisturbed, it tends to stifle further attack. However, when dis-
solved oxygen is present in the solution, it destroys the protective hydrogen film by
uniting with the hydrogen to form water. The surface of the metal is thereby made
available for further hydrogen liberation and the cycle repeats itself. A corrosive attack
caused by dissolved oxygen can generally be identified by a pitting of the metallic
surface, with the pits being wholly or partially filled with corrosion products. These
nodules of corrosion products consist of a hard crust under which exists black magnetic
ferrous oxide or red ferric oxide.
Steam condensate lines fail most often at threaded joints. Systems of pipes of
dissimilar metals will greatly intensify rate of corrosion. Horizontal lines will usually
be found more severely damaged than vertical lines, since the acid condensate will be
concentrated over a small area along the bottom of the pipe and for much longer
periods of time, due to the much slower flow rates in the horizontal sections. The
corrosion damage will usually be found in the form of channeling or grooving of the
bottom of the pipe due to carbonic acid, but pitting and oxide accumulations can be
observed when oxygen is present. Sometimes fittings will be found to contain large
accumulations of iron oxide deposits, which when removed will show little or no damage
to the fittings themselves. This would indicate the corrosion taking place some place
else in the system, probably with carbonic acid dissolving the iron, and then oxygen
in the system converting the iron bicarbonate to ferrous hydroxide and on to ferric
hydroxide, which will precipitate and settle at points of poor circulation or flow. Ex-
amples may be found which are primarily grooving, or primarily pitting, or combina-
tions of both.
Good mechanical deaeration and chemical treatment of feedwater is the best insur-
ance against oxygen leaving the boilers with the steam. Faulty traps, vents, valves,
packing glands of vacuum pumps, etc., can permit oxygen to be drawn into the con-
densate system, especially with intermittent operation when vacuum is developed. Cold
water injected to lower condensate temperatures may be saturated with oxygen.
Another type of failure, more mechanical than chemical, found in condensate lines
is cavitation, resulting from steam collapse. This can occur when cold water, men-
tioned above, is injected into a condensate line to reduce temperature and to improve
efficiency of condensate pumps. What happens is that the cold water causes instantane-
ous collapse of the steam in the line, creating tremendous shock forces sufficient to
cause destruction of the pipe by cavitation effect. Steam collapse may be detected by
hammering or banging sounds in the condensate line.
From the foregoing it will be apparent that good design is of the utmost importance
in return line installations. Horizontal pipes should have not less than 4 in drop per
100 ft. If necessary to use dissimilar metals in the system, joints should be insulated.
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 265
The best quality of corrosion-resistant piping material, consistent with economic limita-
tions involved, should be used. Double extra-strong wall pipe and fittings should be
u:^ed for longest life. These mechanical and design recommendations can be summarized
as follows:
a. Feedwater deaerators should be operated at or above 212 deg F and main-
tained in efficient condition.
b. All joints in return lines operating undtr sub-atmospheric pressures should be
air tight.
c. All horizontal return lines should have sufficient slope to permit rapid and
complete drainage.
d. All low points or pockets in lines where condensate could colled should he
eUminated or properly trapped.
e. Condensate line pipe should be reamed to remove burrs.
f. Cold water injection into return lines ahead of vacuum pumps should be
avoided.
g. Insulating unions should be used to connect dissimilar metals in the condensate
system.
h. Double extra strong wall pipe and fittings should be used in condensate return
lines.
Good design, construction, and operation of steam condensate return systems, as
previously described, are quite important. By themselves, however, they are not sufficient
to reduce maintenance costs to the minimum obtainable through the supplementary use
of chemical treatment. These additional measures which may be utilized to extend
maintenance savings already indicated are as follows:
1. Treatment of boiler feedwater to eliminate dissolved gasses.
2. Injection of chemicals into the steam that will carry along with the steam to
neutralize any corrosive substances present.
3. Use of film-forming chemicals in the condensate system to prevent contact
between the condensate and the metal surfaces.
Item 1 is a prerequisite of recommended boiler operating practice and is therefore
outside the scope of this report. It is assumed that good boiler feedwater treatment
must include the use of oxygen scavengers, such as sodium sulfite or hydrazine, to insure
that steam leaving the boiler will be oxygen free. Items 2 and 3 are newer developments,
which will be described in turn in the following pages of this report.
2. Neutralizing Amines
It has been noted that the primary causes of corrosion in condensate lines are
carbon dioxide and oxygen ; that these may be reduced or eliminated from feedwater
by heating and deaerating ; and that the carbon dioxide from the alkalinity of the
boiler water may be reduced by suitable pretreatment methods. In spite of these meas-
ures, however, oxygen can re-enter the system, and carbon dioxide can be present
also in the steam, and must be combatted with more drastic measures than heretofore
described.
Attempts to neutralize condensate acidity with alkaline salts, such as caustic soda,
.soda ash, trisodium phosphate, or polyphosphate, have not been found practical or
desirable; such chemicals return to the boiler, adding undesired alkalinity, it is difficult
or impossible to disperse them uniformly through the steam system, and they act in
266 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
the same way as carryover from the boiler by leaving deposits in the steam piping,
which is undesirable. A more satisfactory way to apply alkaline neutralizing chemicals
would be in a volatile form which would disperse as a gas to all points reached by
the steam and which would condense when the steam does. Certain inorganic and
organic compounds of nitrogen have this ability, including ammonia and organic amines
such as cyclohexylamine, morpholine, and benzylamine.
Ammonia was the first volatile nitrogen compound to be used for neutralization
of carbonic acid and to increase pH, and can have a beneficial effect by reducing cor-
rosion of ferrous metals; however, copper and zinc-bearing metals are rapidly corroded
by ammonia, especially when oxygen is present. If feed is not completely deaerated,
ammonia requirements may be high, creating an additional corrosion hazard to copper
and zinc constituents.
The neutralizing amines — cyclohexylamine, morpholine and benzylamine — are much
less aggressive on copper and zinc-bearing alloys, and have other protective characteristics
superior to ammonia. They do not protect against oxygen; their primary function is to
neutralize carbonic acid in the system. They must be applied in direct proportion to
the concentration of carbonic acid present. Other disadvantages in addition to the lack
of protection against oxygen are the large amounts required and high costs encoun-
tered. They find their best application, therefore, in systems with low makeup and
low carbon dioxide content. They may have special advantages in high-pressure steam
plants for turbine operation in combatting corrosive effects of carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and sulfur dioxide, which can cause accelerated attack on turbine blades. Mor-
pholine, in particular, is very effective in this application. Treatment is usually based
on amounts of these neutralizing amines needed to raise the condensate pH to 7.0 or
slightly over.
An important consideration is the amines' distribution ratio, which is the ratio
of amine in the steam to that dissolved in the condensate. For ammonia, this is rather
poor, being 7 to 10 parts in steam for each part in water. For cyclohexylamine it is 2
to 4 parts in steam for one part in condensate; for benzylamine, 3 to 4 in steam
to one in condensate; for morpholine it is 1 in steam to 2 in condensate, which gives
it the most favorable distribution ratio of the three amines. This is quite an advantage
for morpholine, since the treatment objective is to get the amine out of the steam
and dissolved in the condensate, where it must be before it can neutralize any acid.
.Analytical methods of dosage control may be by means of standard pH meter,
modified colorimetric pH methods, actual titration of dissolved carbon dio.xide, and/or
colorimetric determination of neutralizing amine content, using a copper salt which
forms a characteristic blue color from the presence of a copper-amine complex, the
strength of the blue color being proportional to the amount of amine in solution. In
addition to analytical methods, field test corrosion devices inserted in condensate lines
are used to measure the extent of corrosion actually taking place.
In feeding neutralizing amines, slug feed methods are most common, but least
desirable, for the reason that these chemicals are expensive, and the most efficient and
economical dosages are obtained by proportioning-continuous feed methods. They can
be added to the chemical vat with phosphate and/or alkaline salts and fed to the boiler
in proportion to the makeup required.
All three of the amines considered are skin irritants and should be handled as such ;
however, at the dosages used in the steam and condensate they are not toxic and will
not cause intestinal disturbances. Nevertheless, if they are to be used in steam which
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
207
SmmARY OF CHARACTERISTICS
Ammonia
Cyclohexylamine
Benzylaniine
Morpholine
(a) Distribution Ratios (parts in steam per part in condensate):
7-10 2-U
(b) Dosages to adjust pure water to pH 9.0:
0.2-0.5 PP" in water
l.li-2.0 ppra in steaun
2.0 ppm in water
k-B ppm in steam
3-li
2.2 ppm in water
6-8 ppra in steam
O.li
U.O ppm in water
1.6 ppm in steam
(c) Dosages to neutralize condensate to pH 7.0:
3.0 ppra(6o?) /ppra CO2
1.6 ppm/ppm COp
(d) Neutralizing value (dosage to bring water containing 10 ppm CO? to pH 7.1*);
2.2 ppn/ppm CO2
20 ppra 22.05 ppm
(e) pH of dilute solution of amine bicarbonate:
8.1 7.8
Concentrates exces-
sivBly. May attack
copper, brass. Has
high alkalinity suit-
able for all-iron
system. Requires ex-
cessive amounts in
steam to get adequate
pH of condensate.
Compounds with CO2 do
not hydrolyze freely.
High alkalinity tends
to prevent CO2 remov-
al, increases percent
recirculation and COj
concentration. Read-
ily lost during deaer-
ation and at vent.
Low lo-sses in blow-
down. Minimum attack
on copper and brass.
Small loss of COp from
compounds causes large
pH increase. Amine
bicarbonates can cause
plugging.
Intermediate in alkal'
inity between cyclo-
hexylamine and mor-
pholine. Causes some
recirculation of CO2.
Moderate losses, bloW'
down and deaeration.
Intermediate CO2 re-
moval from system.
Has pungent odor.
19.8 ppm
7.1*
' Lower alkalinity
allows CO2 removal
in feedwater heater.
Lower volatility, so
greater blowdown
■ losses. Concentra-
tion decreases dur-
ing distribution of
steam at low pres-
sure (5 psig and
less). No attack on
copper or brass.
Large CO2 release
has minimum effect
on pH. No plugging
(morpholine bicar-
bonate very soluble)
is used for direct cooking or processing of food, it would be wise to make a study
of the medical aspects, and Food and Drug Administration views on the particular
application involved.
3. Filming Amines
These inhibitors function by establishing a non-wettable film on metal surfaces
in contact with condensate. This film is mostly one molecule thick and does not tend
to increase with continued treatment. These filming agents are required in low dosages
of only 1 to 3 ppm and are independent of the concentrations of carbon dioxide and
oxygen, since they do not combine chemically with these corrodents. *
268 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
The most effective filming inhibitors are saturated, straight-chain primary aliphatic
amines and their salts, with chains of 10 to 18 carbon atoms. Octadecylamine and
octadecylamine acetate are typical examples. Branched-chain and unsaturated-chain
amines, as well as tertiary amines, are less effective. These inhibitor molecules have
a polar end, which adsorbs to a metal surface, and a long water-insoluble carbon chain.
They function by forming an adsorption layer over the metal surface, but their efficiency
may be low until the inhibitor molecules are perpendicular to the metal surface, which
generally occurs at the critical concentration, above which packing can begin. These
molecules then will be all standing on end with their polar extremities being packed
so closely together that no metal surface will be left exposed to the condensate. The
more tightly packed they are, the more complete the protection will be. When an
effective film has been formed, the free space left between the adsorbed polar ends of
the inhibitor will be smaller than the molecules of water, oxygen, or carbon dioxide,
thus preventing contact of these with the metal. It is thus theoretically possible to
obtain 95 percent or better protection.
Another ability of the filming amines is to displace and remove corrosion products.
By this cleaning action on the metal surfaces, heat transfer rates in heat exchangers
and condensing equipment are improved. Since the film formed is non-wettable, drop-
wise condensation of the steam is promoted, thus further improving heat transfer.
Some of the inhibitor may be expected to combine with old fouling deposits, rust,
sludge, carry-over, etc., and would not then be available for formation of the isolating
film desired, and would constitute a loss. But since the deposits, if removed too rapidly,
might clog traps and strainers, initial dosages of treatment should be kept low, with
gradual increases as the system is cleaned up. Some additional losses will occur at
condensate drips, by blowdown, and in condensate returning to the boiler.
Octadecylamine is the most commonly used filming amine, but since it is insoluble
in water, its water-dispersible salt, octadecylamine acetate, is normally used. This dry
flake acetate form is readily dispersed in hot condensate to make 1 percent solutions
which produce a pH of approximately 5.5. These solutions will hydrolyze to form
traces of acetic acid, for which reason chemical vats should be rubber or plastic lined,
or of aluminum. If the acetate solution is injected into steam lines, flashing may occur,
with similar hydrolysis and acid formation, resulting in minor corrosion of the chemical
line and steam line near point of entry. This corrosion can be eliminated by injection
direct to the boiler, since free octadecylamine is liberated in the boiler water and
volatilizes with the steam. Octadecylamine acetate solutions should not be fed direct
to superheated steam systems due to the formation of amine-acetamides, which cause
deposits in the boiler and feed systems, and are less effective inhibitors. For the same
reason neither should they be fed to saturated steam systems ahead of pressure-reducing
valves, etc., which could cause localized superheat conditions.
A further improvement over octadecylamine and octadecylamine acetate has been
the development of a high-strength filming amine inhibitor which is 100 percent self
dispersing and is available both is a dry flake and as a 20 percent emulsion resembling
cold cream. Since the flake material melts at 115 deg F and might, therefore, melt and
cake in containers, the 20 percent emulsion is the more desirable form. A 1-percent
solution of these high-strength filming inhibitors contains no acetate or acetic acid and
has a pH of 8.5 to 9.5, eliminating the corrosion hazards to vats and piping which
might occur with octadecylamine and its salt. These high-strength amines may be fed,
therefore, either to boilers or steam headers. Procurement specifications for filming
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 269
amines should require a minimum active inhibitor content in order to obtain an
equivalent basis for cost comparisons and dosage calculations.
Octadecylamme acetate is not compatible with hardness in water or with alkaline
or neutral salts, for which reason it cannot be fed with other water treating chem-
icals, and which requires also that condensate or equivalent be used for dilution in
the separate chemical vat required. The high-strength filming amines, on the other
hand, are compatible with moderate amounts of hardness and other water treating
chemicals, but where injecting into steam headers, condensate is recommended to avoid
deposits in the steam lines.
Proportioning chemical pumps are recommended for applying filming amines to
boilers or steam lines. Slug feeders and by-pass type feeders are not recommended
because of non-uniform feed rates. Neither should these amines be fed into the boiler
feed lines. Filming amines displace oxides and other fouling deposits to clean the metal
pipe surfaces, which will then be more subject to corrosion than when protected by
the oxide or other metal coatings. This is the reason for continuous feeding being
required, rather than slug or intermittent types.
Potential skin irritating characteristics of amine inhibitors in concentrated forms
should be recognized, and continuous skin contact should be avoided. These materials
should be removed from the skin by thorough washing with soap and water. Handling
precautions specified by the manufacturer should be observed. Possible toxicity consid-
erations should not be overlooked. While concentrations used in steam for condensate
line protection are not considered harmful, government agencies prohibit their use in
live steam used to process milk and foods. These objectives have been overcome by the
use of heat exchangers to produce steam from uncontaminated feedwater for such spe-
cial purposes. Significant reduction of corrosion should be evident after one month of
continuous application of a filming amine, but up to 6 months or longer may be
required to obtain the desired protection of 95 percent or better. Efficiency of the
amine treatment may be checked by various types of testers available for insertion
into the condensate system. It may be checked also by analytical determinations of dis-
solved iron in the condensate. Severe corrosive conditions might produce SO to 100
ppm iron in the condensate, but effective control by filming inhibitors should limit
the iron to less than 1 ppm.
In summary it may be said of the filming amines that:
a. They may be applied in low, economical dosages to effectively control corrosion
in condensate systems and on condensing surfaces with considerable savings
in maintenance.
b. Dosages required are independent of concentrations of the dissolved gases.
c. Both oxygen and carbonic acid are controlled.
d. They increase heat transfer rates by removing deposits and promoting drop-
wise condensation.
e. Optimum results are obtained by continuous application in the range of one
to three ppm.
f. Corrosion control progress may be evaluated by various types of testers and
by chemical test methods for iron in the condensate.
g. Field test methods are available for determination of residual amine.
4. Bibliography
1, Berk. Preventing Corrosion in Condensate Return Lines. Power Plant Engineering,
Mav 194.=^, pp. 130-132.
270 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
2. Berk. Use of the Bureau of Mines Condensate-corrosion Tester for the Survey of
Return-line Deterioration. Corrosion, March 1958, p. 41.
3. Brown. New Polar Film Treatment for the Control of Return Line Corrosion.
Proceedings, 10th Annual Water Conference, Engineers Society of Western Penn-
sylvania, pp. 115-126 (1949).
4. Coursault. Corrosion Control in Steam and Condensate Systems. TAPPI, Vol. 39,
No. 12, pp. 1S5A-158A (Dec. 1956).
5. Dalbke. Corrosion in Condensate Systems Can be Controlled. Power Engineering,
Aug. 1956.
6. Hanlon. The Causes and Prevention of Condensate Return Line Corrosion. Pro-
ceedings, Midwest Power Conference, Vol. X, pp. 134-140 (1948).
7. Kahler. Experiences with Filming Amines in Control of Condensate Line Corrosion.
Combustion, Jan. 1954, pp. 55-58.
S, Kieth. Corrosion in Steam and Condensate Systems. Proceedings of the Corrosion
Control Short Course, University of Oklahoma, 1956, pp. 37^1.
9. Lemen. Corrosion Control in Industrial Steam Power Plants. Combustion, Oct.
1954, pp. 38-44.
10. Sperry. Reduction of Iron and Copper Corrosion in Steam and Water Cycle with
Amines. Combustion, Nov. 1955, pp. 65-71.
11. Straub. Comparison of the action of ammonia, amines, and hydrazine in reducing
metal pick up in the condensate and feedwater systems of closed cycle steam power
plants. Proceedings, 14th Annual Water Conference, Engineers Society of Western
Pennsylvania, pp. 90-93 (1953).
12. Tanzola. Control of Condensate Return Line Corrosion. TAPPI, Vol. 34, No. 1,
pp. 25-29 (Jan. 1951).
13. Yorkgitis. Precautions in the use of Ammonia and Amines. Proceedings, 14th An-
nual Water Conference, Engineers Society of Western Pennsylvania, pp. 103-105
(1953).
14. Dalbke et al. The Effect of Mechanical Factors on Condensate-system Corrosion.
ASME Paper No. 57-A-183 (1957).
15. Wilkes et al. Filming Amines — Use and Misuse in Power Plant Water-Steam Cycles.
National Engineer, June 1955.
16. Adkins et al. Condensate Corrosion — Its Causes and Prevention. TAPPI, Vol. 38,
No. 3 (March 1955).
5. Acknowledgement
The committee wishes to thank L. S. Heasom, R. G. Angell, and J. F. Wilkes for
contributing information which has been helpful in the preparation of this report.
Water. Oil and Sanitation Services 271
Report on Assignment 3
Design, Construction and Operation of Coach-Servicing Facilities
to Comply with Regulations of U. S. Public Health Service
Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR
J. M. Bates (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Archambeault, V. C. Barth, M. R. Bost,
I. C. Brown, V. R. Copp, D. E. Drake, H. E. Graham, T. L. Hendrix, Jr., H. L.
McMullin, C. F. Muelder, A. B. Pierce, J. C. Roberts. E. R. Schlaf, J. E. Wig-
gins, Jr.
Your committee is initiating a study of hydrant types currently in use on the
railroads to establish the scope of the problem.
Cursory inquiry indicates the problem to be of sufficient magnitude probably to
warrant investigation and design by the AAR Research Center of an acceptable hydrant
which will satisfy the following objectives established for this assignment, namely,
that it will
a. be acceptable to the U.S.P.H.S.,
b. be economical to manufacture,
c. be simple in construction,
d. require little or no maintenance,,
e. be practical in cold climates.
It is expected that the committee's study will be sufficiently advanced before the
IPSO deadline for submissions of requests for research that it will be possible to justify
the need and satisfy other basic requirements for an appropriation and research project
in 1960.
Report on Assignment 4
Cathodic Protection of Pipelines and Steel Storage Tanks
Collaborating with Electrical Section, AAR
W. F. Arksev (chairman, subcommittee), R. E. Coughlan. B. W. DeGeer. J. J. Dwver,
H. E. Graham, T. I. Gray, T. L. Hnedrix, Jr., A. W. Johnson, C. 0. Johnson,
J. Y. Neal, J. P. Rodger, H. E. Silcox, H. W. Van Hovenberg.
In its report published in the 1957 Proceedings your committee outlined the
mechanism and possibilities of cathodic protection, the theory of corrosion and of
cathodic protection, and the economies to be reahzed by application of cathodic pro-
tection to railroad facilities under the headings: A. Introduction to Cathodic Protec-
tion, and B. Cathodic Protection Technical Practices. The following report is a con-
tinuation of the previous report and is offered as information.
C. INSTRUMENTATION
This report covers instrumentation insofar as it relates to choice of instruments
and their application to field surveys preliminary to the installation of cathodic pro-
tection systems.
In making a field survey it is necessary to measure electrical potentials and cur-
rents associated with corrosion of the facilities in question. When cathodic protection
has been applied to an installation, electrical measurements are made to determine when
corrosion is halted. The corrosion potentials and current normally measured are small,
272 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
extending; down to millivolts and microamperes. However, cathodic protection and
electrolysis currents range from milliamperes to hundreds of amperes. Therefore instru-
ments must cover a wide range of current and potential measurements. Improperly
taken measurements in the field may result in data calHng for a cathodic protection
system which may only partially protect or considerably over-protect the system.
Practically all direct-current instruments used in the field for measuring current
and potentials are of the moving-coil type. Deflection of the needle depends upon the
amount of current flowing in the moving coil; hence, most millivolt voltmeters and
milHamp ammeters are essentially microammeters. M.C. Miller's paper listed with others
at the end of this report goes into detail on instruments. He is an authority in the
field, and it is recommended that those interested obtain a copy of this paper for their
use.
Highly sensitive instruments have moving coils and pointers that are delicately
supported and perfectly balanced. Therefore, unless the coil is properly damped, the
pointer will over-travel the reading and oscillate back and forth until it gradually
comes to a stop. Field instruments with suitable period and damping and which do
not require accurate leveling are obtainable for ranges of readings used.
Potential Measuring Instruments
Four typ€s of millivolt voltmeters are used.
1. Low-resistance instruments
2. High-resistance instruments
3. Potentiometer voltmeters
4. Vacuum-tube voltmeters
A study of the characteristics of the various instruments offered in this field should
be made before choosing a particular instrument. There are two general rules which
should be followed:
*1. "The instrument sensitivity should be of such order as not to pass sufficient
current to change the potential being measured nor polarize the reference
electrode being used, thereby changing its half-cell potential."
*2. "The internal resistance (if moving coil and series resistors) should be very
high compared to the external resistance of leads and resistance to earth of
reference electrodes. If readings with 1 percent accuracy are required, the
instrument resistance must be 99 times as high as the resistance of leads,
contacts and electrodes (unless corrections are made for external resistances)."
To illustrate the application of various instruments named to typical measurement
problems, a few examples are cited: Any suitable voltmeter having the required range
may be used to measure battery and rectified potentials. A potentiometer would be
desirable for measuring structure-to-structure potentials, provided that necessary pre-
cautions are taken in its operation. A high-resistance voltmeter (50,000 to 500,000 ohms-
per- volt sensitivity) may be used to measure structure-to-earth potentials, using a refer-
ence electrode. In using a high-resistance voltmeter the precautions set forth in the
preceding paragraph should be taken very carefully. The potential could also be meas-
ured correctly by using a potentiometer properly adjusted. Either a low-resistance or a
high-resistance voltmeter could be used for measuring potential between a structure and
* M. C. Miller, electrical engineer, "Characteristics and Field Use of Electrical Instruments for
Corrosion Investigation and Cathodic Protection."
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 273
an anode. A very high-resistance millivoUmeter is desirable for measuring earth poten-
tials where it is desired to determine the direction of flow of stray currents and gal-
vanic currents through the earth. A potentiometer may also be used if care is taken in
adjusting it. Measurement of currents involved in cathodic protection require a variety
of instrument characteristics similar to those required in potential measurement. Cur-
rents measured vary from hundreds of amperes to a few microamperes, requiring a
number of instruments.
A multi-combination meter has been developed speciiically for field and laboratory
testing. All the instruments required for electrolysis and corrosion investigations and
cathodic protection testing have been combined into one compact instrument. It has
two highly sensitive micro-ammeters assembled in one case, with various switches to
cover a complete range of potential from 2 mv to 100 v, and current ranges from
1 milliamp to 20 amp. It provides a low-resistance millivoltmeter, a high-resistance
millivoltmeter and a potentiometer using a calibrated galvanometer with seven calibrated
ranges. These meters are furnished with complete wiring diagrams and instructions for
their operation.
It is suggested that anyone buying equipment for making cathodic protection tests
should experiment in an earth-filled box moistened slightly with water to increase its
conductivity. By use of such a box proficiency in the operation of the meter can be
developed, and first-hand knowledge of galvanic currents between various metals can
be obtained.
Another ground-resistance measuring instrument contains a balancing galvanometer
and potentiometer which gives true ground-resistance readings to 1/10 ohm times the
range multiplier. The range selector switch allows multipliers of 1, 10, 100 and 1000
to be used in measuring resistances. When taking resistance measurements, neither the
length of leads nor stray a-c or d-c currents from outside sources affect the accuracy
of the readings. Such an instrument is used for making soil resistivity tests, anode
resistance tests, circuit resistance tests, polarization effect, and current density. It is also
necessary to have a suitable voltmeter for measuring potentials in connection with the
instrument just described.
In addition to the instruments for measuring potential current and resistance it is
necessary to have a copper sulfate or other type electrode as a reference electrode, and
for making resistance tests of soils in the laboratory it is necessary to have a standard
soil box. The copper sulfate electrode is a plastic tube in which a copper rod is
immersed in copper sulfate solution. The bottom of the tube is closed by a porous
plug through which contact is made with the ground. The soil box is approximately
IK by 2 by 9 in, made of plastic or other suitable material. The dimensions are such
that when the soil box is filled level full with electrolyte, such as soil, water or other
liquid, the resistivity in ohm centimeters of the contents is equal to the change-in-
potential between the center or potential pins divided by the change-in-current. If the
current is in milliamperes, then
Delta mv
Delta
ohms centimeter
A high-resistance voltmeter or millivoltmeter should be used for obtaining the
potential differences. The ground resistance meter or a milliammeter and suitable milli-
voltmeter, electronic voltmeter or potentiometer may also be used.
In addition to the foregoing information, the following bibliography is submitted
containing a number of papers which may be obtained for more detailed study:
274 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Corrosion and Its Control — Marshall E. Parker, Published by The Oil and Gas
Journal
Galvanic Couples and Cathodic Protection — M. C. Miller
Corrosion of Buried Metals and Cathodic Protection — M. C. Miller
Characteristics and Field Use of Electrical Instruments for Corrosion Investiga-
tions and Cathodic Protection — M. C. Miller
Cathodic Protection for Earth-Buried Pipelines and Other Metal Structures —
Bureau of Mines Cir. 7827 — April 1958.
Zinc as a Galvanic Anode Underground — American Zinc Institute, 60 E. 42nd
St., New York, N. Y.
Zinc as a Galvanic Anode Underwater — Ditto
How Zinc Controls Corrosion — Ditto
Proceedings of 2nd Annual Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course
1957 — Technical Bulletin No. 48, Engineering Experiment Station, West Vir-
ginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.
This report is submitted as information with plans at present to complete the
report next year.
Report on Assignment 5
Transportation of Solids by Pipeline
Collaborating with the Pipeline Division, ASCE, and Other
Interested Organizations
E. M. Walters (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Archambeault, R. O. Bardwell, I. C.
Brown, T. W. Brown, C. E. DeGeer, T. I. Gray, E. M. Grime, T. W. Hislop,
J. J. Laudig, J. Y. Neal, John Norman, N. B. Roberts, A. G. Tompkins.
Your committee submits the following report of progress as the first of a series
of reports in the gathering of information on the transportation of solids by pipeline.
The use of pipelines for short distance transportation of solids as such, and as
slurries, has been in use by many industries for some time and the principles have
been worked out in some detail.
Interest in long-distant transportation has developed in the past few years, and at
the present time there are several installations ranging from a few miles to over a
hundred mUes long in operation or in planning stages.
In the past two years, two solids-carrying pipelines have been put into commercial
operation in the United States. One is a 72-mile pipeline used by the American Gilsonite
Company at Grand Junction, Colo., the other a 108-mile pipeline in Ohio.
The American Gilsonite Company's pipeline is 6 in. in diameter and delivers 700
tons per day of Gilsonite from the mine head to the refinery. This line was installed
at a cost of $2,000,000 and eliminated truck transportation of ore over a 180-mile
route. Operating costs are $1.00 per ton, which mak^s this method of transportation
feasible.
Ore is crushed to 8-mesh size, de-sanded, and mixed with water to form a 35
percent solids — 65 percent water slurry which is kept continuously agitated until
delivered to the pipeline.
The pump station consists of three 300-hp reciprocating pumps (two operating
and one standby) which supply the pipeline at the rate of 350 gal of slurry per minute
at a pressure of 2100 psi. Line velocity is 4 ft per .sec. and minimum pressure is 200 psi.
Water. Oil and Sanitation Services 275
The particles tend to settle if the line is not kept under pressure, so a back pressure
of 1150 psi is maintained at the discharge, controlled by cutting in and out a series
of small diameter pipes.
The experimental work to develop the mechanics of operation was performed
at the Colorado School of Mines. Erosion of the pipeline was tested by radioactive
methods and found to be negligible. Corrosion is controlled by means of sodium sulfite.
A chemical dispersing agent was tested to prevent solids separation but test results
were not of too much direct value in commercial installation. Slurries up to 41 percent
solids were found feasible by test, but 38 percent is the highest used in practice to date.
The pipeline goes over a 2000-ft mountain range, and a reservoir is maintained
at the highest point for back flushing the line in case of plugging or pump failure.
The Pittsburgh Consolidated Coal Company is now delivering 3600 tons of coal
per day to the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company through a 10-in pipeline IDS
miles long, which replaces an equivalent haul by rail at a cost of 40 percent of rail
charges.
The preparation plant crushes, de-sands, and grades the coal to 14-mesh size and
delivers a 50 percent solids — 50 percent water slurry to storage lagoons at the rate of
300 tons per hr. It operates 5 days per week and keeps the pipeline operating 24 hr
per day 7 days per week.
Three 450-hp reciprocating pumps at three stations 30 miles apart maintain a pipe-
line flow of 530 gpm at a velocity of 4.5 ft per sec and a pressure of 1000 psi. The
coal will not pack at zero velocity, and will reform a slurry as the velocity increases.
Erosion is not much of a problem as the coal is clean, soft, and sightly greasy,
and sharp edges are soon rounded off.
Outside corrosion is combatted by an enameled glass cloth covering and cathodic
protection. Interior corrosion is controlled by adjusting the pH to 6.5 with caustic,
using an inhibitor, and using a nitrogen atmosphere in the surge tanks.
On delivery, the slurry is dewatered in thickeners, vacuum filter, flash dryers, and
a cyclone collector.
To be economical, large volumes of coal must be handled, and the form must be
that used in the final process.
A projected Russian pipeline 6 in. in diameter is to deliver 200 tons per hr of
minus /4-in coal a distance of 41 miles between a mine at Novovolynsk and the
Dobrotvorsk power station. This line will operate at 1000 psi and will handle a 39
percent solids^-61 percent water slurry at a velocity of 4.8 ft per sec. It is expected to
show a savings of 60 percent over present rail transportation.
A 500-mile pipeline for delivering sulfur is mentioned as being planned in Canada.
The International Nickel of Canada has been using a 7^ -mile pipeline for delivering
ore to the refinery and to dispose of tailings.
Conclusion
Long-distance transportation of solids by pipeline is attracting more and more
attention and extensive research is underway on this problem. The railroads should
maintain an interest in the development of these pipelines so as to take advantage
of their economic aspects.
An outline of the items to be investigated in the future is as follows:
A. PUMPS AND PIPELINES
1. Types and Operating Pressures
2. Materials of Construction
276 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
3. Corrosion and Erosion Problems
4. Life and Replacement
5. Power Requirements
B. SLURRIES
1. Density
2. Velocity
3. Particle Size, (a) Methods of Forming, (b) Size Control
4. Methods of Forming and Maintaining Slurries
5. Methods of Dewatering Slurries
C. ECONOMICS
AREA Committee 16's current report on Assignment 11 gives a comprehensive
review of the advantages and disadvantages of long-distance pipeline transportation
of solids.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, 1955, Volume 169, No. 32 —
"Hydraulic Transport of Solid Materials in Pipes." — R. C. Worsier and E. F. Denny.
2. Coal Age, April 1957, p. 84 — "Pipeline Coal Transportation" — Clarence A. Dauber.
3. Oil and Gas Journal, Feb. 15, 1957, pp. 191-194 — "Slurry Pipelines Raise Special
Problems."
4. Oil and Gas Journal, Sept. 16, 1958, pp. 189-192— "Pipelines Carry Solids"— D. H.
Stormont.
5. AREA Committee 16 Report on Assignment 11 — "The use of Pipelines for the Long
Distance Transportation of Solids" A. S. Lang, chairman subcommittee.
Report on Assignment 6
Railway Waste Disposal
Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR
T. A. Tennyson (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Archambeault, R. C. Bardwell, J. M.
Bates, I. C. Brown, V. R. Copp, R. S. Glynn, T. I. Gray, E. C. Harris, C. O.
Johnson, H. L. McMullin, G. F. Metzdorf, J. Y. Neal, J. C. Roberts, E. O. Sal-
ners, E. R. Schlaf, R. M. Stimmel, A. G. Tompkins, E. M. Walters, J. E. Wiggins,
Jr.
Your committee submits the following report of progress in gathering data on
railway waste-disposal practices, which has been carried out in addition to its regular
perusal of the hterature available on this subject. This current report shows how
progress has been carried out on this assignment by dividing the subcommittee into
task groups, each with its own phase of the over-all project. Response to this approach
has been good, and the status of our work is summarized in the following paragraphs.
Regulation of waste disposal by state and federal groups, as well as by interstate
agencies, is tending toward uniformity as the result of the 1956 Water Pollution Control
Act, which encourages interstate compacts, uniform state laws, and provides for money
to carry on such activity for a five-year period. Most states now have water pollution
control boards which administer laws requiring permits to discharge wastes from new
sources, and the trend appears to be toward requiring approval of plans prior to new
construction. It would appear that more effort may be directed toward establishing
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 277
waste levels for given streams and localities rather than to set up fixed limits to covim-
an entire state.
Since the major problem in disposal of liquid wastes from railway property is
concerned with oil. one of our groups is making a study of ways and means of con-
trolling the amount of oil wasted. They will investigate and approximate the relative
responsibilities for losses and wastage of railway fuel oil, lubricating oil and cleaning
material between (1) employee handling practices and techniques, and (2) equipment
design, construction and its automatic operation. A reduction of the amount of oil
placed in the liquid wastes will not only reduce the nuisance of its disposal but can
well result in dollar savings to the railroads by stopping leaks, spilling and other wasting
of oil.
Cleaning-vat wastes, due to their high content of emulsified oil and chenvcals.
should be handled separately from general shop storm water where possible. Such
wastes should be neutralized, followed by settling of sludge and removal of floating oil,
and preferably further dilution, before disposal into the waste water system. If emul-
sions become a problem, it can often be solved by retention in a large lagoon from
which water can be drawn from below the surface by means of a down-turned outflow
pipe. Chemical treating methods can also be used to facilitate separation of the phases
prior to primary separation in conventional oil traps or sedimentation in lagoons, tanks,
basins, etc.
The recommended primary separation method for oil and solid wastes from
water is the gravity-type oil trap, which can be either shop constructed or purchased
from a number of suppliers. The design and operation of such traps have been ccmi-
pletel}^ discussed in previous reports of your committee, as well as in publications of
the American Petroleum Institute, such as its Manual on Disposal of Refinery Waste^.
Other methods which could be considered primary under certain conditions are filtration
through various media and absorption by hay, coke, etc.
In the treatment of certain industrial wastes, particularly those containing oil, of
the water-borne type, chemical flocculation and precipitation can be quite useful. The
processes involved are very similar to those utilized in the treatment of water for steam
generation, which are well known, as are also the reagents used to carry out these
operations. Frequently, flocculating agents require aids for best results. In this connec-
tion, acids and alkalis are used to bring the pH value of the fluid being treated to the
optimum level for the flocculent being used. Absorptive clays, such as bentonite anrl
Fuller's earth, may be used as nuclei for floe formation. Activated or collodial silica
can also be used for this purpose. Because of the multiplicity of water characteristics
and end uses of effluent, no single rule can be formulated regarding the use of floc-
culating agents. Each problem must be studied carefully to determine the most effective
and economical material for the job at hand. On many railroads, particularly those still
operating some coal-burning power, provisions should be made for settling out grit
and other solids ahead of the flocculation process, and considerable effort might well
be expended toward designing as nearly automatic operation as possible.
While experience has shown that gravity oil separators are producing satisfactory
efluents in most cases, without chemical methods or any final clean up, there are
situations in which persistent oil emulsions can bring on complaints, and in these cases
something more must be done. If the primary separation has been good, or floccu'ation
has further reduced the oil load, then some method such as filtration, ab.sorption, etc.,
as described above, can be used. Under certain conditions it has been found feasible
278 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
to remove the last traces of oil and other organic compositions, including phenols, by
biochemical action in such a device as a trickling filter.
Disposal of waste materials recovered from oil separators can become, of itself,
a major problem. The waste oil must be removed from the immediate area of the
disposal plant and kept from re-entering the sewer system by seepage or by being
carried in by storm water. If the quantity of floating oil collected from the oil skimmer
is large, several storage lagoons may have to be built, and these should be placed on
high terrain and walled with relatively impervious dikes.
Final disposition of waste oil depends on several factors characterized by local
conditions, physical properties and quantity of the oil involved. It is considered good
pohcy to obtain a laboratory analysis of the oil in question. This would include deter-
mination of API gravity, water and sludge content plus any other test which might
help reveal the general characteristics of the oil and help to determine its possible use.
Oils which are reasonably free of water, sludge and other impurities, and have gravity
between 10 and 30 deg API, may be used for power plant boiler fuel. Some railroads
find it advantageous to sell or give their waste oil to highway departments for use on
lural roads. Termite exterminators may often prove to be a ready market for such
oil, and it may also be possible to use some of it for weed control. If the oil is un-
suitable for fuel, and cannot be sold or given away, it may be disposed of by burning
in open-air pits, provided smoke laws do not prohibit this.
The disposal of solids removed from liquid waste treatment plants and the general
trash and rubbish — such as cartons, paper, wrappings and sweepings — which comprise
the bulk of waste material generated around railway property, can introduce trouble-
some and often costly handling. In order to reduce waste-disposal costs, the man-hours
devoted to the fiow of this material must be lowered to a bare minimum, which calls
for mechanization wherever possible. In planning the disposal of these materials three
points must be considered: (1) waste generation, (2) temporary storage facilities and
(.i) movement of waste into the final disposal area. The use of enclosed containers
which can be easily handled by trailers, fork lift trucks, etc., as temporary storage
facilities has been worked out quite thoroughly by a number of firms which are in
this particular business, and use of these systems can often save considerable sums in
labor costs. The final disposal area must be carefully selected if the railroad does not
have the use of the municipal sewerage system, incinerator, dump or land fill area for
waste disposal.
This report is presented as information.
Report on Assignment 7
Inspection and Maintenance of Diesel Fuel Oil Storage Tanks
A. W. Johnson (chairman, subcommittee), Y. C. Barth, M. R. Bost, P. J. Calza, V. R.
Copp, B. W. DeGeer, C. E. DeGeer, H. M. Hoffmeister, C. O. Johnson. J. J.
Laudig, John Norman, J. C. Roberts, N. B. Roberts, H. E. Silcox, H. W. Van
Hovenberg, C. B. Voitelle, J. E. Wiggins, Jr.
Your committee recommends the following procedure for maintaining diesel fuel
oil storage tanks and insuring good-quality fuel oil:
These tanks are either a combination of a storage and service tank or a large
storage tank above ground with a smaller underground service tank. They should be
inspected at six-month intervals, spring and fall, primarily to determine the amount of
I
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
sediment or water accumulation in the bottom. This can he rcnio\ed from above-
ground tanks through a valvcd bottom drain and from buried tanks by either a portable
or stationary pump, power or hand-driven, depending on size of tank.
Fuel samples are taken by a qualitied inspector using a '"tank thief", a sampling
dexice having a cast aluminum case 4 in. in diameter by 12 in long with a .spring-
actuated butterfly valve at the bottom. A chain is used to lower and raise the "thief."
It is open at both ends when lowering, and the bottom valve can be closed at any
level to take a sample. If lowered to the tank bottom, the valve closes automatically
% in above the bottom. Usually, samples are taken at the half-full level and at the
bottom and sent to the test department for analysis and report. Accumulation of water
and sediment over a 6-months period usually is negligible, but measurements 2 in deep
or more in buried tanks may indicate surface leakage either through the tank roof or
shell. Underground tanks are more subject to such leakage, and leaks are more difficult
to locate and repair.
Inspection of tanks to determine their general condition and the extent of repairs
needed should be made annually.
Service piping from tanks should be arranged so that the entire depth of fuel can
be u.sed or circulated if necessarv.
Report on Assignment 8
Methods of Controlling Spillage of Fuel Oil at Diesel Fueling
and Unloading Stations
V. C. Barth (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Archambeault, W. F. Arksey, M. R. Bost,
T. W. Brown, P. J. Calza, V. R. Copp. D. E. Drake. C. E. Fisher, H. E, Graham,
H. M. Hoffmeister. G. F. Metzdorf, C. F. Muelder, John Norman, N. B. Roberts,
J. P. Rodger, E. 0. Salners, E. R. Schlaf, R. E. Silcox, T. A. Tennyson, Jr.,
C. B. \oitelie.
A survey made on several railroads revealed that it is generally the practice to
unload fuel oil from tank cars by overhead unloading faciUties with drop hose counter-
balanced and with or without a swivel joint. Filters are generally employed somewhere
in the system to insure clean fuel oil. A limited number of railroads employ bottom
unloading. Fuel spillage loss bj' bottom unloading appears to be low. In several cases,
the pumps used to unload tank cars are also used to fuel diesel engines.
The estimates of individual railroads vary considerably as to the amount of fuel
oil loss resulting from overhead unloading. Almost the entire loss is represented by the
amount of fuel oil remaining in the bottom of the tank car after the unloading opera-
tion is completed. This includes fuel spilled back into the tank car as suction is lost
by the drop hose. The estimated loss varies from a few gallons to as high as 50 gal
per car. The average loss is approximately 25 gal. Several railroads consider the fuel
left in the tank car not a true loss, because it is usually contaminated with both
sediment and sludge.
With respect to automatic shut-off fueling facilities for diesel locomotives, it is
generally estimated that they save 2 gal of fuel oil for each locomotive refueled. Such
devices automatically shut off the fuel when the tank becomes full, thus eliminating
spillage out of the overflow pipe.
It is generally agreed that with proper handling, the amount of fuel loss from
the fuel pipe with conventional equipment when uncoupling is relatively .small, except
280 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
in instances where the delivery pipe is long and the track is not level. In these cases
a system which prevents spillage from the fuel line when uncoupling could result in
substantial savings of fuel.
In a few instances, automatic fueling devices have been in operation for as long
as 5 years with a delivery rate of 300 gpm, and reports indicate the equipment is
satisfactory for service requirements. Many railroads are now in the process of testing
special automatic devices, from which definite results and conclusions are not as yet
available.
Several railroads feel that automatic shut-off devices are not necessary if the fueling
is carefully supervised and speed is not a major factor. However, most railroads believe
that the fuel waste encountered in fueling operations is considerable and creates a fire
hazard.
Since there are several automatic shut-off type fueling devices now available, or
in the experimental stage of development, the evaluation and adoption of such equip-
ment are largely dependent upon standardization and interchangeability of such equip-
ment; for example, efficient use of such equipment must permit fueling of diesel locomo-
tives with any one of the various types now under consideration, including present
conventional devices.
It is impossible for the committee to establish the economics of these unloading
and fueling devices until the various types are fully evaluated. The committee is now
undertaking this phase of its work, and expects to complete its investigation within
the next year.
This progress report is presented as information.
Report on Assignment 9
Disinfectants, Deodorants, Fumigants and Cleaning Materials
Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR
R. S. Glynn (chairman, subcommittee), R. A. Bardwell, R. E. Coughlan, C. E. Fisher,
T. L. Hendrix, Jr., H. M. Hoffmeister, R. M. Stimmel, T. A. Tennyson, Jr.,
A. G. Tompkins, H. W. Van Hovenberg, E. M. Walters, A. B. Pierce.
Your committee submits the following report of progress.
DISINFECTANTS
A prelude to any job of disinfection is thorough cleaning, which in itself removes
most of the contamination. The use of a disinfectant is then usually only a "mop-up"
operation. Proper cleaning removes most of the unwanted bacteria as well as organic
matter, which in many cases interferes with the action of the disinfectant which will
follow. When soap is used as the cleaning agent it is germicidal against pneumococci,
streptococci and certain other weak organisms, but soap is not germicidal when applied
to the more resistant skin organisms.
There are many good cleaner-disinfectant combinations for use on floors, toilet
seats, urinals, upholstery, etc., but each individual must select his own product in the
light of his possible sources of supply.
In selecting such cleaner-disinfectants several things must be considered, including
(a) the supplier, especially his integrity; (b) product claims, and the standing and
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 28j^
reputation of the consulting group doing the tests; (c) service tests, observed and
conducted by trained technicians of your own organization; and (d) cost.
Each cleaner-disinfectant should contain a suitable detergent which can be selected
by a service test, and an effective disinfectant which has been certified by a reliable
testing organization.
A judicial decision made under the original food and drugs acts states, "Language
used in the label is to be given the meaning ordinarily conveyed by it to those to
whom it was addressed." While it is generally agreed that language is subject to growth
and that words acquire new meanings and lose old ones as the years pass, scientific
terms are not so flexible as some, yet they also are subject to change according to
common usage. Based on a careful study of the Hterature on the subject, scientific in
general, and consultation with bacteriologists, physicians, public health officials, chem-
ical manufacturers and laymen, A. M. Patterson* set forth definitions of several words
which reflect present usage, as follows:
Antiseptic — (1) A substance that opposes sepsis, putrefaction, or decay; one that
prevents or arrests the growth or action of micro-organisms, either by inhibiting their
activity or by destroying them; used especially on agents applied to living tissue. (Pat-
terson, 1932); (2) The representation of a drug in its labeling as an antiseptic shall
be considered to be a representation that it is a germicide except in the case of a drug
reporting to be, or represented as, an antiseptic for inhibitory use as a wet dressing,
ointment, dusting powder or other use as involves prolonged contact with the body
(Federal Food, Drug, Cosmetic Act, 1938) ; (3) Antiseptics are substances which, when
applied to micro-organisms, will render them innocuous either by killing them or pre-
venting their growth according to the character of the preparation or the method of
application, used especially for preparations applied to living tissue (Reddish, 1927).
These three definitions, although worded somewhat differently, are essentially the
same.
Disinfectant — An agent that frees from infection; usually, a chemical agent which
destroys disease germs or other harmful micro-organisms (but not, ordinarily, bacterial
spores); commonly used as substances applied to inanimate objects (Patterson, 1932).
There is little if any disagreement to this definition. In fact, it is one that has
been generally used for many years. However, it is still sometimes misused, such as
"skin disinfectant," whereas "skin antiseptic" is more appropriate in describing a
germicide for use on the body.
A legal definition for disinfectant is — An agent that frees from infections; usually
a chemical agent which destroys disease germs or other harmful micro-organisms or
inactivates viruses. Most commonly used to designate chemicals that kill the growing
forms, but not necessarily the resistant spore forms of bacteria except when the intended
use is specifically against an organism forming spores or a virus, in which case the
spores, too, must be killed or the virus inactivated. Proper use of a disinfectant is con-
tingent on the purpose for which employed or the type of infectious agent that there
is reason to suspect may be present.
The official definition of the word "disinfection" adopted by the American Public
Health Association is — "Killing of pathogenic agents by chemical or physical means
directly applied." While most disinfectants are recommended for use on inanimate
objects, in some instances antiseptic uses on the body are also specified, but effort is
made to encourage elimination of claims for disinfecting as applied to the body and
* Meaning of "Antiseptic", "Disinfectant" and Related Words, American Journal of Public Health,
22, 465-472.
282 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
to substitute phrases indicating antiseptic uses instead. Disinfectants should be used
only on inanimate objects and claims for such preparations should be made accordingly.
Sanitizer — An agent that reduces the bacterial count to safe levels as may be
judged by public health requirements, on food-handling equipment, eating and drinking
utensils, and the like.
Use of the word sanitizer should be restricted to connection with cleaning opera-
tions in the day-to-day control of the bacterial contamination with equipment and
utensils where the complete destruction of all growing forms of bacteria may not be
necessary.
Sanitize — To render sanitary. The term conveys the idea of disinfection without
any residual harmful to subsequent users of the article or product as well as elimina-
tion of any contamination which might be esthetically objectionable.
Sterilizers — A process, physical or chemical, which will destroy all forms of life,
applied especially to micro-organisms, including bacterial and mold spores, and the
inactivation of viruses.
Sterilization — The act or process of sterilizing, or freeing from all living micro-
organisms.
The Council of Pharmacy and Chemistry has formally gone on record as disap-
proving the use of the terms "sterile", "sterilize", and "sterilization" in a bacteriological
sense other than in their correct scientific significance; namely, meaning the absence
or destruction of all micro-organisms. These terms are not relative, and to permit
their use in a relative sense not only is incorrect but opens the way to abuse and mis-'
understanding.
The meanings of certain other terms require no clarification or qualification. For
example, the suffix "cide" means a killer or destroyer, and the suffix "stat" or "static"
means a condition of inactivity or inhibition or, specifically, prevention of growth. The
following definitions, therefore, need not be discussed except to indicate specific applica-
tions required by common usage.
Germicide or Bactericide — Anything that destroys bacteria (micro-organisms) ; ap-
plied especially to chemical agents to kill disease germs, but not necessarily bacterial
spores; commonly used for substances applied to both living tissue and inanimate
objects.
Fungicide — Anything that destroys fungi ; applied especially to chemical agents that
kill both pathogenic and nonpathogenic fungi other than bacteria ; commonly used for
substances applied to both living tissue and inanimate objects.
Viricide — Anything that destroys or inactivates viruses; applied especially to chem-
ical substances used on living tissue.
Sporicide — Anything that destroys spores ; applied especially to chemical agents that
kill bacterial and mold spores; commonly used as substances applied to inanimate
objects.
Preservative — An agent or process that prevents decomposition by either chemical
or physical means.
The phenol coefficient is a figure attained by dividing the numerical value of the
greatest dilution (the denominator of the fraction expressing the dilution) of the dis-
infectant capable of killing E. typhosa in 10 min but not in 5 min, by the greatest
dilution of phenol showing the same results.
Whenever an expression of the phenol coefficient occurs in literature on labels,
etc., in the United States, it is assumed that E. typhosa was used as the test organ-
ism; otherwise it should be distinctly designated when stating the phenol coefficient.
Water, Oil and Sanitation Ser\'iccs 28.^
Due to its ubiquit}', resistance and ever-read\' tendency to cause infection, Staph.
aureus should alwajs be used in testing those substances recommended for personal use
or application to wounds. The phenol coefficient method is not well adapted for testing
the salts of the heavy metals, the dyes, those compounds containing chlorine as the
active agent, or for oxidizing agents in general. The results of phenol coefficient tests
can be used for four main purposes: (1) to compare the germicidal activity of the
disinfectant with that of clear phenol; (2) to compare the relative germicidal efficiency
of different phenol-like compounds, to determine which are best and most economical
to use; (3) To indicate the germicidal properties of disinfectants by a single figure
for specification purposes and for ease in purchasing by large agencies, such as federal,
state, and municipal governments; (4) to use as a means for calculating the effective
dilutions for use in practice.
While most bacteriologists interested in the study and testing of disinfectants are
fully aware of the limitations of the phenol coefficient as a measure of germicidal
activity, it is important that all become fully informed in this regard. Much misinfor-
mation has been and still is presented relative to this important subject. Phenol no
longer plays any significant role as an anti-bacterial agent, although its use has not
been abandoned entirely. Its study aided toward the understanding of the action of
the numerous phenol derivatives. The chemical and germicidal properties of many com-
pounds are quite different from those of carbolic acid. The chlorine compounds are
unstable and especially so in the presence of organic matter. Phenol is not unstable
and is not counteracted by organic matter. A germicidal substance which is counter-
acted by organic matter, such as the chlorine compounds, should not be compared with
a germicide which is not affected by organic matter. Such a comparison is impractical
and unscientific. Many antiseptics act in a manner quite different from phenols so
that any comparison to the germ killing power of carbolic acid is out of the question.
Bacteriologists have been challenged by limitations of the present methods of
testing disinfectants, which do not accurately indicate their real values under the con-
ditions of actual use. Numerous improvements and new technics have been suggested,
and doubtless some are superior to the methods now in use. Some authorities doubt
the ability of any one technic to provide data applicable under all conditions and
suggest that tests may have to parallel the conditions of actual use. Recently, a very
excellent suggestion has been made for such a profile evaluation of germicides. A com-
bination of several well-established tests is recommended for the purpose. Use of these
tests is specified for determining the following properties of antiseptics: (1) the highest
dilution of germicides capable of killing in. pyogenes var. aureus; (2) extent of bac-
teriostassis; (3) influence of organic matter; (4) speed of action; (5) penetrability;
and (6) toxicity.
The final criteria for an antiseptic are effectiveness and usefulness in practice. The
vast amount of published data supporting the effectiveness of an antiseptic, disinfectant,
.sanitizer, etc., constitutes sufficient evidence of their value for general use. This ex-
tremely important factor should be given first consideration in any study of the
properties of antiseptics, disinfectants, sanitizers, etc.
FUMIGANTS
Fumigation as a method of insect and animal control has been known for many
centuries. But pest-control operators have, to a large extent, supplanted fumigation
with residual sprays, since their use results in long-lasting control without the danger,
expen.se, and inconvenience often attended upon fumigation. Nevertheless, fumigation
284 Water. Oil and Sanitation Services
is still employed, since it is usually an effective means of ridding a house of vermin,
and when used in combination with residual sprays supplies the quick kill often lacking
in residual sprays.
Some of the reasons for using fumigation are as follows:
1. Our more commonly used fumigants are toxic to both insects and rodents;
thus it is possible by means of one fumigation to control the animal pests in a building.
2. Fumigation is usually the quickest method for controlHng animal pests in a
building.
3. Fumigants frequently, but not always, kill insects where ordinarily contact or
residual and stomach poisons may not reach them, namely, behind baseboard, in hollow
spaces in the walls, and in building timbers (dry wood termites).
4. In specific cases, where it may be too dangerous to have poisonous dusts or
powders in the vicinity of food, or where sprays may taint such foods with their
odors, certain fumigants can be used to kill the pests within or in the vicinity of food.
Some of the reasons why the pest control operator may forego fumigation, preferring
some other method of control are:
1. Practically every fumigant that is effective against insects and animal pests is
also very toxic to man.
2. Since fumigants are poisonous, special equipment such as gas masks, halide
lamps, etc., is required to safeguard the operator against the effect of these fumigants.
3. A building or enclosure must be completely sealed. This necessitates much labor
and sealing material.
4. As a rule, the application of fumigants requires more technical skill than other
methods of control.
5. Fumigants and the labor factor involved make the initial cost of fumigation
comparatively high when compared with other methods of control.
6. It is not permissible for one man alone to fumigate, whereas but one individual
need be involved in the application of sprays and dusts.
7. Fumigants may give an almost immediate and complete kill of animal pests, but
a new infestation, from outside sources, may commence immediately after the com-
pletion of the fumigation.
8. In many cities it is necessary to obtain licenses and to observe many legal
restrictions before fumigation may be undertaken.
A great number of volatile organic compounds are sufficiently toxic to be effective
as insect fumigants. And, indeed, a considerable variety of compounds have been devel-
oped commercially. The first limiting factor is fiammability ; ethylene oxide, the simple
esters, carbon disulfide, and ethylene dichloride require dilution with COa or C CU for
safety. The second limiting factor is the toxic hazard to the operator, but this considera-
tion has not prevented HCN from being widely used. It is a disadvantage for the
fumigant to be highly absorptive or highly water and fat soluble or absorptive, as are
CS2, HCN. It is advantageous for the gas to be readily desorbed and to leave no
residue, as is the case with methylbromide, ethylene oxide, chloropicrin ; these vapors
are all highly penetrating. It is of course an advantage for the fumigant to be highly
insecticidal, although a compound that is as weakly toxic (to insects) as carbon tetra-
chloride may have its place because of other desirable characteristics. The combination
of high volatility with high toxicity is an advantage (namely, HCN, methylbromide,
chloropicrin) for the short term fumigation of closed places; but scarcely volatile
materials such as naphthaline, p-dichlorobenzene and nicotine have been used success-
fully, and low vapor pressure materials are preferred as spot fumigants and soil fumi-
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 285
gants, (namely; ethylene dibromide, hexachloropropcne) . One of the main considera-
tions in a choice of fumigants is the cost of the materials and their application.
The elimination of insect infestations in various commodities of commerce is a
vital necessity. Enormous losses are caused by insects and other pests, in a wide variety
of products such as grain, seeds, dry fruits, cereals and other packaged foods, fresh
fruits and vegetables, nursery stock, furniture and textiles. Aside from the danger in-
curred, pure food laws require that food products be free of insects when offered for
sale, and quarantines are placed upon interstate shipment of many types of food or
plant products unless they are fumigated prior to or during transit.
Because of its outstanding properties, methylbromide has rightfully become known
as the "fumigant of choice" in a space of less than 25 years, and with its use, types
of fumigation hitherto difficult or inefficient have become standard procedure. Methyl-
bromide is one of the most toxic fumigants known, and possesses numerous advantages
over other materials formerly used. While the action of methylbromide on insects is
comparatively slow, the results are positive. There is no survival even though they
may appear to be alive after several hours. Some of the advantages of methylbromide
are:
(1) High toxicity to a wide range of insects, rodents, etc.
(2) Does not leave residual odors, tastes, or stains.
(3) Kills insects and related pests in all stages or development, including the eggs.
(4) High rate of diffusion and ability to penetrate rapidly into stacked bags, pack-
ages, bales, storage grain and soil.
(5) Low solubility in water, permitting fumigation of products with high moisture
content, including damp plant materials.
(6) Low boiling point insures rapid volatilization.
(7) Nonflammable and nonexplosive. (See below)
(8) Economical because of low per unit cost in areas to be fumigated.
The fact that methylbromide will kill eggs, larva, pupa and adults of insects is of
particular significance, since most fumigants at standard dosages are toxic to adults
and larva only. While temperature is an important factor in fumigants, due to its effect
on insect activity and metabolism, the effectiveness of methylbromide is not lessened
by low temperatures to the extent that it is with some other fumigants. Being an
organic solvent, methylbromide should not be used for treatment of furs, leather or
rubber goods. Care must be taken to follow directions very closely in fumigating
vegetable oils, dairy products, nuts, margarine and other products high in oil content
since over exposure can cause darkening or tainting of product.
Fire underwriters consider methylbromide a safe fumigant from the fire and explo-
sion standpoint. The Underwriters Laboratories (list of inspected gas, oil and miscel-
laneous appliances. December 1940) describe it as "nonflammable over a wide range
of concentrations extending far beyond those used in the practice. Flame propagation
within a narrow range of 1 percent (13.5-14.5 percent by volume) in the presence
of an intense source of ignition is reported in the technical literature. The fire hazard
is very small from a practical standpoint."
Though methylbromide is more convenient and less hazardous in many ways than
are the more deadly and flammable gases previously used, it is nevertheless toxic to
all animal life and humans. Since it is practically odorless and colorless, it should be
handled with care and with due respect to surrounding areas that might be affected.
286 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
You should comply with all local regulations and post the necessary warning signs
where applicable.
Most railroad boxcars are not built sufficiently tight to be used as fumigation
chambers, and therefore must be sealed with masking tape or other suitable material
in order to prevent the rapid escape of the fumigating gas, but refrigerator cars in
fiood condition are usually satisfactory, if the drains and the hatch covers are sealed
prior to fumigation. Methylbromide is introduced through tubing entering through the
hatches, one-half the dosage being put through each hatch. An average refrigerator car
containing about 2500 cu ft requires 3-5 lb of methylbromide for an exposure of 18-24
hr to treat grain, dried fruit and similar commodities. For fresh produce in the same
car a 2-4-hr exposure to 5-6 lb is usually sufficient, depending on the procedure and
the temperature conditions. At higher temperatures less methylbromide is required than
at lower temperatures. The optimum temperature range being from 65 to 80 deg F.
The maximum temperature range for fumigation is approximately 45 to 120 deg F.
These limits are established principally by the physiological response of the insect since,
being cold blooded, they are almost inactive below 45 deg.
Some precautions to be observed while using methylbromide are as follows:
1. Do not breathe the vapor of methylbromide. Wear a gasmask when entering a
room or chamber that has been under fumigation, and make certain that no vapors
remain. The presence of methylbromide and the approximate amount can be detected
readily with a halide leak detector. After fumigation, ventilate cars, rooms, buildings
or other chambers before entering.
2. Avoid spilling the liquid methylbromide on the skin or clothing. If some is acci-
dentally spilled, get out into the open air immediately and remove all clothing that
has been impregnated with the methylbromide. Wash the affected parts of the body
with soap and water or with a solution of bicarbonate of soda.
3. Warning signs should always be posted during fumigation, and all entrances
sealed and locked.
4. Observe all local, county and state regulations and ordinance. These can usually
be supplied by the local agricultural, health or fire department.
5. Store cyhnders and cans in a cool place outside of the inhabited building. Be
sure that cylinder valves are tightly closed at all times when not in use.
Hydrogen cyanide has been widely employed as a fumigant for buildings and even
for citrus trees. Although it has a penetrating odor of bitter almonds it is toxic in
such low concentrations that its use requires its mixture with 5 percent chloropicrin
or cyanogen chloride as a warning gas. It is flammable only at very high vapor con-
centrations. HCN is highly adsorptive, which makes it effective at low temperatures,
but it also becomes difficult to remove by desorption. In addition, it is readily soluble
in water, and hence is highly absorbtive. It may be generated by atmospheric humidity
from calcium cyanide and calcium acid cyanide; the commercial powders yield 55 per-
cent of their weight as HCN. It also may be released from cellulosic discoids on which
it had been held by adsorption. The traditional method is to drop sodium cyanide into
dilute sulfuric acid; it may be weighed into paper or zinc foil bags, or compressed into
eggs, 1 lb being dropped into 5 lb of 50 percent HaSOi. Higher concentration of
HaSOi are liable to hydrolize the HCN into CO and NHg.
Carbon disulphide is a cheap fumigant handicapped by an unpleasant smell of
HaS. Since it is extremely flammable and explosive, it is diluted with four parts of
carbon tetrachloride. Although insoluble in water, it is highly soluble in fatty materials.
Carbon disulphide is highly adsorptive and penetrating and is liable to leave yellow
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services 287
stains. It has proved useful as a soil fumigant and has been employed to fumigate
warehouses, dwellings and stored grain.
Carbon tetrachloride is nonflammable, which makes it valuable as a fumigant
despite a low insecticidal toxicity. It is often used as a diluent for ethylene dichloridc
or ethyl acetate. When CCL is employed alone for grain fumigation, a dosage of .^0 lb
per 1000 cu ft is required. Trichloroethylene constitutes a slightly more insecticidal,
non-flammable substitute for carbon tetrachloride.
Acryonitrile is a useful low vapor pressure fumigant for dead spots in flour mills
and for bedbug control. Being inflammable it may be mixed with an equal amount
of ecu and the mixture proves to be a more effective insecticide than acrylonitrilc
alone.
Eth\lene dichloride has a pleasant chloroform-like odor but is, nevertheless, a self-
warning gas. Since it is flammable, three parts of ethylene dichloride are diluted with
one part of CCli. It is noncorrosive and is used as a mill or domestic type fumigant
at 6 lb per 1000 cu ft and may be applied by spraying.
Chloropicrin is a highly insecticidal, self-warning, sweet-smelling lachrymatory gas
that has little fire hazard and is highly penetrating. Since it is not water soluble it is
not absorbed by foods, and it is not reactive with metals and fabrics. It is used for
fumigation of mills, warehouses, and grain at a concentration of 2 lb per 1000 ft; its
effectiveness may be enhanced by admixture of CO-.
Paradichlorobenzene is useful as a soil fumigant and is very widely employed in
the form of mothballs to fumigate clothes. Naphthalene has also been employed for
the same purposes.
All stages of insects breathe — egg, larva, pupa, adult — but the egg and pupa being
physically inactive do not breathe as readily as the larva and the adult, thus as a rule
they are not as readily affected by equal concentrations of gas as are the larva and
the adult. Carbon dioxide exhilarates the rate and amplitude of respiration in insects
as well as in warm-blooded animals, and is believed to affect the tracheal valve control
in insects, and for this reason carbon dioxide is mixed with a number of fumigants.
Report on Assignment 10
Railroad Aspects of Radioactive Substances
Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR
R. O. Bardwell (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Bardwell, V. C. Barth, Jr., J. M.
Bates, C. E. Fisher, R. S. Glynn, T. W. Hislop, Jr., J. J. Laudig, J. P. Rodger.
During the past year, several railroads in the United States have used radioactive
piston rings to measure the rate of piston ring wear in diesel locomotives. These tests
have proved to be extremely fruitful. They have been used to measure the effect of
various fuel oils, lubricating oils, and engine components on piston ring wear.
The radioactive piston rings are obtained by placing standard piston rings in a
nuclear reactor for several weeks. Exposure to the neutrons in the reactor causes some
of the iron in the rings to become radioactive.
The radioactive rings are then installed in a locomotive engine in the railroad
shops and the locomotive placed on static load test. The rate of wear of the radioactive
rings is then determined by measuring the rate of accumulation of radioactive iron in
the engine lubricating oil.
288 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
The determination of the wear rate for a fixed set of conditions, i.e., load, fuel oil
and lubricating oil, requires about 6 hr. The sensitivity of the measurement is such
that a wear rate of a ten-billionth of an inch per hour can be measured within a few
percent. It is this sensitivity which allows information to be gained in one or two
days which would take several years by conventional wear measurements.
The hazards involved in performing these tests are extremely small. It has been
the experience of the railroads using the radioactive measuring technique that no person
has been exposed to as much as one-fifth of the allowable radiation tolerance dose.
This can be stated in another way by saying that during the several months that these
tests have been run, no person has received as much radiation as he would from a
single chest X-ray.
In order to make the test as sensitive as possible, fresh lubricating oil is used
for each days' test. Since the lubricating oil is used for only one day in the test engine,
the amount of radioactive iron it contains is very small, less, in fact, than the allowable
concentration for drinking water. Because of this, the lubricating oil may be filtered
and used in normal locomotive service on the railroad.
After the series of wear measurements has been performed, the radioactive rings
must be removed from the engine before it can be returned to normal service. The
rings are then sent to a licensed, radioactive disposal firm.
The experience of the railroads using the radioactive wear measurement technique
has established that useful and otherwise unobtainable information can be obtained
without any appreciable hazard.
This report is presented as information.
Report on Assignment 11
Methods of Heating Fuel Oil to Permit Winter-Time Use
of High-Pour-Point "Economy" Grade Fuel Oil
C. E. DeGeer (chairman, subcommittee), R. A. Bardwell, P. J. Calza, D. E. Drake,
C. E. Fisher, E. M. Grime, H. M. Hoffmeister, C. O. Johnson, G. F. Metzdorf,
John Norman, N. B. Roberts, E. O. Salners, C. B. Voitelle.
The testing facility mentioned in last year's report has now been completed. It
consists of a 2S,000-gal above-ground tank covered with 2 in of insulation having a
"k" factor of 0.25, which, in turn, is covered with 0.02S-in aluminum sheeting. This
gives a certain degree of reflective insulation and does not need any painting maintenance.
The tank is heated by three electric heaters totaling 18 kw, providing 1.1 w per
sq in of heating surface. The electrical input is metered, and a two-pen thermometer
(one pen for outside temperature and one pen for the oil temperature in the tank)
has been installed. The plant attendant notes on the recorder chart the temperature
and number of gallons unloaded and the gallons of oil in the storage tank each time
a tank car of oil is unloaded.
With these knowns, i.e., the temperature of the oil and the number of gallons
in the storage tank, temperature and gallons of oil unloaded, outside temperature,
"k" factor of the insulation, amount of electricity used, and the cost of the power,
it is believed that the cost of heating fuel oil can be obtained by the spring of 1959
after the test tank has been in operation. It is located where the mean temperature
for January and February is approximately 0° F.
This progress report is presented as information.
Report of Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals
F. A. Hess, Chairman,
A. S. Krefting,
V^ice Chairman,
H. L. ScRiBNER, Secretary,
M. H. Aldrich
J. D. Anderson
F. E. AUSTERMAN
R. O. Balsters
R. F. Beck
A. E. BlERMANN
W. O. BOESSNECK
W. S. Broome
W. P. Buchanan
G. H. Chabot
H. P. Clapp
K. L. Clark
B. E. Crumpler
J. L. Dahlrot
A. V. Dasburg
Oscar Fischer
h. c. forman
S. W. George
W. H. Gn.Es
W. H. GOOLD
H. J. Gordon
J. E. Griffith
C. A. Hag EN
G. F. Hand (E)
D. C. Hastings
Wm. J. Hedley
H. W. Hem
J. E. HovEsro
V. C. Kennedy
B. Laubenfels
Glen Lichtenwalner
J. L. Loida
E. T. Lucey
L. L. Lyford (E)
S. N. Mac Isaac
G. W. Mahn, Jr.
H. J. McNally
J. C. Miller
R. F. Moris
C. J. Morris
C. H. MOTTIEK
A. G. Neighbour
B. R. Nelson
B. G. Packard
C. F. Parvin
R. H. Peak, Jr.
G. -A. Peirce
Hubert Phypers
L. F. Pohl
W. H. Pollard
G. L. Roberts
L. W. Robinson
R. E. Robinson
H. T. Roebuck
M. S. Rose
H. H. Russell
W. C. Sadler
L. R. Shellenbarger
R. .'\. Skooglun
F. R. Smith
R. F. Straw
A. L. Thurston
J. N. Todd
C. W. Traister
P. P. Wagner, Jr.
W. E. Webster, Jr.
C. F. WORDEN
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Report on Water-Front Terminals, with the recommendation that it be
adopted and included in the Manual page 2^0
2. Classification yards, collaborating with Committee 16.
Progress report on determination of rollability of cars being conducted by
AAR Joint Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment, ARE.\
Committee 14 collaborating fjage 201
3. Scales used in railway service, collaborating with Electrical Section, .A.AR.
No report.
4. Use and location of yardmasters" offices.
Final report, presented as information page 292
5. Influence of roller bearing cars on design of hump and flat yards.
No report.
289
290 Yards and Terminals
6. Facilities for loading and unloading rail-truck freight equipment.
Progress report, presented as information page 293
7. Parking facilities for patrons at passenger stations.
Final report, presented as information page 294
8. Use of car retarders at locations other than on a hump.
Final report, presented as information page 298
The Committee on Yards and Terminals,
F. A. Hess, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 546, November 1958.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
F. E. Austerman (chairman, subcommittee), A. E. Biermann, B. E. Grumpier, H. C.
Forman, W. H. Giles, Wm. J. Hedlev, F. A. Hess, J. E. Hoving, L. L. Lvford,
H. J. McNally, C. H. Mottier, R. E. Robinson, J. N. Todd, P. P. Wagner, Jr.
Your committee offers the following report with the recommendation that it be
adopted and published in the Manual as a continuation of the material on Freight
Terminals, Part 3, Chapter 14.
I. WATER-FRONT TERMINALS
1. General
A water-front terminal provides facilities for the transfer of shipments or cargoes
from ship or barge to railway cars or trucks, and from railway cars or trucks to ship
or barge. The facilities consist of docks, wharves, piers and warehouses, with loading
and unloading equipment and necessary railway tracks and roadways for transfer
purposes.
The waterside may be an ocean, lake or river, but is usually a harbor on one of
these. A dock is the facility at which ships are moored. A dock may be parallel to the
shore Ime, in which case it is called a wharf. If a dock is built at an angle ranging
from acute to right to the shore line, where ships can be moored on both sides, the
structure is called a pier. Wharves and piers may be open or covered, depending on
the protection needed for the commodity handled. Some piers are used for short-term
storage as well as the transfer of goods.
In designing a water-front terminal consideration must be given to the type and
quantity of freight to be handled, and to the trackage and track arrangement required
so that proper switching to and from docks can be provided. The facihties on land
are provided to economically load and unload commodities. Docks should also be
equipped with necessary conveyors, pipelines, car dumpers, cranes, hoppers and any
other facility necessary to handle special commodities.
Large structural cranes may be built over docks to extend over ships to facilitate
the handling of loads. Conveyor systems may be built to move commodities in bulk
or in units. Some important docks specialize in handling one commodity, such as ores,
coal, grains, fruit (bananas), automobiles or equipment, or to transfer railway cars and
certain merchandise.
Y a r d s a n d T e r m i n a I s 201
Wharves may be served by tracks parallel to the wharf. Occasionally wharves are
equipped with tracks constructed adjacent to the water's edge, and goods are handled
directly between the ship and railway cars.
Piers are usually provided with tracks running down their center or along the edge.
Transfer bridges are used for handling railway cars to and from ships, car floats or
ferries.
Various yards for railway cars are a part of a water-front terminal. A storage yard
is usually necessary for cars held for loading or unloading and to accumulate special
cars for a particular ship. A classification yard, with or without receiving and departure
yards, storage and car repair yard, may be provided, depending upon the volume of
traffic handled.
Adequate storage space^ — ground pier or covered warehouse — is essential for com-
modities awaiting shipment. The arrangement of these yards and storage space is im-
portant so there will be the minimum of interference in handling cars to and from
the yards and unloading spots.
Report on Assignment 2
Classification Yards
Collaborating with Committee 16
Reliability of Cars
F. R. Smith (chairman, subcommittee), H. P. Clapp, A. V. Dasburg, F. A. Hess,
A. S. Krefting.
Your committee submits the following progress report as information on the
roljability of cars.
In 1957, Committee 14 recommended a joint effort on the part of the American
Railway Engineering Association and the Mechanical Division of the Association of
American Railroads to determine:
1. Rolling resistance of freight cars under a variety of conditions.
2. Potential improvements in the track and the freight car to reduce widespread
variation in rolling resistance among cars and in the same car as it rolls
along the track under varying conditions.
The objective of the proposal was to investigate what might be done for better
car control to reduce expensive car damage, lading damage, delays, per diem, yard
cleaning, and crew time in switching operations and at loading or unloading facilities
where cars are moved under the influence of gravity.
As a result of this recommendation, the subject was assigned to the Joint Com-
mittee on Relation Between Track and Equipment, AAR. In 1958, .'pSOOO was ap-
propriated for engineering research in connection with this assignment. This money
was used to obtain some of the data now available on rolling resistance from the
railroads and other related industries in the United States and Canada.
Two questionnaires have been prepared and circulated at the request of Com-
mittee 14 and the Joint Committee. One questionnaire, prepared for Engineering Divi-
sion Research, was sent to chief engineers, while the second, prepared for Mechanical
Division Research, will be answered by chief mechanical officers.
292 Yards and Terminals
The Engineering Division questionnaire requested copies of rolling-resistance data
with the conditions under which the data were obtained. The Mechnical Division ques-
tionnaire was primarily related to equipment factors that probably influence variation
in rolling resistance with a request for data and opinion pertaining generally to:
1. Lubrication of truck center and side bearings and a design using rust-resisting
materials.
2. Effect of brake rod eccentricity and its relation to rolling resistance and derail-
ments.
3. Device for freeing brake shoes when air is bled out of car and hand brake
released.
4. Longitudinal translation of truck side frames caused by tolerances in truck
bolsters, journals, etc.
5. Differences in weights of wheels and axles.
Each questionnaire requested an opinion or actual data on the cost of car and
lading damage per year and the total number of cars handled in the yard where this
damage occurred.
After the information from both questionnaires has been received and summarized,
decisions will be made relative to such physical research as may be needed for both
track and cars.
Report on Assignment 4
Use and Location of Yardmasters' Offices
R. H. Peak (chairman, subcommittee), A. E. Biermann, H. C. Forman, S. W. George,
J. E. Griffith, C. A. Hagen, D. C. Hastings, F. A. Hess, J. E. Hoving, A. S.
Krefting, B. Laubenfels, G. Lichtenwalner, J. L. Loida, S. N. Mac Isaac, J. C.
Miller, C. J. Morris, B. G. Packard, M. S. Rose, W. C. Sadler, L. R. Shellenbarger,
C. W. Traister, W. E. Webster, Jr.
Your committee submits as information the following report of current trends in
the use and location of yardmasters' offices, with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
Information was received relative to 35 recently constructed or currently planned
yard offices on 14 railroads. Of these, 13 are at hump yards and 22 at flat yards.
The preponderant trends noted in these new offices are the increased use of the
tower type, and a continued increase in the amount and variety of communications
equipment provided.
Of the 35 new offices, only 10 are at track level; 2 of these are at hump yards
and 8 at flat yards. One of the ground-level hump yard offices places the yardmaster
at the ground level but puts the hump conductor in a tower 16 ft above the top of rail.
Tower floor elevations vary from 12 to 50 ft, with the majority in the 25 to 35-ft
range. Several of those reporting higher towers indicated that some obstruction to the
view dictated the unusual height. In planning a tower, consideration must be given to
the downward view of nearby activities as well as the distant view.
Most of the offices are located at the throat of the yard, with a scattering further
along the ladder track or opposite the body of the yard. All of the offices have tele-
phones; most of them have radio and yard speaker arrangements. About half have
teletype and pneumatic tube installations. Six of the new offices have television; these
are all at hump yards and are used for recording car numbers on cuts. The use of
Yards and Terminals 29.^
television as an aid to the yardmaster in generally overseeing the yard activity has
been considered but the committee knows of no location where it has been permanently
installed or where such installation is definitely planned. Since the object of the tower
construction is to give the yardmaster an over-all view of the yard operation, this
same objective might be accomplished by strategically placing television cameras.
In most cases the offices contain space for yard clerks, at ground level, and wash
and locker facilities. Four have the scale recorder mechanism, five have lunch rooms,
and eleven have space for other departments and personnel. A feature in some of the
lunch rooms is a battery of coin-operated machines dispensing hot and cold foods and
beverages.
The general arrangement of a one-story building for yard clerks and other uses,
supplemented by a tower of desired height to place the yardmaster in the best viewing
position, is the most widely used. In some cases a multi-story building has been built
having the yardmaster on the top floor, with the clerks, other departments, wash and
'"cker rooms, lunch rooms, etc., occupying the other floors. In all cases where the
yardmaster is elevated above ground level, his office is almost completely glass enclosed
to provide a clear view in every direction.
Report on Assignment 6
Facilities for Loading and Unloading Rail-Truck
Freight Equipment
C. F. Parvin (chairman, subcommittee), J. D. Anderson, W. O. Boessneck, W. S. Broome,
C. H. Chabot, K. L. Clark, Oscar Fischer, S. W. George, H. J. Gordon, Wm. J.
Hedlev, F. A. Hess, J. E. Hoving, B. Laubenfels, E. T. Lucey, S. N. Mac Isaac,
G. W'. Mahn, Jr., H. J. McNallv, R. F. Moris, B. G. Packard, R. H. Peak, Jr.,
G. L. Roberts, L. W. Robinson, M. S. Rose, W. C. Sadler, P. P. Wagner, Jr.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation the subject be
continued. Previous reports on this subject may be found in Vols. 56, 57 and 59 of the
Proceedings.
As indicated in the report made in 1958, there is increasing use of, and interest in,
unit containers and trailer bodies which can be removed from the truck chassis of a
flat-bed trailer and transferred to railroad cars.
One method of handling truck bodies, or containers, is by traveling gantry crane.
The truck-trailer unit is driven under the crane and the truck body, or container, is
transferred to or from the railroad car.
The crane must span the road and adjacent tracks being used for this service, but
will eliminate the need for fi.xed or portable ramps and turning areas at the ends of
such ramps. Also, inbound shipments need not be headed in a specific direction on
arrival for unloading. Loading and unloading can be done in any desired order.
Moving the truck body directly to or from flat cars and truck or trailer chassis
presents two items for consideration.
One such method requires the truck body to be centered over the flat car and at
right angles to it during the loading and unloading process. This means the truck body
will extend over the sides of the flat car during this period and will require sufficient
clearance from the adjacent track.
When the tractor is used as a power unit during the transfer it is important that
a proper roadway be provided within the limits of the general area where the tractor
294 Yards and Terminals
is performing this work. This heavy-duty roadwa\' should Ijegin approximate!)' 12 ft
from the near rail of the track, be 18 ft in width and parallel to the track.
Side loading and unloading of trailer bodies directly between flat car and trailer
chassis is being developed. The present method utilizes a trailer-mounted transfer unit
parked next to the trailer body being transferred. The trailer, or container units, transfer
unit and chassis are all special equipment. The transfer can be made to any standard
flat car.
Report on Assignment 7
Parking Facilities for Patrons at Passenger Stations
L. F. Pohl (chairman, subcommittee), F. E. Austerman, A. E. Biermann, W. O. Boess-
neck, H. J. Gordon, C. A. Hagen, Wm. J. Hedley, F. A. Hess, S. N. Mac Isaac,
G. W. Mahn, Jr., H. J. McNallv, C. J. Morris, A. G. Neighbour, B. G. Packard,
C. F. Parvin, G. L. Roberts, C. W. Traister.
This is a final report submitted as information with the recommendation that the
subject be discontinued.
The continuing increase in the use of automobiles is producing a corresponding
increase in the need for - providing enlarged parking facilities. Municipalities, businesses
and industries, including the railroads, are confronted with the problem. Its solution
rests essentially with the municipality and should be handled by or under the super-
vision of the municipality, because a successful accomplishment is directly related to the
degree of policing of the parking lot and adjacent areas.
Adequate parking facilities at passenger stations are related to:
1. Short-term occupancy for private automobiles awaiting train arrival or de-
parture.
2. All-day parking or shift occupancy for patrons who park their cars during
daily working hours.
3. Long term occupancy for patrons who may wish to park their cars for several
days while they are away on trips.
In some instances a completely integrated layout may include holding space for
taxicabs, for loading and unloading busses, and for rent-a-car agencies.
Where adequate patron parking facilities are lacking, it is common practice for
railroads to lease their vacant property to the municipality, community organizations,
or to concessionaires for parking-lot development. The lease agreements generally pro-
vide that all improvements shall be made by the lessee who shall also be responsible
for the operation of the lot. For the use of its property the railroad may receive a fixed
rental or a percentage of the gross receipts varying from 10 to 35 percent or more,
depending upon local circumstances. This arrangement is a desirable one since the
railroad is relieved of the initial construction cost, recurring maintenance expense, liability
insurance premiums, and policing costs.
At some locations where parking is not extensive and can be limited strictly to
railroad patrons, the railroads may furnish the parking facilities and make no charge
or only a nominal charge for parking privileges. In congested areas where the land and
development costs are high and the commuter parking lots are operated as private
enterprises, the parking rates for a 12-hr period may vary from 25 cents to $1.50, with
most falling within the 40- to 60-cent range.
Design details are available in recently published reference books, which include:
Yards and Terminals 205
Parking. 1057 edition, by R. H. Burrage and E. G. Mogren, Eno Foundation.
Traffic Design of Parking Garages, 1957 edition, by E. R. Ricker, Eno Foundation.
Parking Guide for Cities, 1956 edition. Bureau of Public Roads, Washington 25,
D. C.
Data Book for Civil Engineers — Design, by E. E. Seelye.
Traffic Quarterly — January 1954 issue contains a cumulative index 1047 through
1953.
The following general comments are presented for guidance in developing passenger
station parking facilities or in evaluating existing facilities for the purpose of planning
extensions or improvements.
The principal design factor is location — nearnes.'; to the pas.senger station as well as
convenience of access to existing public thoroughfares. The general layout of a parking
lot will depend on the size and shape of the available area. Consideration must also be
given to the following factors:
Geometric Layout
The basic unit space should measure 8 ft 6 in. in width and IS ft in length for
driver parking. The angle of parking relative to the approach aisle may vary from
30 to 90 deg. the choice depending largely upon the size and shape of the available
area. The more acute the angle of parking, the greater will be the proportion of space
wasted. Where space is available for a wide aisle. OO-deg parking can be arranged to
advantage.
Fig. 1 shows the normal requirements for space and aisle widths for various park-
ing angles. The arrows indicate direction of movement on entering or leaving a given
space. One-way traffic is shown for all parking angles except the 90-deg scheme where
movements can be made in either direction with equal facility. Either back-in or head-in
parking may be used in 90-deg lots. For angle parking at less than 90 deg, head-in
parking is more common and generally results in safer and smoother operation. Space
may be conserved by using a herringbone or interlocking arrangement of spaces for
angle parking, but this advantage may be offset by the cost of barriers required to
protect the sides of automobiles from damage.
Fig. 2 shows a commuter parking lot constructed in 1956 at an intermediate station
adjacent to Chicago. Space is provided for parking 271 cars and, in addition, room
is provided for taxicab stands, bus turnaround, and temporary standing space for private
cars. The development costs, exclusive of cost of land, averaged $250 per parking .space.
Arrangement of Entrances and Exits
Parking lot entrances and exists should be well defined and should be planned to
eliminate interference with street traffic so far as possible. Entrances should be located
close to the station or train loading point so that this portion of the lot will be first
available. Reservoir space at entrances and exits should be provided to prevent back-ups
into the traffic lanes.
Method of Operation
The layout can be planned for attendant-parking or driver-parking. Each method
has distinct advantages and the choice will depend upon local conditions.
Parking fees can be collected by an attendant — by selling monthly windshield stick-
ers, by the honor system (fee placed in a collection box) or by using mechanical
devices. Parking meters cost approximately 560 each and are relatively expensive to
service.
296
Yards and Terminals
9,8'
90 PARKING
60' PARKING
12'
45 PARKING
17'
^^' I I
10' 18' 18'
30 PARKING
PARALLEL PARKING
FIG. I RECOMMENDED STALL AND AISLE DIMENSIONS
Yards and Terminals
297
298 Yards and Terminals
Many of the recently constructed parkin?; lots use toll gates for collecting the
parking fee. The collection unit is controlled by a coin-operated mechanism; the non-
pay unit is controlled by a treadle or magnetic pickup. Coded pass cards or keys can
be supplied to provide weekly or monthly parking rates to regular patrons if desired.
The cost of a toll gate is approximately $1500 installed. This type of installation seems
to be best adapted for use at passenger station parking lots. Multiple installations should
be made to avoid a tie-up in case of mechanical failure.
Drainage and Paving
Drainage, grading, and surface treatment for dust prevention should be provided.
Bituminous paving is generally used, with the unit parking spaces delineated by lines
painted on the pavement.
Lighting and Enclosure
Adequate lighting and suitable enclosure are desirable for safe operation of the
parking lot and to prevent pilfering and vandalism.
Local Zoning Restrictions
Local zoning ordinances may include requirements or restrictions pertaining to curb
cuts and driveway entrances, set-backs, fencing, and landscaping.
Parking Garages
The providing of parking garages for patrons at passenger stations is not common.
For economic reasons, their use is limited to areas of high commercial development
where vacant land is not available for parking lots. Multi-level structures require the
use of ramps or hoists to provide access to the various floors.
Report on Assignment 8
Use of Car Retarders at Locations Other Than a Hump
G. H. Chabot (chairman, subcommittee), M. H. Aldrich, R. F. Beck, H. P. Clapp,
K. L. Clark, B. E. Crumpler, A. V. Dasburg, H. C. Forman, W. H. Goold, J. E.
Griffith, F. A. Hess, A. S. Krefting, G. Lichtenwalner, S. N. Maclsaac, R. F. Moris,
A. G. Neighbour, L. F. Pohl, W. H. Pollard, L. J. Riekenberg, L. W. Robinson,
H. T. Roebuck, W. C. Sadler, H. L. Scribner, L. R. Shellenbarger, W. E. Webster,
C. F. Worden.
Your committee submits the following report on the use of car retarders at loca-
tions other than a hump as information, with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
Car retarders in the past have been located primarily at the hump end of classifi-
cation yards. Within recent years these devices have had more diversified applications,
their use has expanded to various locations in yard tracks and in tracks serving private
concerns.
By definition, a car retarder is "a braking device, usually power-operated, built
into a railway track to reduce the speed of cars by means of brake-shoes which, when
set in braking position, press against the sides of the lower portion of the wheels."
(Glossary, AREA Manual). With the development of two general types of car retarders,
this definition should be expanded to include the operated (controlled) retarders and
the inert (fixed) retarders.
Yards and Terminals 2QQ
The operated car retarder is an energized braking device that applies a variable or
fixed pressure against the car wheels to control car speed; the inert car retarder is a
non-releasable braking device that applies a constant predetermined pressure against
the car wheels to limit car movement. Retarders located at a hump would generally
be of the first type, while retarders at other locations could be of either type.
At points other than a hump some uses of car retarders are still in the experi-
mental stage. The type, number of units and location vary with local conditions. Some
of the factors that control the use of retarders are track gradients, type and number
of cars handled, problem to be solved, or special situations. Table 1 contains a partial
list of retarders at locations other than at a hump.
Some of the practical applications and their benefits arc:
1. Departure end of cia.^sification tracks in hump yards:
a. avoids side-swipe damage to equipment and ladinK where cars tend to run
out of body tracks,
b. prevents over-run of clearance point,
c. eliminates riders or skatemen.
2. In fiat yards:
a. limits travel of car,
b. increases efficiency of engines by eliminating necessity to hold on to cut of
cars.
c. minimizes damage to lading by preventing excessive impacts,
d. eliminates grade revision,
d. eliminates riders or skatemen,
3. On approaches to scales:
a. reduces car speed for proper weighing,
b. permits motion weighing,
c. aids in pulling pins.
4. Beyond scales where motion weighing is performed:
a. decelerates cars to a safe coupling speed,
b. prevents run-outs,
c. gathers cars for further handling.
5. On car repair tracks and miscellaneous yard tracks:
a. stops car at a specific location,
b. expedites operation.
6. At coal, ore, cement, pulpwood and other dumping locations, such as at
barney pit, on top of dumper and at loading points:
a. stops and retains car at point to be pushed,
b. stops and holds car at point to be dumped,
c. retards car at loading point.
7. On return track from dumper:
a. reduces spveed of car from kickback,
b. lessons impact of empty cars.
8. Below loading point ahead of storage yard:
a. reduces speed of car from loading point,
b. lessons impact.
9. On certain industrial tracks:
a. increases efficiency of operation,
b. reduces impacts.
300
Yards and Terminals
Table 1 — Car Retarders at Location Other Than A Hump
Location
Ashtabula, Ohio
Atlanta, Ga
Braddock, Pa
Bridgeport, Ala
Calhoun, Tenn
Chicago, 111
Chicago, lU
Chiquamata, Chile
Conneaut, Ohio
Corbin, Ky
Dante, Va
Flint, Mich
Flint, Mich
Gallatin, Tenn
Gary, Ind
Hammond, Ind.
Havana, 111
Hayne, S. C
Hudson, N. Y
Huron, Ohio
.Jackson, Miss
.Jersey City N. .1.
Kingston, Tenn
Lorain, Ohio
Ludington, Mich
Mahanoy City, Pa
McClound, Tenn
Morisville, Pa
Newport News, Va
Paducah, Ky
Pueblo, Colo
Puerto Ordaz, Ven.
Sandusky, O
Seven Islands, Que
Toledo, Ohio
Toledo, Ohio
Toledo, Ohio
Waukegan, 111
Wilcoe, W. Va
Youngstown, Ohio
Concern
NYC
Southern.
U. S. Steel Corp
TVA
Bowaters Sou. Paper.
C&O
Commonwealth Edison.
Chile Express Co
Pitts. -Conneaut Dock..
U. S. Steel Corp
Clinchfield Coal.
C&O
C&O
TVA
Universal Atlas Cement
St. Line Gen. Co..
C&IM
Southern
Atlas Cement Co.
W&LE
IC
CRR of NJ.
TVA
B&O
C&O
Traffic
Load
P. & R. C. & I. Co..
TVA
U. S. steel Corp
C&O
TVA
C&W
Orinoco Mining
Pennsylvania
Iron Ore. Co. of Canada.
C&O
LFD&RRT
NYC
Waukegan Gen. Co.
U. S. C. & C. Co....
r. S. steel Corp
Emp-
ty
No.
oj
Track
1
0.5
1
1
4
12
1
1
4
5
1
12
1
12
Retarder
Oper-
ated
In-
ert
Operation
Car dumping
Classification
tracks
Car dumping
Car dumping
Pulpwood dump
Classification yd
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Classification
tracks
Scale track
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car repair shop
Car dumping
Car dumping
Scale track
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Classification
tracks
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Billet mill
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Car dumping
Report of Committee 20 — Contract Forms
J. J. B.ATFA W. L. MOGLE
G. H. Beasley O. K. Morgan (E)
K. A. Begemann* W. G. Nusz (E)
H. F. Brockett g. W. Patterson
^^^^^tSy ^' ^ CORRELL J. L. PeRRIER
A. B. CosTic E. E. Phipps
G. K. Davis C. M. Sherman
.. "i. . Maxuel Garcia j. j Silvey
^B L^ C. L. GaTTON ^ R SWATOSH
^^ n WM J- P- Hai-pin J w. Wallenkts
^B H ^M ^ C. Hecke. ^ J ^^„^^.
^m :-i 1^ F. M. Jones ^ ^ Yazeu.
E. M. Hastings, Jr. W. D. Kirkpatrick ^
Chairman, t c t ^ /T7^ Clarence Young
' J. S. LiLLIE (E) ^ ,
D. F. Lyons. H. L. Zouck
Vice Chairman, L. W. Lindberg
A. F. Hughes, Secretary, W. J. Malone Committee
* Died August IS, 19S8.
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, with recommendations submitted for adoption page 302
2. Form of lease covering the use of railway tracks for storage of tank cars
containing liquefied petroleum gases, anhydrous ammonia, and other flam-
mable or dangerous materials, collaborating with the Fire Protection and
Insurance Section, A.\R.
Progress report, submitted as information page .^04
3. Form of lease covering right to strip mine on railway miscellaneous physical
property.
Brief progress statement pag^ -^08
4. Form of agreement covering parallel occupancy of railway right-of-way
property by electric power lines.
Submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual page .^OS
0. Form of agreement for construction and maintenance of highway-railway
grade separation structures for pubhc roads.
Progress report presented as information page 308
The Committee on Contract Forms,
E. M. Hastings, Jr., Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 546, November 1958.
301
302 Contract Forms
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
W. R. Swatosh (chairman, subcommittee). K. A. Begemann. A. B. Costic, G. K. Davis,
C. L. Gatton. J. F. Halpin, E. M. Hastings, Jr.. R. C. Heckel, W. D. Kirkpatrick,
J. S. Liilie, O. K. Morgan, W. G. Nusz. G. W. Patterson. Clarence Young.
Your committee offers the following recommendations with respect to the Manual:
Delete from the Manual "Form of Agreement to Permit Subsurface Exploration
by State or Other Governmental Agencies on Railway Right-of-Way", pages 20-7-8, and
20-7-0. and replace with the revised form entitled "Form of Agreement to Permit
Subsurface Exploration on Railway Property" presented herewith.
The text of the revised form, in essence, is similar to the existing form but includes
under "Notes" an alternate Sec. 4. Indemnity, and a Sec. 4 (a). Insurance, to cover the
preparation of an agreement with an agent of a Governmental body, a private party,
or a corporation, thus widening the application of the form.
FORM OF AGREEMENT TO PERMIT SUBSURFACE
EXPLORATION ON RAILWAY PROPERTY
THIS AGREEMENT, made this day of ,
19 ..... by and between the
with its principal office at ,
hereinafter referred to as the Railway Company and the
hereinafter referred to as the
WITNESSETH :
Whereas, the Railway Company is the owner of certain lands in the Township of
, County of ' , State
of and
Whereas, for the purpose of ascertaining subsoil conditions, the
is desirous of making certain borings on the
property of the Railway Company located at , in
the Township of County of ,
and State ;
Now, Therefore, in consideration of the covenants herein contained, the parties
hereto mutually agree as follows:
1. Grants
The Railway Company hereby grants authority to the ,
to enter upon its property, after 48 hours notice, to drill and make such borings in
such manner and at such locations as may be agreed upon between the
and the Chief Engineer of the Railway Company.
2. Protection
The shall exercise all reasonable care and
shall take such precautions as the Chief Engineer may deem necessary to properly pro-
tect the Railway Company's facilities and operations. The Railway Company reserves
the right to place watchmen, flagmen, inspectors and supervisors for protective pur-
poses during such boring operations, and the expense thereof, including the expense
of any material furnished, shall be promptly paid by
Contract Forms 30.5
upon receipt of Railway Companj's ijill therefor. In addition to direct wage and mate-
rial cost, such expense shall include, but shall not be limited to, cost of supervision,
traveling expenses, Federal Railroad Retirement and Unemployment taxes, vacation
allowances and all other expenses incidental thereto.
3. Data
The shall furnish to the Chief Engineer of the
Railway Company, without charge, a copy each of the boring la>out and test boring log.
4. Indemnity (See Note)
The shall indemnify the Railway Company
and save it harmless from all loss, claims, damages, costs, or causes of action of what-
soever nature, arising from or growing out of injury to or death of any person or
persons, or damage to or destruction of property of any person whomsoever, in con-
nection with the work herein contemplated, and operations adjacent or incident thereto,
arising in any way out of the performance of the work for which the permission herein
is granted.
5. Restoration
Upon completion of the work, the shall
restore the premises to their original condition, or a condition satisfactory to the Chief
Engineer of the Railway Company.
6. Termination
This agreement shall automatically terminate and shall be considered cancelled
from the date first hereinbefore written ; provided,
however such termination shall not be construed as relieving the
of any obligations or liability incurred prior to
such termination.
7. Assignment
The covenants, terms and agreements herein contained shall be binding upon and
inure to the benefit of the parties hereto and their respective successors and assigns.
8. Successors
This agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the parties hereto,
their successors and assigns.
In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have executed this Agreement in
on the day and year first above written.
Railway Company-
Witness: By
Witness: Bv
Note 1 : — It is recommended that the above form be used when Agreement is made
.'ith State or other Governmental agencies.
Note 2: — In the event that the Agreement is made ivith a private party, a ror-
.504 ContractForms
poration or an agent of a Governmental body, the following "Indemnity" and "Insur-
ance Provisions", designated Sec. 4 and Sec. 4 (a), respectively, should be substituted
for the foregoing Sec. 4. Indemnity:
4. Indemnity
The agrees to provide insurance
to release, indemnify, protect and save harmless the Railway Company from and against
any and all loss of life or property, or injury to the person or loss or damage to the
property of any person, firm or corporation (including the parties hereto and their
respective officers, agents and employees) and from and against any and all claims,
demands or actions for such loss, injury or damage, and any costs or expenses in con-
nection therewith, caused by or growing out of the taking of such borings or the
occupying of the property of the Railway Company, whether caused in whole or in
part by the fault, failure or negligence of Railway Company, its officers, agents, or
employees or otherwise.
4 (a) Insurance
The shall insure the contractual
liability has assumed under the provisions of Sec. 4. Indemnity. The
coverage shall be not less than $ for injury to or death of one person
and $ for injury to or death of more than one person in any one
accident, and for injury to or destruction of property the coverage shall be
$ each accident and $ in the aggregate.
The shall furnish the Chief Engineer
of the Railway Company with a signed or certified copy of the policy endorsed to
cover the contractual liability assumed under Sec. 4. Indemnity.
No work will be permitted on Railway Company's right-of-way until satisfactory
evidence of insurance coverage has been furnished and approved by the Railway Com-
pany's Chief Engineer.
Report on Assignment 2
Form of Lease Covering the Use of Railway Tracks for Storage
of Tank Cars Containing Liquefied Petroleum Gases,
Anhydrous Ammonia and Other Flammable
or Dangerous Materials
Collaborating with the Fire Prevention and Insurance Section, AAR
W. D. Kirkpatrick (chairman, subcommittee), G. H. Beasley, R. F. Correll, Manuel
Garcia, C. L. Gatton, E. M. Hastings, Jr., L. W. Lindberg, E E. Phipps, W. R.
Swatosh, J. W. Wallenius.
Given this assignment in June 1958 by special action of the Board Committee on
Outline of Work at the urgent request of R. G. May, vice president, Operations and
Maintenance Department, AAR, your committee submits the following form of agree-
ment as information, and as a pattern, with the request that members of the Asso-
ciation give us the benefit of their suggestions and criticisms, looking toward adopting
the material for publication in the Manual next year.
Contract Forms 305
FORM OF LEASE COVERING THE USE OF RAILWAY TRACKS
FOR STORAGE OF TANK CARS CONTAINING LIQUEFIED
PETROLEUM GASES, ANHYDROUS AMMONIA AND
OTHER FLAMMABLE OR DANGEROUS MATERIALS
THIS LEASE, made this day of
19 . . . . , by and between a corporation organized
and existing under the laws of the State of ,
hereinafter called the Railway Company and
, hereinafter
called the Lessee.
WITNESSETH:
That the Railway Company, in consideration of the rents to be paid and agree-
ments to be performed by Lessee, hereby leases unto Lessee all those certain tracks and
appurtenant lands hereinafter called "premises", situated in the
County of State of
described as follows:
1. Description
in accordance with plan , dated,
designated as
hereto attached and made a part hereof.
2. Purpose
The premises shall be used solely for storing tank cars owned or leased by Lessee
containing
3. Service
Upon the terms and conditions of this agreement expressed. Lessee shall be served
by Railway Company's locomotives and crews over the hereinbefore described premises.
4. Notice
Any written notice given by the Railway Company to Lessee shall be deemed to be
properly served if the same be dehvered to Lessee, or one of Lessee's agents, or if posted
on the premises, or if mailed, postpaid, addressed to Lessee at Lessee's last known place
of business.
5. Rent
Lessee shall pay to the Railway Company a rental of
per payable in advance, beginning
, 19
6. Refund
Rent paid in advance for a period extending beyond the termination of this lease
shall be refunded to Lessee, unless such termination shall be on account of violation
or non-fulfillment of any of the terms of this lease by the Lessee, or on account of
abandonment of the premises by the Lessee, in which case the amount paid as rental
shall be retained by the Railway Company.
■^06 Contract Forms
7. Taxes and Charges
Lessee shall pay durinp the term of this lease all taxes, licenses and other charges
which may be assessed or levied upon the premises, and upon the business of Lessee
upon the premises, or against the Railway Company by reason of occupation or use
of the premises.
8. Condition of Premises
Lessee shall at all times keep the premises in a safe, clean and sanitary condition,
and shall not mutilate, damage, misuse, alter or permit waste thereon. The Railway
Company reserves the right to inspect the premises.
9. Laws and Regulations
Lessee shall, with respect to any of Lessee's cars placed or stored on the premises
which contain any flammable product or other products of a hazardous nature, comply
with all applicable Federal, State or Municipal orders, regulations and ordinances, and
with all orders, regulations and recommendations from time to time prescribed or pub-
lished by any public authority having jurisdiction, or by the Railway Company, relating
to the type of cars and the contents thereof, or of any safeguard safety device, or
procedure to be used in storing said cars on premises.
10. Liability
Lessee covenants and agrees to indemnify, protect and save the Railway Company
harmless from and against all loss of and damage to any property whatsoever (includ-
ing property of the parties hereto and of all other persons whomsoever), and all loss
and damage on account of injury to or death of any person whomsover (including
employees and patrons of the parties hereto and all other persons whomsoever), and all
claims and liability for such loss and damage and cost and expense thereof, caused by
or growing out of the operations of this lease or the presence of said cars, or their con-
tents, on the premises, whether caused by the fault, failure or negligence of the Railway
Company, its agents, servants, employees or otherwise.
IL Insurance
Lessee, at its cost and expense, shall procure and during the continuance of this
lease maintain in effect a policy of insurance acceptable to the Railway Company insur-
ing Lessee's liability under this agreement in amounts for injury to or death of one
person not less than $ and not less than $ any one acci-
dent, and for damage to property not less than $ any one accident. The
Railway Company shall be furnished with a certified copy of the policy which shall
be endorsed to provide for 30 days written notice to the Railway Company prior to
termination of the policy and before any changes are made therein. The furnishing of
insurance shall not be deemed a limitation on the liability of Lessee as provided in this
agreement but shall be additional security therefor.
12. Term
To have and to hold the same from , 19 . . . . , to
, 19 . . . . , unless sooner terminated, as hereinafter
provided.
Contract Forms 307
13. Termination
Either party hereto may terminate this lease at any time, by giving to the other
party days written notice to this effect as herein provided.
Acceptance of rent in advance by the Railway Company shall not act as a waiver
of the right to terminate this lease.
14. Abandonment '''*
The failure of Lessee to occupy or use the premises for the purpose herein men-
tioned for days at any time shall be deemed an abandonment thereof.
An abandonment of the premises by Lessee shall, at the option of the Railway Com-
pany, operate as an absolute and immediate termination of this lease without notice.
15. Forfeiture
.Any breach of any covenant, stipulation or condition herein contained to be kept
and performed by Lessee, shall be sufficient cause for the immediate termination of
this lease.
16. Insolvency or Bankruptcy
If Lessee at any time during the continuance of this agreement should become
insolvent or bankrupt, or if Lessee's affairs should be placed in the hands of a Receiver,
this lease shall, at the option of the Railway Company, terminate.
17. Renewal
A lawful continuance of the tenancy beyond said term shall be deemed a renewal
thereof for the further term of to end at the
expiration thereof, without further notice ; and every further lawful continuance shall
be deemed a further renewal for a like term, to end in like manner, and every renewal
or holding over shall be subject to the provisions of this lease.
18. Assignment
This lease shall not be assigned or in any manner transferred, nor shall said
premises or any part thereof sublet, used or occupied by any party other than the
Lessee, nor for any purpose other than that specified herein, without written consent
of the Railway Company.
19. Successors
Until terminated as hereinbefore provided, this lease shall inure to the benefit of
and be binding upon the parties hereto, their heirs, executors, administrators, successors,
and a.=signs.
In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have executed this lease in
, as of the day and year first above written.
Witness: Company
By:
Witness: Lessee
By:
308 Contract Forms
Report on Assignment 3
Form of Lease Covering Right to Strip Mine on Railway
Miscellaneous Physical Property
D. F. Lyons (chairman, subcommittee), J. J. Baffa, G. H. Beasley, H. F. Brockett,
R. F. Correll, G. K. Davis, E. M. Hastings, Jr., A. F. Hughes, F. M. Jones,
W. D. Kirkpatrick, L. W. Lindberg, W. L. Mogle, J. L. Perrier, E. E. Phipps,
D. H. YazeU, H. L. Zouck.
Progress is being made in the study of this assignment, and the committee hopes
to have a tentative form of agreement to present as information next year.
Report on Assignment 4
Form of Agreement Covering Parallel Occupancy of Railway
Right-of-Way Property by Electric Power Lines
K. A. Begemann (chairman, subcommittee), J. J. Baffa, H. F. Brockett, A. B. Costic,
R. C. Heckel, E. M. Hastings, Jr., A. F. Hughes, F. M. Jones, W. J. Malone,
W. L. Mogle, C. M. Sherman, K. J. Silvey, J. W. Wallenius, D. J. White, D. H.
Yazell, H. L. Zouck.
Last year your committee presented as information a draft of agreement form
covering parallel occupancy of railway right-of-way property by electric power lines
(Proceedings, Vol. 59, 1958, pages 435 to 439, incl.) and invited suggestions and
criticisms thereof.
Having received no criticisms, your committee recommends that this agreement
be adopted and published in the Manual at the end of Part 3, Electrical Agreements,
Chapter 20.
Report on Assignment 6
Form of Agreement for Construction and Maintenance of
Highway-Railway Grade Separation Structures
for Public Roads
J. L. Perrier (chairman, subcommittee), K. A. Begemann, H. F. Brockett, Manuel
Garcia, C. L. Gatton, J. F. Halpin, E. M. Hastings, Jr., D. F. Lyons, W. J.
Malone, G. W. Patterson, C. M. Sherman, K. J. Silvey, W. R. Swatosh, D. J.
White, Clarence Young.
Your committee presents as information a tentative draft of form of agreement
for construction and maintenance of highway-railway grade separation structures for
public roads. It invites your comments and suggestions.
FORM OF AGREEMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTE-
NANCE OF HIGHWAY-RAILWAY GRADE SEPARATION
STRUCTURES FOR PUBLIC ROADS
THIS AGREEMENT, made this day of 19 . . . .,
by and between the State Highway Commission of hereinafter
called the State, and the Railway Company,
ContractForms 309
a corporation organized and existing under the laws of the State of ,
hereinafter called the Railway Company.
WITNESSETH:
Whereas, the State desires to improve a portion of the highway system known
and described as Highway No , located in Section ,
Township Range in the Town of ,
County and
Whereas, the Railway Company is the owner of certain land, rights-of-way, tracks
and facilities in the aforementioned district, and
Whereas, in connection with the improvement to said highway the State desires
to cross (over) (under) the lands, tracks and other facilities of the Railway Company
by means of a grade separation structure designated Highway Structure No
hereinafter called Crossing Project, as shown on the general plan dated ,
, marked Exhibit "A" attached hereto and made a part hereof;
Now, Therefore, in consideration of the mutual covenants herein stipulated to be
kept by the parties hereto, it is agreed as follows:
1. Plans and Specifications
The State shall prepare detailed plans and specifications for the Crossing Project
and shall submit all such plans and specifications insofar as they affect the safety,
operation or interests of the Railway Company to the Chief Engineer of the Railway
Company for approval. All plans, specifications or modifications thereof shall bear the
written approval of the Chief Engineers of the parties to this agreement. The Railway
Company will prepare the detailed plans, specifications and estimates for such changes
in, additions or alterations to its facilities as may be required in connection with the
Crossing Project. Award of contracts shall have the written approval of the Railway
Company where such contracts affect the interests of the Railway Company.
2. Permit
The Railway Company agrees to permit the construction and maintenance of the
grade separation and highway approaches, including the drainage thereof and other
appurtenances thereto, (over) (under) its tracks and across its operating right-of-way,
subject to all the covenants and agreements herein set forth. All other property or
right-of-way required for the project shall be procured by the State at no expense to
the Railway Company. The State shall give written notice to the Railway Company
30 days in advance of entering onto Railway Company property for purposes of
constructing or maintaining the Crossing Project.
3. Work by the State
After approval of the plans and specifications by the Railway Company, the State
shall contract for and cause to be performed in accordance therewith, all work in con-
nection with the construction of the entire Crossing Project, excepting, however, work
to be performed by the Railway Company as hereinafter set forth in Sec. 4. All work
herein provided to be done by the State, or its contractor, on the right-of-way of the
Railway Company, shall be done in a manner satisfactory to the Railway Company,
and the State shall require its contractor to avoid delay or damage to the Railway
Company's operations, property, or other facilities, or the operations, property or
facilities of others occupying or using its property. Upon completion of the items of
work as herein stated, the State shall require its contractor to remove from the Railway
MO Contract Forms
Company's right-of-way his machinery, equipment, temporary buildings and surplus
material, and to leave the right-of-way in a condition satisfactory to the Railway
Company.
4. Work by the Railway Company
Upon days written notice by the State to proceed with the
work, the Railway Company will furnish the materials and equipment, and proceed
with the work, both temporary and permanent, in connection with any adjustment
of any Railway Company facilities which may be necessary in the course of construc-
tion or maintenance of the Crossing Project. The Railway Company shall have the
right to perform all or any part of this work with its own forces or by contract, pro-
vided, however, that any contract which the Railway Company shall elect to enter
into shall first have the written approval of the State.
5. Protection of Railway Traffic During Construction
(a) The State agrees that the safety and continuity of the operation of the traffic
of the Railway Company shall be of first importance and shall be at all times protected
and safeguarded. The State shall require its contractor to perform and arrange his work
accordingly. Whenever, in the judgment of the Chief Engineer of the Railway Com-
pany or his authorized representatives, the work or its performance may affect or
involve the safety of the Railway Company's facilities and operation of its railway,
the method of doing such work shall first be submitted to the Chief Engineer of the
Railway Company for his approval, without which it shall not be commenced or
prosecuted. The approval of the Chief Engineer of the Railway Company, when given,
shall not be considered as a release from responsibility or liability for any damage
which the Railway Company may suffer, or for which it may be held liable, as a result
of the acts of the contractor or their subcontractors or their employees.
(b) The State shall give written notice to the Chief Engineer of the Railway
Company not less than days in advance of the commencement
of work on or over the Railway Company's right-of-way, in order that the Railway
Company may make the necessary arrangements for the protection of the Railway
Company's operations.
(c) When deemed necessary by the Railway Company, it may assign or employ
an Inspector(s) or Engine€r(s), who will be placed on the work during the time the
State's contractor is performing the construction provided for herein. The State shall
reimburse or cause the Railway Company to be reimbursed for the cost and expense
of such Insp€ctor(s) or Engineer(s).
(d) Whenever in the opinion of the Railway Company the construction may cause
a hazard to the safe operations of the Railway, the Railway Company may place
qualified employees at the site of the work to protect its operations. The providing of
such employees and such other precautions as may be taken shall not relieve the State
or its contractor or subcontractors from liability for the payment of damages caused
by their operations, and for the purpose thereof such employees of the Railway Com-
pany shall be considered as employees of the contractor or subcontractor. The Railway
Company shall be the sole judge of necessity, number and classification of employees
required. The State shall arrange for the prompt reimbursement to the Railway Com-
pany as provided in Sec. 10 for all cost and expense of providing such employees.
1
ContractForms -511
6. Federal Participation (If Applicable)
It is mutually understood that under various Federal Aid Highway Acts, certain
funds have been made available to the State for highway improvements, and the Cross-
ing Project herein contemplated may be financed in part by the use of such funds.
It is therefore agreed that all plans, specifications, estimates, awards of contract,
acceptance of work and general procedure shall be subject to ail Federal laws, rules
and regulations applicable to the portion of the work to be performed under this
agreement as a Federal project.
7. Mutual Consultation and Cooperation
It is understood and agreed between the Railway Compan.\- and the State that
each shall conduct its work, or cause its work to be conducted, in such a manner as
not to unduly impede the work of the other, and that they shall confer with each other
with respect to the various parts of the work before and during the progress of same
for the purpose of preventing interference or delays and securing full cooperation in
the expeditious handling of the Crossing Project. Each shall, upon notice from the other
of any default or failure of any party, firm or corporation performing work under con-
tract with respect to any part of this Crossing Project, promptly proceed to secure
full compliance with the approved plans and specifications.
It is expressly understood and agreed that the Crossing Project includes no work
for which the Railway Company is to be billed by the State. It is further understood
and agreed that no contractor for the State shall bill the Railway Company for any
work which he may perform, unless the Chief Engineer of the Railway Company shall
have given a written request to the contractor for such work to be performed at the
expense of the Railway Company.
8. Future Attachments to Crossing Structure
The Railway Company shall have the right, at its own cost and expense, but sub-
sequent to the initial attachments which are a part of this project, to attach to the
cros.sing structure from time to time, and to thereafter maintain, alter, change, repair
and renew, without charge therefor by the State, such equipment, signal, communica-
tions, power or transmission line, cables, conduits and pipes, or other facilities as may
be requisite or useful in the operation of the Railway Company, provided, however,
that the manner and method of attachment shall first be submitted to and have the
approval of the Chief Engineer of the State and shall be of such character as not to
interfere with the safety, operation or maintenance of the highway crossing structure.
9. Future Maintenance of Facilities
The Railway Company agrees that, after completion of the said crossing structure
and acceptance of the same by the State, the Railway Company will, at its own
expense, maintain, repair and renew all of its railway facilities, including, but not
restricted to, signals, communications and power lines which may be affected or relocated
by reason of the crossing structure. The State agrees to own, and at its own expense
to maintain, repair and renew the entire bridge structure, its approaches, substructure
and superstructure, appurtenances, and the sidewalk and the roadway then or after
located on the crossing structure, approaches and the drainage system, all of which
shall be and remain the property of the State ; the State further agrees to keep said
highway crossing structure in a suitable, safe and secure condition, so as not to impede,
jeopardize or interfere with the full, free and safe use, operation and enjoyment by
312 ContractForms
the Railway Company of its railroad appurtenances and property, as the same may now
or hereafter exist. In any event, the State shall, if requested by the Railway Company,
make such repairs and renewals as may be necessary to keep the crossing structure in
such suitable, safe and secure condition. If the State shall fail or neglects to do so,
the Railway Company shall have the right, on reasonable notice, to do so, and the
State shall promptly reimburse the Railway Company for its cost and expense therefor.
Nothing in this agreement shall release either party from claims for damage caused
to the property of the other party.
10. Payment for Work
It is mutually agreed that the Railway Company will not bear any part of the
expense of the Crossing Project and the State shall reimburse the Railway Company
for all cost incurred by the Railway Company, connected with the Crossing Project,
including, but not limited to, the following:
(a) Costs of all surveys, including preliminary, preparation and checking of plans,
estimates and specifications, expenses of all inspection during the progress of the work,
including wages, salaries and expenses paid the Railway Company employees (exclusive
of general supervisory personnel) directly engaged in surveys, plan preparation and
progress inspection, plus percent of such wages and salaries as
reimbursement for the costs of supervision and administration.
(b) All costs arising under any contract for any portion of the work, provided
said contract has been approved by the Chief Engineer of the State, plus
percent for accounting and supervision.
(c) All costs for labor furnished directly by the Railway Company, including all
wages, salaries and expenses paid by the Railway Company to its employees (exclusive
of general supervisory personnel) engaged in the work, plus percent
of such labor costs and reimbursement for the costs of supervision and administration.
(d) All costs for materials furnished by the Railway Company, plus stores expense
at the rate of percent of the value of materials furnished by the Rail-
way Company's Stores Department, and purchase expense at the rate of
percent on the cost of materials furnished through the Railway Company's Purchasing
Agent as reimbursement for the costs of handling, supervision and administration.
(e) All costs of Workmen's Compensation or Employer's Liability insurance and
Federal Employer's Liability, Fire insurance. Public Liability and Property Damage,
Railroad Protective Liability and Property Damage insurance.
(f) All applicable taxes levied and paid on any materials purchased for the work.
(g) Rental of tools, equipment and machinery (including locomotives and work
trains), rolling stock and roadway machines furnished by the Railway Company at
established rental rates.
(h) Cost of bond premiums and cost of fees for all permits and licenses.
(i) Vacation allowances and all taxes. Federal and State, based on compensation
by the Railway Company to employees engaged in the work.
(j) Cost of transportation for materials and equipment over the Railway Com-
pany's lines as well as over other railway hnes, at current commercial rates.
(k) Such other items of expense as may be agreed upon by the Chief Engineer
of the Railway Company and the Chief Engineer of the State.
The State shall pay the Railway Company for its costs and expenses incurred in
the performance of the obligations of the Railway Company under this agreement in
the following manner:
Contract Forms 313
The Railway Company shall render to the State each month copies
of statement of the costs and expenses incurred in the preceding calendar month based
on an estimated percentage of the work completed. Within days after
receipt of such statement the State shall pay to the Railway Company
percent of the total amount of said statement. Upon completion of all work to be
performed by the Railway Company under this agreement, the Railway Company
shall render copies of a final bill to the State. Within
months after receipt of said final bill by the State and during which time the State
shall have had an opportunity to audit said final bill the State shall pay the balance
to the Railway Company.
If requested by the State, the Railway Company will furnish evidence and permit
examination during regular working hours of its records pertaining to the Crossing
Project from which the invoices have been prepared.
11. Temporary Crossing
If the State, or its contractor, should require a temporary crossing over the tracks
of the Railway Company, they shall secure a license for same from the Railway
Company.
12. Insurance
In addition to the insurance that the State may require its contractor to carry,
the Railway Company shall take out insurance in amount of $ which
will protect and save harmless the Railway Company from and against (1) all loss of,
and damage to, any property whatsoever, including property of the parties hereto, and
of all other persons whomsoever, and the loss of, or interference with, any use of
service thereof; (2) all loss and damage on account of injury to, or death of, any
person whomsoever, including employees and patrons of the parties hereto and all other
persons whomsoever; and (3) all claims and liability for such loss and damage and
cost and expense thereof caused by, growing out of, or in any way related to, or con-
nected with the construction and maintenance of the Crossing Project covered by this
agreement, whether or not caused by the negligence of the Railway Company. The
State shall reimburse the Railway Company for the costs of such policies.
13. Indemnity
The State shall indemnify and save harmless the Railway Company from and
against all losses and all claims, demands, payments, suits, actions, recoveries and judg-
ments of every nature and description made, brought or recovered against the Railway
Company by reason of any act or omission of the State, its agents or employees in
execution of the work or in guarding the same.
14. Failure of Performance
If at any time the work which is herein agreed to be done shall cease and not
resumed within days without fault of the Railway Company, the Rail-
way Company may take whatever action is necessary to restore its properties and
faciKties to such satisfactory permanent operating condition as it may consider neces-
sary, and the State hereby agrees to reimburse the Railway Company for any and all
cost incurred by the Railway Company in connection therewith.
,U4 Contract Forms
15. Duration and Succession
The terms and conditions of this agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be
binding upon the parties hereto, their respective successors and assigns during the use
and operation of the grade separation structure.
In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have caused this agreement to be duly
executed in as of the day and year first above written.
Railway Company
Witness: By
(Title)
The State of
Witness: Bv
Report of Committee 6 — Buildings
S. G. Urban. Chairman,
D. W. Converse, Secretary,
J. L. Agee
C. M. Angel
W. F. Armstrong
S. M. BlELSKI
G. J. Bleul
C. E. Booth
H. M. Booth
J. R. Bowman
R. R. Cahal
H. M. Church (E)
C. E. Close
J. S. Cooper
F. D. Day
C. E. Defendorf
A. G. Borland (E)
L. A. Durham, Jr.
V. E. Elshoff
T. J. Engle
R. L. Fletcher
I. G. Forbes
C. S. Graves
J. W. GWYN
VV\ G. Harding
A. T. Hawk (E)
Wm. Hayduk
J. W. Hayes
J. F. Hendrickson
K. E. Hornung
B. J. Johnson, Jr.
T. M. Kelly
Earl Kimmel
s. e. kvenberg
R. E. LiLLISTON
G. H. McMillan
.'\. A. Melius
I. A. Moore
J. D. Moore, Jr.
G. A. MoRisoN
D. J. Murray
L. S. Newman
W. C. Oest
D. E. Perrine*
T. V. Pyle
C. L. Robinson
J. T. Rowan
A. B. Ryan
J. B. Schaub
J. T. Schosner
H. T. St:al
LouEN Shedd
E. R. Shultz
R. C. Turnbell
J. W. Wagner
J. W. Westwood
O. G. Wilbur
N. H. Williams
T. S. Williams
Comtiiittrc
(E) Member Emeritus.
* Chairman up to the time of his death on September 21, 1958
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects;
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Specifications for railway buildings.
Progress report, with specifications recommended for adoption page 316
3. Prefabricated metal buildings for railway use.
No report.
4. Wind loading for railway building structures.
No report.
5. E.xpansion, contraction and control joints in concrete and masonry block
buildings.
No report.
6. Buildings and structures for hump classification yards with retarders, col-
laborating with Committee 14.
Final report, submitted as information pajic .^ 1 7
7. New structural systems for railway buildings.
No report.
31.^
316 Buildings
S. Infra-red ray heating, collaborating with Electrical Section, AAR. »
Progress report, submitted as information page 324
The Committee on Buildings,
S. G. Urban, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 546, November 1958.
MEMOIR
BtoiBbt €lbin ^crrine
It is with deep regret and sorrow that we, the members of Committee 6 — Build-
ings, record the passing of our esteemed chairman, Dwight E. Perrine, assistant chief
engineer, Chicago & Western Indiana Railroad; Belt Railway of Chicago.
Mr. Perrine was born in Cedar Point, Kans., on March 16, 1901, and passed away
after six months' illness on September 21, 1958.
His higher education was received at St. Joseph, Mo., Junior College and the Georgia
Institute of Technology.
In the summer of 1917 he entered railroad service as a chainman with the Atchison.
Topeka & Sante Fe Railway at Topeka, Kans. After serving in the U. S. Naval Reserve,
he progressed through many railroad and contracting positions, finally joining the
C&WI and the Belt Railway as assistant engineer in 1948. Promotions followed rapidly
to his position as assistant chief engineer, in which capacity he served until the time
of his death.
Mr. Perrine joined the AREA in 1948 and became a member of Committee 6 in
1951, vice chairman in 1953 and chairman in March 1956. He was also second vice
president of the Maintenance of Way Club of Chicago, a member of the American
Railway Bridge and Building Association, the Roadmasters' and Maintenance of Way
Association of America, the Western Society of Engineers, the Chicago Engineers Club,
and was a devoted member and secretary of the South Lawn Community Methodist
Church.
Mr. Perrine is survived by his wife, Marie C. Perrine, and one married daughter,
Mrs. Marilynne Ann Lorenzo.
He will be remembered by his colleagues for his willingness to give freely and
wholeheartedly of his time and efforts to further committee goals, and for his friendly
relationship with everyone who was privileged to know him.
Report on Assignment 2
Specifications for Railway Buildings
H. T. Seal (chairman, subcommittee), J. R. Bowman, R. R. Cahal, C. E. Close, F. D.
Day, C. E. Defendorf, T. J. Engle, Wm. Hayduk, B. J. Johnson, Jr., S. E. Kven-
berg, A. A. Melius, I. A. Moore, L. S. Newman, T. V. Pyle, C. L. Robinson, J. T.
Rowan, J. T. Schoener, T. S. Williams.
Your committee submits the following specifications for application of asphalt
shingles with the recommendation that they be adopted and published in the Manual
at the end of Part 10 — Roofing and Siding.
i
Buildings 317
SPECIFICATIONS FOR APPLICATION OF ASPHALT SHINGLES
1. General
The contractor shall furnish all labor, superintendence, materials, tools, equipment,
and transportation, except as otherwise provided, needed to apply completely the asphalt
roofing shingles as specified or shown on the drawings.
2. Materials
All roofs having a pitch of 4 in or more to the foot shall be covered with asphalt
shingles weighing not less than lb per square, color as selected, as
manufactured by
, or approved equal.
3. Application
When used over wood sheathing, one layer of standard asphalt-saturated rag felt
of not less than 15 lb weight, lapped at least 2 in at all joints, shall be applied before
the shingles are laid.
When the application is made over old wood shingles, all decayed and missing
shingles shall be replaced and all loose and curled shingles securely nailed down to
make the surface as smooth as possible. It may be necessary to smooth out the old
roof deck by nailing on beveled wood strips with the thick edges against the butts
of the wood shingles.
All asphalt shingles and flashing shall be applied in strict accordance with the
manufacturer's directions.
4. General Conditions
All materials entering into the work and all methods used by the contractor shall
be subject to the approval of the engineer, and no part of the work will be considered
as finally accepted until all the work is completed and accepted.
The General Conditions as given in Part 1, this Chapter, shall be considered to
apply with equal force to this specification.
Report on Assignment 6
Buildings and Structures for Hump Classification Yards
with Retarders
Collaborating with Committee 14
A. B. Ryan (chairman, subcommittee), J. L. Agee, J. S. Cooper, V. E. Elshoff, Wm.
Hayduk, J. W. Hayes, J. F. Hendrickson, B. J. Johnson, Jr., Earl Kimmel, A. A.
Melius, J. D. Moore, Jr., L. S. Newman, W. C. Oest, C. L. Robinson, J. T. Rowan,
J. B. Schaub, H. T. Seal, J. W. Westwood, T. S. Williams.
This is a final report, presented as information.
Every retarder yard has its own particular requirements which are impossible to
cover in a recommended-practice report. However, all yards have certain essential
requirements for buildings. For instance, every retarder yard must have a retarder
tower, one or two yard offices and checker buildings. These are the absolute essentials.
Confining its remarks to retarder yards wtih 50 to 60 classification tracks, your
committee presents below, in detail, the ideal requirements for the four most essential
318 Buildings
types of buildings: retarder tower, main yard office at hump, yard office between
classification and departure yards (referred to hereinafter as bowl yard office), and
car inspector booth ahead of hump. It also presents brief information on checker build-
ings and tool and storage buildings.
RETARDER TOWERS
Depending on the operation of the yard, one or two retarder towers located adjacent
to the retarders at the hump are necessary — one if the humpmaster controls the switch-
ing from the hump, two if the retarder operators handle switching as well as the
retarders. However, if fully automatic retarders and switching are provided, then only
one tower and one operator are necessary.
The most economical height for a retarder tower has been found to be three
stories. However, this building should be so located and be of such height as to enable
the operator on the third floor to have a clear view of the cars and retarders under
his control. Experience has found that the operator's eye level should be from 25 to
30 ft above the top of rail.
Occupancy
The first and intermediate floors of the tower may house electric power panels,
battery room, signal maintenance work shop, retarder and switching controls, com-
munication equipment utility room, and possibly signal supervisor's or assistant super-
visor's office.
If the retarders are operated by compressed air instead of electricity, space for
compressors and possibly a standby generator should be provided on the first floor
of the tower; however, these facilities are usually housed in a separate building. A
separate building has been found to be more desirable, because ventilation of a com-
pressor room is important to dispel the heat generated by this equipment. Also, these
compressors and standby generators cause a noise and vibration problem which is
objectionable to the retarder operators.
Space Requirements
1. Electric Power Panels: Electric panel space should be provided accessible to an
outside door. The wall space for these panels should be a minimum of 6 ft in length,
with ample floor space adjacent to panels for accessibility.
2. Signal Maintenance Work Shop: Considerable inside space is required, probably
varying from 600 to 800 sq ft, with outside covered platform area for maintenance of
heavy equipment. This outside area should also have a monorail hoist for loading and
unloading trucks.
3. Retarder and Switching Automatic Controls: This requires approximately 700
sq ft of floor space. An elongated shape is better suited for this space, because of the
long relay racks required in 2 or 3 rows with ample space in front and back of the
relays for the performance of maintenance and repair work. A desirable width for this
space should be a multiple of 5 ft (IS or 20 ft, depending on the number of rows of
.elays required) and a length suitable for the lengths of the relay racks (40 to 60 ft).
4. Battery Room: A space of approximately ISO sq ft is required for battery
storage and recharging. This space could be incorporated with the signal maintenance
work shop. This area should be adequately ventilated for the removal of hydrogen gas.
If electrically operated retarders are used, a larger battery room will be required.
5. Private Office: This office space for the signal department supervisory force,
^approximately 200 sq ft, can usually be located on the intermediate floor or floors.
Buildings 319
6. Utility Room: Space is required to house a boiler, air conditioning equipment,
etc. A fire wall should be installed between this area and the relay room, insuring pro-
tection for the expensive electrical equipment located in the relay room.
7. The tower room dimensions need not be more than 16 by 16 ft. A toilet with
one water closet and one lavatory should be located in adjacent room.
Materials
The tower building should be constructed of approved non-combustible materials.
The exterior walls and wall panels should have a fire-resistance rating of not less than
4 hr. All bearing walls should be constructed of masonry or reinforced concrete. All
structural steel used should be protected to provide a fire-resistance rating of not less
than 4 hr. All floor and roof construction should have a fire-resistance rating of not
less than 3 hr. Walls, ceilings and floors of automatic control or relay rooms must be
finished as required to eliminate dusting.
Fire Protection
Adequate fire protection should be provided for this building, including the use
of hose racks located on the first and third floors.
Recommended Type of Construction
It has been found that windows are not desirable in the exterior walls of the relay
room located on the first floor, because this area is for electrical equipment only and
infiltration of dust is a critical problem.
Access to the second and third floors is more economically obtained by the use
of an outside open-grating stair wrapped around the tower portion of the building.
However, in climates where icing and snow is a problem the installation of an elevator
is desirable. This elevator should have a one- or two-passenger capacity. Or, consid-
eration might be given to a step-on-type vertical endless belt, electrically or manually
operated.
The open grating should extend around the third floor (at approximately floor
level) to solve the problem of cleaning the large plate glass window of the tower.
Assuming the tower faces the track, the plate glass window should wrap around
on each side of the building, extending back from the front corners of the building
4 to 6 ft. The glass of this window should be ^-in plate, heat-absorbing glass. The
glass should be approximately 2 ft off the floor and 4 ft high, installed in self-supporting
sash. It is also recommended that this glass be installed at an angle, sloping in from
top to bottom; this tends to eliminate glare at night. In the northern part of the
United States and in Canada it is advisable to use double-glazed finestration to reduce
heat loss. All glass should be tinted.
The roof overhang of the tower is important. It not only protects the observer's
eyes but improves visibility. Experience has found that an overhang of 4 ft is the
minimum and that 6 ft is preferable. When the yard is laid out north-and-south, re-
quiring the tower to face either east or west, then this problem of sun in the observer's
eyes cannot be entirely overcome by roof overhang, making the use of glare-reducing,
heat-absorbing plate glass absolutely essential.
Mechanical Facilities
The relay room and operator's room in the tower should have year-around air
conditioning; the other areas in this building may or may not be air conditioned. Air
conditioning is important in the relay room because of the desirability of maintaining
320 Buildings
a constant temperature as well as controlling dust and dirt. If air conditioning on the
second or intermediate floors is required, then a central air-conditioning system is the
most logical and economical choice. However, if these intermediate floors are not to be
air conditioned, then a separate and independent unit located in the tower is desirable.
The first floor, including the relay room, can then be conditioned by one package air-
conditioning unit located in the utility room of the first floor.
Wiring for lights, signals and retarders is one of the most important facilities in
this building, and careful consideration must be given to the chase ways for the cables
entering the building below grade as well as the openings in the intermediate floors.
Care should be taken in locating and choosing lights for the tower room. Too much
light in this area will be a hinderance to outside vision at night, and promiscuous
lighting will create unnecessary glare and reflection. Therefore, small carefully directed
lights on the operator's machines are recommended. Or, still more desirable is to pro-
vide adjustable indirect lights that could be controlled to provide the same intensity
of light inside as exists outside. Such adjustable lighting would permit clerical work
in the tower when humping is not in progress.
MAIN YARD OFFICE AT HUMP
This building is the heart of the entire yard and is located at the crest of the
hump. It may be a one- or two-story building, with a three-, four- or five-story
tower for the yardmaster. It is difficult to establish standards for this building because
of the variation of the operational requirements.
Occupancy
The following requirements are subject to operational revisions and additions:
1. Assembly or meeting room (optional).
2. Wash and locker room.
3. Space for tube system compressor.
4. Space for communication facilities.
(a) Intercommunication equipment room, including radio.
(b) Telephone equipment (optional).
(c) Communication cable entrance room.
(d) Communication maintenance shop (optional).
5. Terminal superintendent's office (optional).
6. Terminal trainmaster's office (optional).
7. Telegraph ofiice.
8. Conductor's room (optional).
9. General office space — alloted as follows:
(a) Crew clerks.
(b) Crew caller.
(c) Crew dispatcher.
(d) Space adjacent to hump and scales for scale clerk and possibly the hump-
master.
(e) Car taggers, car checkers, record clerks, list clerks, stenographers, etc.
(f) Space for pneumatic tube terminals.
10. Yardmaster's tower room.
11. Utility room.
Buildings 32j_
Space Requirements
If rock is not encountered, a full-size basement is usually found to be most eco-
nomical. This is true especially when the scale pit is adjacent to the building, allowing
access to the scale pit from the basement through a tunnel. The basement fioor space
can be utilized for an assembly room, utility or boiler room, wash and locker room,
tube system compressor room and general storage room for records.
1. Assembly or Meeting Room: This space is for rules examinations and general
assemblies. A capacity of 75 to 100 seats is usually sufficient. It is desirable to provide
a projector and screen in this room.
2. Wash and Locker Room should have a locker capacity sufficient for the number
of men required, and shower and toilet facilities to meet the local code requirements.
It has also become an accepted practice to separate the shower and toilet faciHties from
the locker space with partitioning.
3. Space for the Tube System Compressor should be so located in the basement
as to be under tube cabinets on the first floor. Space requirements will vary according
to the number and length of tube lines in the yard. There is considerable noise generated
in this area and should be considered in the design.
4. Space for Communication Facilities: These facilities can be located on one of
the intermediate floors of the tower. However, heavy equipment storage should be
provided in the basement.
(a) Intercom and radio room located directly under yardmaster's tower room.
(b) Commercial telephone or railroad-owned dial telephone equipment directly
under intercom if four-story tower is provided.
(c) Communication cable entrance and distribution room located directly under
tower in basement.
5. Terminal Superintendent's Office may or may not be required. If this space is
required it is best located with 6. Terminal Trainmaster's Office on the second floor
of the building. The second floor can be of such a size (full size if required) to accom-
modate these two officers with their clerical forces.
7. Telegraph Office: The floor area required for this space should be from 300 to
700 sq ft, depending upon the number of operators necessary for the operation of the
yard. Noise resulting from the teletype machines is a factor in the design and location
of this area.
8. Conductor's Room: It is desirable to locate this space adjacent to the telegraph
office. However, some railroads have no provisions for conductors other than wash and
locker facilities.
9. General Office Space requirements will vary with every yard, and it is impossible
to set down specific requirements. However, experience has shown that a general office
space of from 1500 to 2500 sq ft will suffice for most operations. Off this general office
space a bay window should be provided for the scale operator. The bay is necessary
for adequate vision up and down the scale track. This bay should project approximately
5 ft and have a width of approximately 10 ft. Some railroads have found it convenient
to locate the humpmaster in a bay similar to the space occupied by the scale operator.
Floodlights should be located above these bay windows for the illumination of car
numbers. In some yards where the receiving lead track is convenient, one of the car
checkers can work from a window of this building.
10. Yardmaster's Tower Room: A tower 20 ft square usually provides ample space
for the yardmaster. A private toilet plus a small storage space should be incorporated
322 Buildings
in this room. The yardmaster's view is the most important requisite for this tower
room and should be kept in mind in the design. It is, therefore, recommended by
some railroads that the toilet facilities for the yardmaster be located on the floor
below, thereby, providing ISO deg vision in the tower room.
Materials
The construction of this building should conform to the general requirements for
office buildings. The use of non-combustible materials is, of course, desirable.
A suspended acoustical ceiling is recommended over the first floor for sound control
and the provision of space for the tube system and other mechanical facilities. Acous-
tical ceiling is also recommended for the yardmaster's tower room. It is also desirable
to soundproof the walls around the telegraph room.
The plate glass windows for the scale operator and yardmaster should have approxi-
mately the same dimensions and characteristics as those given heretofore for the
retarder tower. Also the overhang for the yardmaster's tower should have appoximately
the same dimensions as suggested for the retarder tower.
Mechanical Facilities
Year-around air conditioning is recommended for all areas in this building except
the wash and locker rooms, toilet rooms, record and storage areas and mechanical equip-
ment rooms. A centralized heating and cooling plant is recommended, using separate
heating and coohng units with a common air distribution system. Air distribution
should be handled through a system of ductwork for both supply and return air. As
in the case of the retarder tower, if the intermediate floors in the tower are not to be
air conditioned, it is advisable to use a separate and independent air-conditioning unit
in the yardmaster's tower room.
Men's and women's toilet rooms meeting the necessary code requirements should
be located conveniently on the first and second fiooi-s.
Wiring and lighting should follow the usual accepted practices for offices with the
exception of the yardmaster's tower room. This area should receive the same careful
consideration in regard to lighting as suggested for the retarder tower.
Lighting — Recommended Levels
General office 50 f t-candles
Telegraph room SO ft-candles
Private offices 30-40 ft-candles
Other rooms 20 ft-candles
Tower room 5-40 ft-candles (variable )
BOWL YARD OFFICE
This building is located between the classification tracks and the departure yard
and is used principally by the yardmaster who handles the make-up of trains in the
departure yard. It should have a tower room similar to the towers recommended for
the retarder tower and yard office.
Occupancy
The first floor of this building should provide the following facilities:
1. Wash and locker room for switching crews.
2. Office space.
3. Utility room.
Buildings 323
It is debatable whether the yardmaster's tower should be two or three stories high.
If it has three floors, the second floor can be utilized by the telephone intercom, radio
and signal departments.
Space Requirements
1. Wash and Locker Room Facilities should be incorporated into the first floor of
this building with capacities to accommodate the required number of lockers. The toilet
and shower facilities should meet the necessary code requirements for the required
number of lockers. As suggested for the other buildings in this report, the wash and
toilet room should be separated by a partition from the locker room.
The requirements for wash and locker facihties in this area between the classifica-
tion and departure yards vary widely with each yard operation and must be deter-
mined according to the wishes of the mechanical department and transportation
department.
2. The General Office Space in this building will vary considerably in space require-
ments, depending largely on whether an interlocking control machine is located in this
space. This floor space will vary from 300 to 600 sq ft. In this area it is desirable to
have a glass bay for the switching foreman similar to the bay in the main yard office
for the scale operator.
3. Utility Room of 100 to 150 sq ft is usually adequate.
4. Requirements for Yardmaster's Tower Room located on either the second or
third floor are similar to the yardmaster's tower in the main yard office.
Materials
See recommendations for Main Yard Office at Hump.
Mechanical Facilities
See recommendations for Main Yard Office at Hump.
Pneumatic tube lines and terminals are usually required in this building; therefore,
provision for these facilities should be considered.
CHECKER BUILDINGS
There may be two, three or four of these small one-room buildings required. Usuallv
there is one at the entrance of the receiving and departure yards or one at each end of
these sections. They should have ample glass area for good vision in three directions.
Usually only one man occupies these buildings, and a space of 100 to ISO sq ft is
ample. If toilet facilities are not accessible, a small toilet should be considered in the
design. Floodlighting the sides of cars from the roofs of these buildings should al.^o be
included in the design.
CAR INSPECTION BOOTH
Car inspection pits just ahead of the hump for the inspection of cars as they enter
the yard might be located either between the rails or on each side of track. The floor
area of these pits should be 50 to 100 sq ft. Side pits have been found to be most
desirable. These pits should be depressed on each side of the track so that the car
inspector, when seated, can view the under-frames and rigging of the cars with his
eye-level just above (about 6 in) the top of rail. These pits should be of concrete
construction with clear, shatterproof glass projecting approximately 2 ft above grade.
Adequate floodlighting should be provided on top of the pits for the illumination of the
undersides of cars.
324 Buildings
TOOL AND STORAGE BUILDINGS
It is also desirable to provide small unhealed tool and storage buildings at strategic
locations in the yard to eliminate lost time and motion in transporting tools, materials,
etc.
CONCLUSION
The above described buildings are the essential ones for a classification hump yard.
The desirability of other facilities is realized, such as car icing, car repair, diesel and
freight facihties, and for other miscellaneous and subordinate operations which con-
sohdate and expedite freight traffic. This committee feels that the incorporation of these
miscellaneous facilities into this report would be reiteration of studies made by Com-
mittee 14 — Yards and Terminals.
Report on Assignment 8
Infra-Red Ray Heating
Collaborating -with. Electrical Section, AAR
J. W. Gwyn (chairman, subcommittee), S. M. Bielski, C. E. Booth, J. R. Bowman,
D. W. Converse, L. A. Durham, C. S. Graves, J. W. Hayes, T. M. Kelly, R. E.
Lilliston, G. A. Morison, 0. G. Wilbur.
This progress report, presented as information, contains a brief explanation of the
principles involved in infra-red ray heating and describes several installations where this
heating is now used, such as in railroad car shops, passenger stations and similar build-
ings with high bays. Fuel consumption and operation costs, so far as presently available,
are given for both gas and electric heaters.
The vital importance of heat from the sun is, of course, unquestioned, but the
fact that all such heat is obtained by infra-red-ray transmission may not be thoroughly
understood by all. These rays are generated by burning gases in the sun and are trans-
mitted at the speed of light without heating the atmosphere through which they pass.
But when they strike an object they are either reflected, absorbed or allowed to pass
through the object. The portion of the rays which is absorbed are converted to heat
which warms the surrounding atmosphere by secondary convection.
Entirely similar infra-red rays can be generated by heating a surface to the degree
necessary to emit such rays. This heating can be accomplished either by gas or elec-
tricity. Infra-red radiation increases as the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
For example, a surface having a temperature of 1600 deg F (2060 deg absolute) emits
96 times as much radiation to an equal-area surface at 200 deg F (660 deg absolute).
A type of heater using infra-red rays was patented in Germany and mass produced
in 1952. It has been successfully used in cathedrals, exhibition halls, arcades, patios,
outdoor cafes and factories. A manufacturer in the United States was soon licensed to
make and distribute this brand of heater. The gas for these heaters may be either
manufactured, propane or natural; however, except for very limited areas and occa-
sional use, the cost for the first two mentioned would be excessive. The cost for natural
gas is in many cases, low enough to permit its economical use as a fuel for infra-red
heaters and it is becoming more widely available as pipelines are extended over the
continent.
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326 Buildings
TABLE 2
Estimated Operating Costs Per Heating Season
Type of Heat Fuel Labor Other Total
Coal $ 43,500 $ 21,022 $ 7,252 $ 71,755
Oil No, 6 78,083 18,828 7,253 99,164
Oil No. 2 78,000 200 78,200
Natural Gas*
Conventional System 107,000 200 107,200
Infra-Red 37,235 200 37,435
•Natural gas rate scheduled for reduction.
With the thought that this committee's study of the possibihties and economic
advantages of infra-red ray heating for railroad buildings might in the future lead to a
specification in the Manual, it was decided to inspect some existing installations. Nine
different installations were visited and the results are shown in Table 1, which briefly
outlines the salient facts in connection with the respective installations. Attention is
called to the columns which show the cost of installation and operation; these figures,
while not averaged over more than one heating season, are very significant in deter-
mining the applicability of this type heat to railroad buildings.
Installations 1 to 6, incl., as shown in Table 1, are representative of the type
manufactured under the original German patent. Fig. 1 shows a typical installation
of this type, including both overhead and wall-mounted units. Installation S in the Erie
Railroad car shop at Meadville, Pa., is typical of this type, and photographs of it are
shown in Fig. 2.
Electrically generated infra-red installations Nos. 7 and 8 are in practically identical
car repair shops. Each shop has both ends and sides open; consequently the heaters
serve as spot heaters. The heaters are arranged in two groups of two racks each on each
of three tracks. The racks, which are 32 in high and 108 in long, are placed one on
each side of the track at 7 ft 4 in from the center line of track, with the bottom of
the rack being 8 ft 3 in above the top of rail. The racks are placed longitudinally to
warm an area about 28 ft long. They are placed at a 4S-deg angle to direct the rays
downward on the desired area. The installation totals 12 racks, each with a consump-
tion of 22.5 kw for a total of 270 kw, which, at the rate of 1 cent per kw-hr, means
that their operation would cost $2.70 per hr. This cost is not considered excessive
because the work performed can be done much more efficiently. The installation is so
made that one or all of the heater racks may be activated and each rack may be
operated at one-third, two-thirds or full capacity. This type of installation warrants
consideration in areas such as that served by the Tennessee Valley Authority where
the cost per kilowatt hour is one cent or under.
Another type of gas-fired, infra-red generator is of much different construction;
however, only one such installation was inspected (see No. 9 in Table 1). Seven heaters
of this type are included in this installation, along with another model distributed by
the same company. This installation is in a passenger station and is considered satis-
factory after two years of operation. Infra-red heaters of this type, according to its
(Text continued on page 330)
Buildings
327
^* X
Fig. 2 — Two views of heaters in Erie car shop, Meadville, Pa.
B u i 1 d i n :
329
Fig. 3 — Infra-red
heaters in New Haven
passenger station, Har-
rison, N. Y.
330 Buildings
distributor, comprise more than 20,000 installations in the United States; consequently
some features of this one installation, shown in Fig. 3, may be unique rather than
typical.
There is no exact method of arriving at the required size and number of heaters
used in spot heating or to heat open-sided buildings, but for closed buildings no
unusual problem is encountered in arriving at the required number and size of heaters.
The conventional method of determining the heat loss and required Btu's can be fol-
lowed except that the air higher than IS ft above the floor is assumed to be unheated;
hence no heat loss is considered through the sides and ends of buildings above that
level.
One major railroad has developed some estimated comparative costs of conventional
and infra-red heating of the same building area. This information is shown in Table 2.
When considering use of gas-generated infra-red-ray heaters in areas subject to
wind or draft, proper shielding should be provided to avoid possible blow-out of the
gas .flame. Also, if the building contains an automatic sprinkler system, it must be
protected from freezing.
It is planned to inspect other installations which will include different types of gas-
generated as well as electric infra-red-ray heaters.
Report of Committee 25 — Waterways and Harbors
Arthur Anderson Shu-t'ien Li
L. E. Bates G. W. Mahn, Jr.
G. H. Beasley S. L. Mapes
G. W. Becker M. A. Michel
E. A. Beekley R. B. Midkiff
-.-S:^ G. W. Benson J. G. Miller
V R. L. BosTiAN, Jr. W. J. O'Connell
,, ■ C. M. Bo\vM.\N H. R. Peterson
R. J. Cl.arke J. F. Piper
A. F. Crowder J. G. RoNEY
G. K. D.Avis R. S. RowE
B. M. Dornblatt .\. L. Sams
W. H. ECKENBRINE C. M. SeGRAVES
X. E. Ekrem C. R. Shaw
Benj.amin Elkind (E) E. J. Sierleja
Oscar Fischer E. M. Skelton
L. W. Haydon F. R. Spofford
C. J. Henry W. R. Swatosh
J. E. InMAN J. J. TiBBITTS
F. B. M.\nning, Chairman, H. F. Kimb.all G. \. Wolf
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress in study, but no report
2. Current policies, practices and developments dealing with navigation proj-
ects, collaborating with .\.\R Committee on Waterway Projects.
No report.
3. Bibliography relating to benefits and costs of inland waterway projects
involving navigation.
Progress report, presented as information page iil
4. Economic analysis of a completed waterway project.
Progress in study, but no report.
6. Planning, construction and maintenance of rail-water transfer facilities.
Progress report, presented as information page HI
7. Relative merits and economics of construction materials used in waterfront
facilities.
Progress report, presented as inform.ition page iJi^
The Committee o.n' Waterways and H.arbors,
F. B. Manninc;, Chairman.
ARE.A Bulletin 547, December 1958.
331
A
332 Waterways and Harbors
Report on Assignment 3
Bibliography Relating to Benefits and Costs of Inland Waterway
Projects Involving Navigation
M. A. Michel (chairman, subcommittee), G. W. Becker, E. A. Beekley, C. M. Bowman,
W. H. Eckenbrine, N. E. Ekrem, L. W. Haydon, R. B. Midkiff, J. G. Miller,
W. J. O'Connell, J. G. Roney, R. S. Rowe, C. M. Segraves.
Your committee submits the following report of progress which presents five addi-
tional references not previously reported to the Association.
1956
1. McKean, Roland N., Criteria For The Selection of Water Resources Projects.
Journal of the Operations Research Society of America, Vol. 4, No. 1, February 1956.
1957
2. Renshaw, Edward F., Toward Responsible Government. An Economic Appraisal
of Federal Investment in Water Resource Programs. Idyia Press, 8342 South Kenwood,
Chicago 19.
1958
3. Eckstein, Otto, Water Resource Development. The Economics of Project Evalua-
tion. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
4. Downer, H. C. & Associates, Inc., Engineering Study of the Effects of the
Opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway on the Shipping Industry. PB 131736; distributed
by the Office of Technical Services, U. S. Department of Commerce.
5. Behling, Burton H., Economic Statement Relative to Tolls presented before
the St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation, Washington, D. C, August 6,
1958. (a) 117089 AAR, Washington, D. C.
Report on Assignment 6
Planning, Construction and Maintenance of Rail —
Water Transfer Facilities
G. W. Mahn, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee), Arthur Anderson. G. W. Benson, R. L.
Bostian, Jr., R. J. Clarke, W. H. Eckenbrine, Benj. Elkind, C. J. Henry, M. A.
Michel, W. J. O'Connell, J. F. Piper, E. J. Sierleja, E. M. Skelton, J. J. Tibbits.
Your committee submits the following progress report as information.
Car Transfer Facilities
When the projected route of a railroad is confronted by an obstacle in the form
of a river, lake or other body of water, and the construction of a bridge or tunnel
is impractical or uneconomical, the only alternatives are to terminate the line at that
point, attempt to go around the obstacle or to cross it by ship. In those instances
where it is desirable to continue the route, but where the alternative of bypassing
the obstacle cannot be considered because of distance, delay or the actual impossibility
of doing so, the only choice left is to handle the traffic by vessel. In order to avoid
shifting the freight from railroad car to ship and back again to railroad car, exposing
Waterways and Harbors 333
it to delay and los5 and damage due to the rehandling, the car or train ferry was
developed in the mid- 1 800 s.
As a practical example of the above situation, several direct east-west rail routes
are intersected by Lake Michigan, and while it would be possible to direct traffic by
rail around the south end of the lake, to do so would involve additional expense
because of the increased mileage and considerable delay due to the necessity of routing
traffic through the Chicago area. The Lake Michigan car ferries were established near
the end of the 19th century to handle this traffic, shortening the route by up to 180
miles and eliminating as much as two days delay.
Car ferry service can be separated into three main classes, as follows: (1) lake or
ocean transfer by large sea-going vessels; (2) river transfer by steamers, motor vessels
and barges; and (3) harbor transfer mainly by barges or car floats handled by tug-
boats. An additional, rather special, group consists of the long distance movements
carried on between Cuba and the United States and between the east and gulf coasts.
The type of transfer facility to be provided for a car ferry depends on the physical
conditions encountered, principally on the variation in water level. If a transfer bridge
is used, the length is determined by the range of water level variation, the elevations
at light and loaded draft of the loading decks of the vessels to be served, and the
allowable grade of the bridge, which should be limited to approximately 6 percent.
The bridge should be long enough to serve an empty vessel at the average high water
and a fully loaded vessel at the average low water. The spacing and arrangement of
the tracks to be provided on the transfer bridge will be determined by the size of the
vessel's loading port and the track arrangement on the loading deck.
The most commonly used type of transfer bridge is an apron or span, from SO
to 100 ft in length, hinged at the shore end with the outer end suspended in such a
way as to permit its being raised or lowered to the level of the vessel's loading deck.
The suspension system can consist of hanger rods from rocking beams, counter-
weighted cables, hanger rods having threaded portions which ride in power-driven nuts
on an overhead span, cables attached to overhead winches, hydraulic pistons, or pon-
toons with adjustable ballast tanks. This latter method of supporting and operating
the outshore end of the bridge may be found unsatisfactory in locations subject to the
formation of ice.
At locations where the changes in water level are too great to be compensated for
by the adjustment and inclination of a single-span bridge, a multiple-span transfer
bridge can be provided with all spans adjustable in elevation. The spans are all suspended
from an overhead support and are usually so connected and operated that they form
a unit structure, rotating on bearings at the shore end and having a continuous or
uniform grade from the shore end to the outboard end. In this way a longer incline
and easier grade can be provided while still being shorter than the incline and cradle
system and avoiding a disadvantage of that system — that of having tracks and moving
parts underwater.
As an alternative to providing an adjustable transfer bridge, the bridge can be
fixed and the elevation of the vessel adjusted by berthing it in an enclosed dock equipped
with a lock gate. While there are advantages to this method, the construction costs are
considerably greater than for any other type of transfer facility.
Under certain conditions a single- or multiple-span transfer bridge may be unsatis-
factory, as at a river crossing where the banks are wide and flat and the water level
variation is great. The so-called cradle and incline method of transferring railroad cars
to vessels has been developed to meet such conditions. It consists of an inclined track
334 Waterways and Harbors _^^
extending diagonally down the bank on a trestle, and a platform, or cradle, having an
ascending grade toward the water, rMing on the incline. The ascending grade allows
the length of the cradle to be reduced and prevents cars from getting away. The cradle
is moved up or down the incline by a cable operated by a locomotive or a winch, so
that the river end of its deck is always at the same elevation as the ship's deck. The
grade of the incline is generally 3 percent descending and that of the cradle, 3 percent
ascending.
A fourth type of transfer facility can be used for vessels on which cars are loaded
through deck hatches and are carried on several decks. Such ships are presently in use
only in the long distance movements where the speed of loading and unloading is not
of first consideration and where comparatively large numbers of cars are transported
per vessel. The installation consists of a crane having a traveling hoist or trolley and
a cantilever extension projecting out over the ship. The railroad cars are run onto a
cradle fitted into the tracks on the wharf, after which the cradle is raised by the hoist,
run out on the extension, lowered through the deck hatch to the desired level where
the car is moved off the cradle into its proper location on the deck track by a car
puller. It is suggested that at least two cradle-equipped tracks be provided on the
wharf to avoid delay in the operations. Installation of this type can be used only with
marginal wharves, finger piers or slip-type wharves, and if the last is provided for
berthing vessels, an overhead traveling crane can perhaps be used spanning the slip.
There are five general types of piers or berthing facilities, only three of which are
satisfactory for use with car ferries of the conventional, or end loading, type. They are:
Finger piers — constructed out into the waterway either perpendicular to the shore
line or at an acute angle. Where there is adequate depth and width of the waterway,
these piers make the best advantage of a restricted waterfront and facilitate docking
and unloading of large ships in strong currents. They are, however, susceptible to
silting, and tugboats are usually required for docking vessels.
Slip-type wharves — perpendicular or acute angle indentures into the shoreline having
the same advantages and disadvantages as linger piers, except that they can be used
in waterways of less width.
Ferry slips — consisting usually of two lines of timber fender piling to form a berth,
the inner or land end of which is shaped to fit the ship's stern to hold it steady and
prevent lateral motion. The two lines of piling (flare outward so as to guide the ship
into position, but while one line is nearly the full length of the ship, the other, called
the "knuckle", is much shorter. Docking at a ferry slip is quite rapid and tugboats are
generally not required; however, adequate clearance is necessary in front of the slip
to permit maneuvering.
As mentioned above, if vessels of the long-distance type are used, being loaded
from the side through deck hatches, marginal wharves can be provided, as well as
finger piers and slip-type wharves. Marginal wharves or quays are constructed parallel
to the shoreline and are particularly applicable where the waterway is narrow. Docking
is rapid and tugboats are not usually required since the ship can approach the wharf
at an angle approximating its final position.
The construction and maintenance of car transfer facilities such as those described
above will follow generally the practices used in other waterfront construction of com-
parable size. Permission must be obtained from the Corps of Engineers for construction
in waterways coming under their jurisdiction and in some localities permits must also
be obtained from dock or port authorities. Some municipalities have included in their
building codes rules, regulations and recommended practices regarding the design and
Waterways and Harbors •^■^-''
innstruction of facilities (it this type. For information on construction materials, the
interested reader is referred to the report on Relative Merit.^ and Economics of Con-
struction Materials Used in Waterfront Facilities contained in the Proceedings, Vol. 59,
1058. pages 519 to 554, incl.
Recently there has been increased interest in the development of car ferries, or
trainships as they are now designated, in order to eliminate the present time-consuming
and expensive methods used to load and unload vessels. Designs have been produced
for two-deck ships having the same capacity as four-track seatrains, with the advan-
tage of being loaded from the ends over a relatively inexpensive transfer bridge, as com-
pared with the expensive shore crane installation. However, even though the ships
are undergoing changes in design, the information contained in this report remains
applicable.
Report on Assignment 7
Relative Merits and Economics of Construction Materials
Used in Water Front Facilities
S. T. Li (chairman, subcommittee), R. L. Bostian, Jr., C. M. Bowman, R. J. Clarke,
\. F. Crowder. R. B. Midkiff, J. G. Roney, R. S. Rowe, C. R. Shaw, F. R. Spofford,
J. J. Tibbitts, G. A. Wolf.
This selected bibliography on the adverse effects of the environment on, and
preserv-ation of, materials used in water front facilities has been compiled from the
Engineering Guide, Readers Guide, and several random indices and lists at the Georgia
Institute of Technology, for the period from 1951 to 1958.
The titles included in the bibliography were selected from descriptions given in the
indices. Altogether there are 87 titles, classified below for easy reference. Although the
list is not exhaustive, it is believed that it does constitute a basis for further .studies
on the subject.
1. General
A. Books
(1) 111. Inst, of Tech. Corrosion Bibliography, Research Pub. V6 No. 2; Chi-
cago; III. Inst, of Tech.; 1948
(2) Nelson, G. A. Corrosion Data Survey; San Francisco; Shell Devel. Co.;
1950
(.'>) Nat. Assn. of Corrosion Engrs. Bibliographic Survey of Corrosion, 2 vols.;
Houston 2, Tex.; Nat. Assn. of Corrosion Engrs.; 1950-195,S
(4) Rowe, R. S. Bibliography of Rivers and Harbors; Princeton, N. J.; Dept.
of C.E.; Princeton Univ.; 195,^
(5) Goldman, J. E. The Science of Engineering Materials; New York, Wiley;
1957
(6) Misch, R. P. Bibliographical Survey of Corrosion; Chicago; Corrosion Re-
search Lab., 111. Inst, of Tech.
(7) Nat. Assn. of Corrosion Engrs. Corrosion .\bstracts, Vols. 1-1.^; Houston 2,
Tex.; Nat. Assn. of Corrosion Engrs.
(8) Prevention of Deterioration Abstracts, vols. 1-lS; Washington, D. C; Nat.
.\cad. of Science
336 Waterways and Harbor s
(9) Woods Hole. Marine Fouling and its Prevention; Mass Oceangraphic Inst.,
U. S. Naval Inst.
(10) Wrightsville Beach Marine Conference. Proceedings. Washington, D. C; Nat.
Acad, of Science, Nat. Research Council
(11) Bureau of Docks and Yards, U. S. Navy. Bureau of Docks Technical Digest
of Design, Construction and Maintenance; Nav. Docks, P 23; Monthly Item
419 (available in govt, depository libraries).
B. Articles
(1) Shaufele, H. J. "Erosion and Corrosion on Marine Structures"; Dock &
Harbor Authority, V 33, N 383, Sept. 1952, pp. lSl-4.
(2) Tebble, N. "Source of Danger to Harbour Structures"; Inst. Municipal Engr.
J., V 80, N 5, Nov. 1933, pp. 259-65.
(3) Henke, R. W. "Corrosion, How it Affects Materials"; Materials & Methods,
V 42, N 5, Nov. 1955, pp. 119-34.
(4) Lomas, J. "New Inventions and Methods for Dock Engineering"; Dock &
Harbour Authority V 36, N 424, Feb. 1956, pp. 321-2.
(5) Callame, B. "L'etude de la Corrosion en Milieu Marin Metropolitan"; Cor-
rosion et Anti Corrosion, V 4, N 3, March 1956, pp. 81-9.
(6) Murphy, W. J., Jr. "Maintenance and Improvement of Port Facilities";
Pacific BIdg. & Eng., V 62, N 5, May 1956, pp. 76-8.
(7) Stiffler, L. E., Jr. "Effects of Seawater on Waterfront Structures"; Dock &
Harbour Authority, V 38, N 443, 444, Sept. 1957, pp. 181-4, Oct., pp. 217-20
2. Metals
A. Books
(1) Fehr, R. B. The Relative Corrosion of Alloys; Penn. State College; Eng.
Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 27; 1918.
(2) The Eagle-Picher Lead Co. Fighting Rust with Sublimed Blue Lead; Chi-
cago; The Eagle-Picher Lead Co.; 1922.
(3) Speller, F. N. Corrosion Causes and Prevention; New York; McGraw-Hill;
1926.
(4) Rawdon, H. S. Protective Metal Coatings; New York; Chem. Catalog Co.;
1928.
(5) Hedges, E. S. Protective Films on Metals; London; Chapman & Hall; 1932.
(6) Harvey, W. E. Electric Welding and Electric Welds; Bethlehem, Pa.; Lehigh
Univ.; 1933.
(7) Sloan, W. J. The Metallographic Study of Corrosion of Metals by Crude
Turpentine Gum; Atlanta, Ga.; Ga. Inst. Tech.; 1933.
(8) McKay, R. J. Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys; New York; Rien-
hold; 1936.
(Q) Gatley, O. The Electrode Potential Behaviour of Corrosive Metals in Aqueous
Solutions; Oxford; The Clarendon Press; 1938.
(10) Hudson, J. C. The Corrosion of Iron and Steel; London; Chapman & Hall;
1940.
(11) International Nickel Co. Corrosion Processes Factors in Monel, Nickel and
Inconel; New York; Dev. & Res. Div., Int. Nickel Co.; 1944.
(12) ASTM. Symposium on Atmospheric Weathering of Corrosion Resistant
Steels; Phila.; ASTM; 1946.
Waterways and Harbors 337
(13) Evans, U. R. Metallic Corrosion Passivil> and Protection; London; E.
Arnold; 1946.
(14) Fancutt. F. Effects of Different Methods of Pretreating Iron & Steel before
Painting; London; Iron & Steel Inst.; 1046.
(15) Mattiello, J. J. Protective Organic Coatings as Engineering Materials; Phila.;
.■\STM; 1046.
(16) Kimmel, A. L. Corrosion Studies; Gainesville; Fla. I'niv., Eng. &■ Inrl. Exp.
Sta. Bui. N 17; 1047.
(17) Flectrochemical Society. Corrosion Handbook; New N'ork; Wiley; 104S.
(18) Evans. U. R. An Introduction to Metal Corrosion; London; E. Arnold;
1948.
(10) British Iron & Steel Research Assn. Corrosion of Iron and Steel by Industrial
Waters and its Prevention; London; Iron & Steel In.?t.; 1949.
(20) Rabald, E. Corrosion Guide; New York; Elserier Pub. Co.; 1951.
(21) River, R. H. (M.S.). A Study of Stress Corrosion and Corrosion Fatigue of
Aluminum Alloys; Atlanta, Ga.; Ga. Inst. Tech.; 1951.
(22) Champion, F. A. Corrosion Testing Procedures; London; Chapman & Hall;
1952.
(23) Avery, H. S. Surface Protection Against Wear and Corrosion; Cleveland;
Am. Society for Metals; 1954.
(24) Seymour, R. B. Plastics for Corrosion Resistant Applications; New York;
Rienhold; 1955.
(25) ASTM. Symposium on Atmospheric Corrosion of Non-Ferrous Metals; Phila.;
ASTM; 1956.
(26) Robertson, W. D. A Symposium on Stress Corrosion, Cracking and Embrittle-
ment; New York; Wiley; 1956.
(27) Bibbler, L. C. The Application of Modern Steel to Marine Construction;
Monroeville, Pa.; .'^pp. Res. Lab.; U. S. Steel Corp.
(28) British Iron and Steel Research Assn. Protective Painting of Structural Steel;
New York; MacMillan ; 1957.
(29) Cissel, J. H. Durability of Light Weight Steel Construction; Univ. of Mich.;
Eng. Research Bui. No. 30.
(30) Fancutt, F. Protective Painting of Structural Steel; New York; MacMillan;
1957.
(31) Heger, J. J. Building Corrosion Resistance into Stainless Steel; Pittsburgh,
Pa.; App. Res. & Dev., U. S. Steel Corp.
(32) Nat. Research Council. Metal Metabolism and Microbiological Deterioration;
Washington, D. C; Nat. Acad, of Science; 1957.
(33) Society of Chemical Industry. Protection of Structural Steel; London; So-
ciety of Chem. Ind.; 1957.
(34) Southwell, C. R. Atmospheric Corrosion of 10 Structural Steels; Washington,
D. C; Navy D.P.P.U.; 1957.
(35) Univ. of Tenn. Symposium on Corro.sion Fundamentals; Knoxville; Univ.
of Tenn. Press; 10S7.
H. Articles
(1) Hudson, J. C. "Corrosion of Iron and Steel and its Prevention"; Docks &
Harbour Authority, V 34, N 392, 393, 394, 395, June 19.53, pp. 47 53; July,
pp. 81-4; Aug., pp. 111-6; Sept. pp. 143-6.
.^.^8 Waterways and Harbors
(2) Ryan, L. T. "Cathodic Protection of Steel Piled Wharves"; Inst. Engrs. of
Australia, J, V 26, N 7, 8, July, Aug. 1954, pp. 160-8.
(3) "Prevention of Corrosion"; Civil & Structural Engrs. Review, V 8, N 10,
Oct. 1954, pp. 447-8.
(4) Szymanski, W. A. "Nomograph for Making Corrosion Rate Calculations";
Corrosion, V 10, N 12, Dec. 1954, pp. 422-4.
(5) Bass, H. K., Jr. "Nomograph for Corrosion Rate Calculations"; Corrosion,
V 12, N 1, Jan. 1956, pp. 20-1.
(6) Gilbert, P. T. "Corrosion Fatigue"; Metallurgical Reviews, V 1, part 3, 1956,
pp. 379-417.
(7) Marshall, T. "Corrosion in New Zealand"; New Zealand Engr. V 11, Nov.
15, 1956, pp. 368-71.
(8) Evans, U. R. "Corrosion of Dissimilar Metals"; Products Engr., V 27, N 13,
Dec. 1956, pp. 187-90.
(9) Whitney, F. L. "Factors in Selecting Corrosion Resistant Materials"; Metal
Progress, V 71, N 6, June 1957, pp. 90-6.
(10) "New Ways to Fight Corrosion"; Steel, V 141, N 9, 10, Aug. 26, 1957,
pp. 68-71, Sept. 2, pp. 158-60.
(11) Weisert, E. D. "High Alloys to Combat Corrosion"; Corrosion, V 13, N 10,
Oct. 1957, pp. 61-73.
(12) Carlisle, N. "Our Relentless 'Fight Against Rust"; Coronet, 43:144-6 Feb.
1958.
(13) Lattin, Benton, C. "Steel Piling in Sea Water"; Consulting Engineer, V 10,
N 6, June 1958, pp. 78-83.
3. Concrete
A. Books
(1) Highway Research Board. "Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel and Repair of
Concrete in a Marine Environment"; Washington; H.R.B., Bulletin 182,
1958.
B. Articles
(1) Halstead, S. "Deterioration of Reinforced Concrete Structures under Coastal
Conditions"; S. African Inst. Civil Eng., Trans. V 5, N 4, April 1955, pp.
115-34.
(2) American Concrete Inst. "Erosion Resistance of Concrete in Hydraulic Struc-
tures"; Am. Cone. Inst. J., V 27, N 3, Nov. 1955, pp. 259-71.
(3) Sneck, T. "Korrosion av Betong"; Nordisk Betong, V 1, N 2, 1957, pp.
117-27.
(4) Stratfull, R. F. "The Corrosion of Steel in a Reinforced Concrete Bridge"
(salt water environment); Corrosion, V 13, N 3, March 1957, pp. 43-48;
Highway Research Abstracts, V 27, N 6, June 1957, p. 6.
(5) Wakeman, C. M.; Dockweiler, E. V.; Stover, H. E.; & Whitneck, L. L.
"Use of Concrete in Marine Environments"; Am. Cone. Inst., J., V 29,
N 10, April 1958, pp. 841-856.
4. Wood
A. Books
(1) Nat. Research Council. Marine Structures, Their Deterioration and Preserva-
tion; Washington, D. C; Nat. Research Council; 1924.
Waterways and Harbors 339
(2) Cartwright, K. S. Decay of Timber and Its Prevention; Brooklyn; Chem.
Pub. Co.; 1950.
(3) ASTM. Standards on Woods and Wood Preservatives; Phila.; ASTM ; 1954.
(4) ASTM. Symposium on Wood for Marine Use and its Protection, Phila.;
ASTM; 1957.
(5) American Wood Preservers Assn. Manual of Recommended Practice; Wash-
ington, D. C; Am. Wood Pres. Assn.
B. Articles
(1) Johnson, R. A. ''Preservation Research on Harbor Structures"; Common-
wealth Engr. V 39, N 1, 2, 3, Jan. 1952, pp. 229-36, Feb., pp. 280-7. Mar.
pp. 331-6.
(2) Woods, R. P. "Use of Timbers in Docks and Harbours"; Dock & Harbour
Authority, V 33, N 382, Aug. 1952, pp. 114-7.
(3) Alwyn, B. "Structural Timbers for Dock Work"; Dock & Harbour Author-
ity, V 33, N 386, Dec. 1952, pp. 250-4.
(4) Jackowski, R. A. "Factors .Affecting Economic Life in Timber in Coastal
Structures"; U. S. Beach Erosion Board, Tech. Memo., N 66, Dec. 1953.
(5) "Wood Preservatives"; Sunset, 113:63 plus j 1, 1954.
(6) Lane, C. E. "Recent Biological Studies on Teredo"; Science Mo., 80:286-92,
May 1955.
(7) Reish, D. J. "First Discovery of Marine Wood Boring Capepods"; Science,
125-263, Feb. 8, 1957.
(8) Beckman, Carolyn, Menzies, R. J., and Wakeman, C. M. "The Biological
Aspects of Attack on Creosoted Wood by Limnosia"; Corrosion, V 13, N 3,
March 1957. pp. 32-.S4; Highway Research Abstracts, V 27, N 6, June 1957,
p. 5.
(9) Meyers, S. P. "Incidence of Marine Fungi in Relation to Wood Boring
Attack"; Science, 126: 969 Nov. 8, 1957.
(10) McBeath, L. W. "Garden that Grows New Knowledge of Wood"; Am. For.
64: 26-7.1, Jan. 1958.
Report of Committee 17 — Wood Preservation
A. B. Baker H. E. Hurst
W. W. Barger W. R. Jacobson
R. S. Belcher (E) M. F. Jaeger*
W. S. Brown W. L. Kahler
^^^ Walter Buehler (E) L. W. Kistler
^^'JP* C. M. Burpee A. J. Loom
-- C. S. Burt P. B. Mayfield
"^-^ G. B. Campbell T. H. Patrick
H. B. Carpf.ntek R. R. Poux
*|k L. C. CoLLiSTER M. H. Priddy
' M^ D. L. Davies W. C. Reichow
^^H R. F. Dreitzler a. P. Richards
^^B H. R. DuNCAX A. L. Simpson**
^^H F. J. Fudge R. B. Smith
^^^^ W. H. Fulweiler W. B. Stombock
P. D. Brentlinger, H. M. Rarlow F. H. Taylor
Chairman, B. D. Howe C. H. Wakefield
R. B. Radkey, M. S. Hudson R. G. Zietlow
Vice Chairman, R. P. Hughes
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
* Died October 6, 1957.
** Died May 21, 1958.
To the American Railway Engineering Association :
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Specifications for wood preservatives.
Progress report, presented as information page 343
3. Specifications for petroleum as a carrier for standard wood preservatives.
Progress report, including specification submitted for adoption page 344
4. Specifications for preservative treatment of forest products, including
laminated timbers, collaborating with Committees 6 and 7.
Progress report, presented as information page 345
5. Conditioning of wood before preservative treatment.
No report.
7. Service test records of treated wood.
Results of service tests of posts, submitted as information page 347
S. Destruction by marine organisms, methods of prevention.
Progress report, presented as information pHU'' O-'
.Ml
.M2 Wood Preservation
9. Destruction by termites, methods of prevention, collaborating with Com-
mittees 6 and 7.
Progress report on research project, presented in Bulletin 545, September-
October 1958.
10. Incising forest products.
No report.
Thk Committee on Wood Preservation,
P. T). Rrentt.tnokr, Chairman.
ARKA Bulletin .<;47, r)erember m.SS.
MEMOIR
Arthur Leander Simpson, timber treatment engineer of the New York Central
Railroad at its Toledo, Ohio, treating plant, passed away on May 21, 1958, following
a heart attack. He is survived by his wife, Mrs. Elsie Sempler Simpson.
Mr. Simpson was born in Norwalk, Ohio, on September 3, 1895, and attended
the University of Toledo. He entered the service of the New York Central as a clerk
at the Toledo treating plant on July 1, 1923, progressing through all phases of work
at the plant to the position of timber treatment engineer on April 1, 1947.
Mr. Simpson joined the AREA in 1957, becoming a member of Committee 17 —
Wood Preservation, in the same year. In addition to membership in the AREA, Mr.
Simpson was also a member of the American Wood Preservers' Association and the
Railway Tie Association.
Mr. Simpson was vitally interested in approved methods of wood preservation,
and his dedication to duty will be sorely missed by his co-workers and many other
friends.
F. J. Fudge,
C. S. Burt,
R. B. Radkey.
MEMOIR
iH. Jf. jaeger
M. F. Jaeger, superintendent of the Port Reading, N. J., Creosoting Plant, Reading
Railroad, passed away on October 6, 1957.
"Martin", as he was known to his associates, received his grammar and high school
education at Woodbridge, N. J., and later attended Rutgers University, School of Chem-
istry, New Brunswick, N. J. Prior to entering railroad employment, he was associated
with the Woodbridge Lumber Company, Woodbridge. He entered railroad service with
the Reading Company, January 25, 1915, as timekeeper, and was advanced to chief
clerk at the Port Reading Creosoting Plant on August 1, 1916. On April 7, 1918, he
was furloughed for service with the armed forces during World War I, in which he was
actively engaged in combat in the front-line trenches in France, where he was wounded.
On June 16, 1919, Mr. Jaeger returned to the service of the Reading Company
at the Port Reading Creosoting Plant. On September 1, 1929, he was promoted to
superintendent of the plant, in which position he served until the time of his death.
Wood Preservation 343
Mr. Jaeger was a member of the Masonic order and the Presbyterian Church of
Woodbridge. He served the Reading Railroad faithfully for many years, and contributed
a great portion of his time to the affairs of Committee 17 — Wood Preservation, of the
American Railway Engineering Association. He became a member of this committee
in 1031.
Martin was a faithful and diligent worker in connection with activities of this
committee and gave generously of his time and ability to further its accomplishments.
His good judgment, friendly manner and sincerity of purpose, which we were privileged
to share for so many years, will be greatly mijsed. We deeply regret his passing and
we will long remember his pleasing friendship.
C. S. Burt,
H. R. Duncan,
L. W. KiSTLER.
Report on Assignment 2
Specifications for Wood Preservatives
W. W. Barger (chairman, subcommittee), Walter Buehler, D. L. Davies, W. H. Ful-
weiler, M. S. Hudson, L. W. Kistler, P. B. Mayfield, T. H. Patrick, A. P. Richards,
R. R. Smith.
As indicated in the following, the report on this assignment is made up of five
parts, and is submitted as information only.
Part 1 — Keep Up to Date Current Specifications for Preservatives
Your committee is of the opinion that our current specifications for preservatives
are up to date at this time and require no changes.
Part 2 — Review and Report on New Preservatives
Your committee has been studying the possibility of introducing osmosalts as a
new preservative, but because of its similarity to other salt preservatives that are now
standard, we suggest further study on this subject.
Part 3 — Review Method of Sampling Creosote in Tank Cars
The committee is in favor of adopting part or all of the AWPA Standard Method
of Sampling Wood Preservatives, A 4-56, as an AREA standard. Further study by the
committee will be necessary before a definite decision can be made. The AWPA
standard includes sampling of preservatives other than creosote in tank cars.
Part 4 — Study the Advisability of Establishing the Flash Point of Creosote
Your committee is of the opinion that the establishment of the flash point of
creosote is not necessary at this time and recommends that this part of the assignment
be dropped.
Part 5 — Review "Comments" after Preservative Specifications; Report on
Need For Comments with a View Toward Continuance, Deletion, or
Change of Title
The committee has continued to study this subject but has not come to a definite
decision as to whether the comment should be retained, dropped or edited. Further
studv i> recommended.
344 Wood Preservation
Report on Assignment 3
Specifications for Petroleum as a Carrier for Standard
Wood Preservatives
T. H. Patrick (chairman, subcommittee), W. W. Barger, H. B. Carpenter, L. C. Col-
lister, R. F. Dreitzler, H. R. Duncan, C. H. Wakefield, R. G. Zeitlow.
Your committee submits the following report of progress, with specifications
recommended for adoption.
Part 1 — Keep Up to Date Specifications for Petroleum
We have reviewed our specifications for petroleum for blending with creosote and
have given consideration to changing the flash point of 215 deg F to a lower figure
as the specifications of other associations now provide. However, the committee finds
no hardship is entailed in holding the minimum flash point to 215 deg F; if it were
lowered some undesirable oils may be furnished. A distillation requirement was con-
sidered but no decision was reached. We do not recommend any change to our present
specifications at this time.
Part 2 — Prepare a Specification for Petroleum for Blending with Penta-
chlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol is in considerable use, and as a guide some standard is needed
for the petroleum used as the solvent. While it is felt that there will be information
developed in the future that will permit writing a better specification, to cover our
present needs, we propose a specification based on our present knowledge. It is similar
to that of other association, and can be added to or changed as more desirable charac-
teristics are found advisable. This specification is presented herewith, and your com-
mittee recommends that it be adopted and published in the manual.
PETROLEUM SOLVENT FOR PENTACHLOROPHENOL
Petroleum as a solvent for pentachlorophenol shall conform to the following
requirements:
Specific gravity at 60 deg F not less than 0,85 (not greater than 35 API). ASTM
D 287.
Water and sediment BS&W, not more than 0.5 percent. ASTM D 96.
Flash point not less than 175 deg F as determined by Pensky-Martens closed
tester. ASTM D 93.
Distillation range shall be as follows as determined by ASTM Method D 158:
50-percent point not lower than 500 deg F (260 deg C).
90-percent point not lower than 600 deg F (315.5 deg C).
The viscosity shall be not less than 30 sec and not more than 60 sec, although oils
of a higher viscosity may be used, provided that penetration requirements are met.
The purchaser may specify the viscosity best suited to his requirements, allowing the
supplier a tolerance of plus or minus 10 percent of the value specified. Viscosity shall
be in terms of Saybolt Universal Seconds at 210 deg F. ASTM D 88.
The petroleum .shall dissolve at least 10 percent hy weight of ppntarhlnrophenol
at 7,5 deg F.
Wood Preservation 345
Test to determine the foregoing requirements shall be made in accordance with
the ASTM method currently in effect. The ASTM standards referred to may be obtained
from the American Societv for Testing Material^. 1Q16 Race Street, Philadelphia 3, Pa.
Report on Assignment 4
Specifications for Preservative Treatment of Forest Products,
Including Laminated Timbers
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 7
L. C. Collister (chairman, subcommittee), P. D. Brentlinger, C. S. Burt, D. L. Davies,
R. F. Dreitzler, H. R. Duncan, F. J. Fudge. W. L. Kahler, P. B. Mayfield, T. H.
Patrick, R. R. Poux. R. B. Radkey, W. C. Reichow, A. L. Simpson.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
At the committee meeting on March 12 it was brought out that the treatment of
Tc and Td cross and switch ties should be investigated. Refusal is to high for certain
species, causing unnecessary waste and expense.
In reviewing the species classified as Td, it will be noted that the heart sections
of some of these tr^es are included in Group Ud, namely, the catalpas, chestnut, sassa-
fras and red mulberry. The other species — ashes, beech, birches, cherries, elms, hack-
berries, hickories, hard maples, soft maples, poplars, sycamores and white walnut — treat
pretty much alike and can be easily loaded with preservative. Therefore, it is recom-
mended that the Td species, as listed, be treated to 9 lb retention as indicated on the
accompanying table (see next page).
Since we could not reach an agreement for a definition for "Refusal point" and
"Refusal treatment", this will be given further study.
346
Wood Preservation
Cross Ties and Switch Ties
AREA-Td
CONDITIONING
Steaming
Temp. — deg F— max
Vacuum
Inches at sea level — min
Duration min
max
Heating in preservative
Temp, — deg F — max
Diiration
Incising
Air-seasoning, accelerated
air-seasoning, or heating
in the preservative, or a
combination.
Not Permitted
22
220
Optional
As specified
TREATMENT
Creosote -type preservatives
Pre s suare — p s i~min
max
Empty-cell
200
RESULTS OF TREATKENT
Retention— lbs per cu ft — min
Creosote-type preservatives
Creosote
Creosote-ccal tar
Creosote-petrolevim
Penetration in inches or
percent of sapwood— min
Determination of penetration
^$% of sapwood
A borer core shall be taken
from the center of 20 ties in
each charge. If 80^ of the
cores m.eet the penetration
requirements the charge shall
be accepted.
Wood Preservation 347
Report on Assignment 7
Service Test Records of Treated Wood
R. P. Hughes (chairman, subcommittee), A. B. Baker, W. S. Brown, C. M. Burpee,
L. W. Kistler, R. R. Poux, R. B. Radkey, W. C. Reichow, W. B. Stombock,
F. H. Taylor.
Your committee submits the following reports on service test records of treated
wood:
1. Report on 1958 inspection of Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway's treated
fence post test at Cleveland, Tex.
2. Report of 1955 inspection of treated fence posts in right-of-way fence of
Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad between South Canadian River and Canadian,
Okla.
3. Report of 1957 inspection of treated fence posts in fence line on Lars Friesth
farm near Humboldt, Iowa, by Wood Preserving Division, International Paper
Company.
4. Comparison of wood preservatives in Mississippi post study, 1958 Progress
Report, by J. Oscar Blew, Jr., Technologist, and John W. Kulp, Technologist,
Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
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.^56 Wood Preservation
Report of 1955 Inspection of Treated Fence Posts, Right-of-way Fence, Missouki-
Kansas-Texas Railroad, Between the South Canadian River
AND Canadian, Okla.
Location— M.P. 543.4— M.P. 547.2
Original Number Inserted — 2,200 (approximately)
Kind of Wood — Southern yellow pine
Treatment — Empty cell process — 6 lb per cu ft, AREA spi-cification creosote
Date of Insertion — 1923
Date of Last Inspection — 1955
Number of Posts Removed — 7
Cause of Removal — Apparently for driveway
Number of Posts Remaining — -2,193 (approximately)
Average Life of Posts — 36 years
Expected Average Life — 46 years
Report of 1957 Inspection of Treated Posts in Fence Line on Lars Friesth Farm
Near Humboldt, Iowa, by Wood Preserving Division,
International Paper Company
Kind of Wood — Southern yellow pine
Number — 175 6^ -ft round line posts
Condition Before Treatment — dry
Conditioning Used — Air seasoning
Treatment — Lowry process
Date of Treatment and Installation — 1917
Preservative — 80/20 creosote-coal tar mixture
Net Retention of Preservative — 6 lb per cu ft
Penetration of Preservative — Good, complete
Date of Inspection and Method — June 1957, visual
Causes for and Number of Removals — All 175 still in sound condition, no failures
Decay — ^None
Wood Defects — None
Structural Breakdown in Wood — None
Mechanical Damage — None
Obsolescence — ^None
Wood Preservation
357
Views of three fence posts in M-
K-T right-of-way fence between the
South Canadian River and Canadian,
Okla. Treated with AREA specifica-
tion creosote, 6 lb per cu ft. Life to
date, 36 years.
358 Wood Preservation
Comparison ov Woon Preservatives in Mississippi Post Sti'dn
(1958 Progress Report)
By J. Oscar Blew, Jr., and John W. Kulp
Technologists, Forest Products Laboratory, ^ Forest Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Summary
Experimental untreated southern yellow pine posts installed from 1936 to 1938
at the Harrison Experimental Forest, Saucier, Miss., had an average life of 3.5 years.
Untreated longleaf pine posts installed in 1949 had an average hfe of 2.3 years, while
those treated with a No. 2 fuel oil and with Wyoming residual petroleum oil have an
estimated average life of 7 and 8 years, respectively. Of southern yellow pine posts
installed from 1936 to 1941, those treated with borax-boric acid have all failed after
20 years of service. Their average life was 10.6 years. Posts treated with the following
preservatives have had failures totaling less than 10 percent of the number installed
and should last 32 years or longer on an average: water gas tar; 50-50 solution or
creosote-crankcase oil; tetrachlorophenol, 4.8 percent in crankcase oil; pentachlorophenol,
3 percent and 4.8 percent in crankcase oil; copper sulfate and sodium arsenate applied
by double diffusion; and zinc meta arsenite. Posts in test in 1936 to 1941 treated with
other preservatives have an estimated average hfe of 13 to 32 years.
Introduction
During late 1936 and early 1937, the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, in co-
operation with the Southern Forest Experiment Station and the then existing Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, started a service test at the Harrison Experi-
mental Forest, Saucier, Miss., on posts treated with 24 wood preservatives. A report by
Wirka" contained a description of the preservatives and treatments used in the original
installation of posts in a line approximately 8 miles long. This report also described the
installation and presented the results of the test after 3 years of service. Additional posts
were added to this line during the years 1938 and 1941. A report by BleV in 1947
described these additions and presented the condition of all posts in the 8-mile line
after approximately 5^ to 10 years of service. During April and May 1949 the study
was expanded to include posts treated with 44 preservatives and untreated controls
that were installed in a plot on the Harrison Experimental Forest. Various commercial
companies cooperated in this work by furnishing the preservatives and by contributing
to the cost of making the treatments and of instalhng test posts. Annual progress
reports^ issued since 1950 describe the condition of the posts in the two installations.
This progress report deals with the condition of the posts at the time of the
December 1957 inspection, or after Ityi to 21 years of service in the line, and after
8^ years in the plot installation. The report also briefly describes the materials and
treatments used and the procedure followed in inspecting the posts.
1 Maintained at Madison, Wis., in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin.
^ Wirka, R. M. Comparison of Preservatives in Mississippi Fence-Post Study. Proceedings of the
American Wood-Preservers' Association, 1941, pp. 36S— 379. ,
3 Blew, J. O. Comparison of Preservatives in Mississippi Fence-Post Study After 10 Years of
Service. Proceedings of the American Wood-Pi eservers' Association, 1947, pp. 26—41.
* Blew, J. O., and Kulp, John W. Comparison of Wood Preservatives in Mississippi Post Study
(1957 Progress Report). Forest Products Laboratory Report No. 1757, January 1957.
Wood Preservation 350
Posts
All of the posts used in this study were of round southern yellow pine that con-
sisted mostly of sapwood. Those treated in 1941 with Osmoplastic and by double dif-
fusion were cut and treated while green on the Harrison Experimental Forest. All other
posts were cut at McNeill, Miss., and were shipped to the Forest Products Laboratory
for treatment. The posts to be treated with Osmosar were freshly cut and shipped
green; the others were peeled, sprayed with stain-control chemical, and air-dried before
shipment. The posts installed in the line from 1936 to 1941 were 7 ft in length and
from 2y2 to 7 in. in top diameter. Those installed in the plot during 1949 were
of longleaf pine 6 ft in length and from 2.8 to 5.3 in. in top diameter. These posts
were peeled, dipped in a stain-control chemical, and shipped to the Laboratory for air
or kiln drying. Many of them required repeeling. before treatment, to remove inner
bark. The different diameter sizes were distributed as uniformly as practicable to each
of the treatments used in the study.
Preservatives and Treatment
Tables 1 and 2 show the preservatives used. Table 1 includes 26 preservatives or
treatments and also untreated control posts set in the line from 1936 to 1941. Forty-four
preservatives or treatments and untreated control posts are included in Table 2 for
the posts set in the plot during 1949.
In the line installation are included four non-pressure treatments: Steeping with
mercuric chloride; full-length osmose treatment of green posts with Osmosar; treat-
ment at the groundline and at the immediate tops of the posts with Osmoplastic; and
full-length double-diffusion treatment of green posts with copper sulfate and sodium
arsenate. The remaining treatments in the line installation and all treatments in the
plot installation were by pressure impregnation. In the pressure treatments, the oils
were applied by the Rueping empty-cell process, and the water-borne preservatives were
applied by the full-cell process.
Minimum, maximum, and average preservative retentions are shown in Tables 1
and 2. Borings taken from posts following each pressure treatment showed, for the most
part, either complete or nearly complete penetration of the sapwood. Exceptions were
noted, however, in the posts pressure-treated for the 1936 installation with coal tar,
with 10 percent of coal-tar creosote and 90 percent of used crankcase oil, with lignite
coal-tar creosote, with water-gas tar, and with No-D-K (hardwood-tar creosote). In
these treatments, a high percentage of the posts bored showed penetrations of less than
60 percent of the sapwood depth. Borings taken from the posts treated by steeping
in mercuric chloride all showed poor penetration of the preservative. Penetration meas-
urements were not made on the posts treated with Osmosar, those treated by double
diffusion, or those treated with Osmoplastic.
Installation of Posts
The posts, at the start of the test, were set from late 1936 until February 1937
in a line approximately 8 miles long on the Harrison Experimental Forest, Saucier,
Miss. The posts were grouped into 100 units, each of which included 1 post of the
different treatments selected at random, and, for the most part, 1 untreated control
post. It was possible to install only 65 untreated posts at the same time the treated
posts were installed, and the remaining 33 were set during November and December
1938. The position of the treated posts and of the untreated control post within each
unit was also randomized. During 1941, two additional treatments were added to this
line, with 1 post from each treatment being installed in each of the 100 units. The
(Text continued on page 364)
360
Wood Preservation
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364 Wood Preservation
line installation was originally designed so that about 70 percent of the posts of each
treatment were set on the drier, well-drained sites of the area (pine hills or dry hard-
wood sites), 20 percent in moist soil (pitcher-p!ant areas or any area with fluctuating
water table), and 10 percent in swamp or standing water .^ A careful check during
several post inspections, which included both extremes of dry and wet weather, indicated
that the segregation according to dry, damp, and wet sites varied slightly with the dif-
ferent treatments but was generally about 65 percent, 18 percent, and 17 percent,
respectively.
In the line, 100 posts were originally installed for each preservative or treatment.
The number of test posts has since been reduced for some treatments by fire loss
and pilferage, or by other removals not occasioned by decay or termite attack.
The posts in the most recent installation on the Harrison Experimental Forest
were set in a comparatively dry site during April and early May 1949. Twenty-five
posts were installed for each treatment, along with 25 untreated control posts. These
posts were installed in a plot by the randomized block method, by which the plot
was divided into 25 blocks, each containing 1 post from each treatment and 1 untreated
control post, selected at random. The posts were set 3 ft apart in rows, and the rows
were 3 ft apart in the blocks.
The soil in the general area of Saucier, Miss., is reported to be a Norfolk fine
sandy loam with a pH of 5.0 to S.S. In the plot with the posts installed during 1949
the soil pH is 4.98 to 5.04.
Results to Date
During the December 1957 inspection, as in the previous inspections, each post
was given a moderate push by the inspector, under the force of which it could usually
be expected to break off if decay or termite attack had progressed to a critical point.
If it did break off, the post was considered to have failed and the cause of the failure
was determined.
Conditions of Posts Installed from 1936 to 1941
The conditions of the posts installed from 1936 to 1941 are shown in Table 1 and
are discussed, according to preservatives and treatments used, in the following para-
graphs.
Untreated control posts — ^The 65 untreated control posts set from late 1936 to
February 1937 had an average life of 3.1 years, and the 33 installed during November
and December 1938 had an average life of 3.7 years. The average life of all untreated
posts in the line was 3.3 years. The untreated posts installed in well-drained, com-
paratively dry soil had an average life of 2.6 years and failed mostly because of decay
and termite attack. Those installed in moist soil and in swamps or standing water had
an average life of 4 and 4.8 years, respectively, and failed mostly because of decay.
Some of the posts set in water remained serviceable for more than 5 years and failed
mainly because of top decay. The untreated posts were removed as follows:
Years after installation 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number (cumulative) removed 3 ?>J> 60 79 93 98
Beta-naphthol, 5 percent in organic solvents — Approximately 94 percent of the posts
treated with beta-naphthol solution have been removed. The estimated average life
of the posts is 16 years on the basis of these removals. The average retention of
s Throughout the report these sites will be referred to as "dry," "damp," and "wet," although
these terms are relative and apply only to the Mississippi test area.
Wood Preservation 365
preservative solution for the posts removed was 6.2 lb per cu ft, the same as that for
the 100 posts originally installed. Removals have been due principally to combined
decay and termite attack. Ninety-eight percent of the posts installed in dry sites, 100
percent of those installed in damp sites, and 72 percent of those installed in wet sites
have been removed. Removals to date are as follows:
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
6
16
22
27
34
39
42
51
65
71
79
83
87
89
91
92
Years after installation .
.. 5
6
/
S
0
10
15
16
17
18
19
20
Number (cumulative)
removed
.. 4
6
19
32
45
49
87
90
91
93
94
97
Years after installation 4
13
Number (cumulative) removed . 3
Borax-boric acid — All posts treated with borax-boric acid have been removed after
20 years, and the average life of the 97 test posts is 10.6 years. Forty-six percent of the
posts failed because of combined decay and termite attack, 36 percent because of termite
attack, and 18 percent were removed because of decay alone. The 63 posts installed in
dry areas had an average life of 9.8 years, while 17 posts in damp areas and 17 in wet
areas had average lives of 11.0 years and 13.2 years, respectively. Removals by years
are as follows:
11 12 13 14
63 71 75 81
Celcure (acid copper chromate)- — Celcure is prepared from copper sulfate and sodium
dichromate in an acid solution. Approximately 17 percent of the posts treated with
this preservative have been removed, mostly because of decay. The estimated average
life of the 88 test posts is 30 years. The IS posts removed had an average retention
of 0.89 lb per cu ft; the average retention for the posts installed was 0.92 lb per cu ft.
Twenty-three percent of the posts set in dry areas and 12 percent of those in wet
sites have been removed. No failures have occurred in the damp sites. Removals to
date are as follows:
Years after installation 1
Number (cumulative) removed 1
Chromated zinc chloride — Chromated zinc chloride contains not less than 77.5
percent of zinc chloride and 17.5 percent of sodium dichromate. Approximately 41 per-
cent of the posts treated with this preservative have been removed because of decay
or combined decay and termite attack. The estimated average Hfe of the posts in test
is 24 years. The average retention of preserv-ative in the posts removed was 0.83 lb
per cu ft, or slightly less than that for the installation. Sixty-two percent of the posts
installed in damp sites have besn removed; 37 percent and 33 percent, respectively,
have been removed from the dry and wet sites. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 4 5 6 7 o 10 11 12 14
16 17 18 19 20 21
Number (cumulative) removed ..1 3 6 10 13 14 15 18 21
25 30 32 35 37 39
Coal tar — Twenty percent of the posts treated with coal tar have been removed
because of decay or combined decay and termite attack. The estimated average life
of the posts is 28 years. The average retention of coal tar in the 19 posts removed
was 5.4 lb per cu ft, as compared with an average of 6.5 lb for the posts installed.
3
4
5
9
12
16
19
20
21
2
3
5
6
7
9
10
12
15
366 Wood Preservation
7
0
11
13
14
15
16
17
20
21
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
12
16
19
IS
17
18
19
20
21
2
3
4
5
7
10
Of posts installed in the dry, damp, and wet areas, 2.5 percent, 13 percent, and 6
percent, respectively, have been removed. Removals to date are a.s follows:
Years after installation 5
19
Number (cumulative) removed . 1
14
Coal-tar creosote — The coal-tar creosote used was of American Wood-Preservers'
Association Grade 1. Ten posts treated with this preservative have failed because of
decay. These posts had an average preservative retention of 5.3 lb per cu ft, com-
pared with an average of 6 lb for the installation. The estimated average life of the
posts is 32 years. Two removed posts were set in damp sites, one in a wet site, and
seven in dry sites. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 13
Number (cumulative) removed 1
Coal-tar creosote SO percent and used crankcase oil SO percent — Seven posts treated
with an average of 4.3 lb per cu ft of a 50-50 solution of creosote and crankcase oil
failed because of decay. These posts were removed from dry areas. Removals to date
are as follows:
Years after installation 12 17 19 20
Number (cumulative) removed 1 5 6 7
Coal-tar creosote 10 percent and used crankcase oil 90 percent — Approximately 75
percent of the posts treated with a solution of 10 percent creosote and 90 percent
crankcase oil have failed, principally because of decay. The estimated average life of
the posts is 19 years. The 74 posts removed had an average solution retention of 5.3 lb
per cu ft, as compared with an average of 7.1 lb for the original installation. Of all
posts installed in dry, damp, and wet sites, 80 percent, 76 percent, and 53 percent
respectively, have failed. Failures to date are as follows:
Years after installation 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 21
Number (cumulative) removed .13 31 37 48 50 55 57 61 63
64 66 67 70 72 73 74
Crankcase oil — Of the posts treated with automobile crankcase drainings, approxi-
mately 90 percent have been removed, mostly because of decay. The estimated average
life of the 97 posts installed on this basis is 17 years. The average retention of oil in
the removed posts was 7.6 lb per cu ft, the same as that for the installation. Ninety-
five percent of the posts set in dry areas, 75 percent of those set in damp areas, and
81 percent of those set in wet sites have been removed. Failures to date are as follows:
10
rs after installation .
. . 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
12
13
14
16
17
18
20
21
aber (cumulative)
removed
.. 7
31
42
45
52
54
58
60
64
68
73
75
77
80
82
84
86
87
65
Lignite coal-tar creosote — ^Approximately 39 percent of the posts treated with lignite
coal-tar creosote have failed, principally because of decay or combined decay and ter-
mite attack. The estimated average life of the 97 posts in test is 24 years. The average
retention of preservative for the 38 posts removed was 2.8 lb per cu ft, or considerably
less than that of 6.3 lb for the posts installed. Forty-one percent of the posts installed
Wood Preservation 367
in dry areas have l>een removed: .vS percent have hoi-n removed from the H:imp and
wet sites. Removals to date are as follows:
t^ears after installation
, . 3
5
7
8
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
IQ
20
21
dumber (cumulative) removed .
, . 1
2
3
7
8
10
11
14
18
20
23
26
28
30
32
36
38
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
IS
10
20
21
4
6
9
13
14
IS
20
25
30
31
36
38
Mercuric chloride — Thirty-eight percent of the posts treated by steeping in mercuric
chloride have been removed, principally because of combined decay and termite attack
or termite attack alone. The estimated average life for the 100 posts installed is 24 years.
The preservative retention of the 38 posts remov-ed was 0.11 lb per cu ft, or approxi-
mately the same as the average retention for the installation. Forty-three percent of
the posts installed in dry sites have been removed; 35 percent and 22 percent, respec-
tively, have been removed from the damp and wet sites. Removals to date are as
follows:
Years after installation S
17
Number (cumulative) removed . 1
28
Xo-D-K (hardivood-iar creosote) — Sixty-two percent of the posts treated with No-
D-K have been removed, mostly because of decay or combined decay and termite
attack. The estimated average life of the 100 posts in test is 21 years. Seventy-eight
percent of the posts set in dry areas, 37 percent of those set in damp areas, and 26
percent of those set in wet areas have been removed. The average retention of preserva-
tive for the posts removed was 5.6 lb per cubic foot, compared with 6.6 lb for the
installation. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation . . 2
12
Number (cumulative)
removed 1
31
Osniosar — The Osmosar preservative was reported to be a mixture of sodium
fluoride, dlnitrophenol, potassium dichromate, sodium arsenate, and gum arabic. Approxi-
mately 46 percent of the posts have been removed to date, mostly because of decay or
combined decay and termite attack. The estimated average life of the Q5 test posts
is 23 years. Forty-live percent of the posts set in dry sites, 63 percent of those set in
damp sites, and 33 percent of those set in wet sites have been removed. Removals to
date are as follows:
Years aft?r installation 5
17
Number (cumulative) removed .. 1
P.D.A. (phenyldichlorarsine) 0.84 percent (by weight) in gas oil — Approximalel\-
61 percent of the posts treated with P.D.A. in gas oil have been removed, mostly because
of combined decay and termite attack or termite attack alone. The estimated average
life of the 04 posts in test is 21 years. The average retention of preservative solution in
the 57 removed posts was 5.6 lb per cu ft, or slightly less than the average retention
lor the installation. Of the posts in.stallcd in the dry, damp, and wet areas, 73 percent.
3
4
5
6
7
8
Q
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
IS
10
20
21
4
5
12
IS
21
23
25
26
30
33
36
37
48
54
55
58
59
62
6
7
10
12
13
14
15
16
8
10
20
21
2
4
5
6
8
13
16
25
.3
3 5
40
44
368 Wood Preservation
56 percent, and 22 percent, respectively, have been removed. Removals to date are as
follows :
Years after installation S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 10 20 21
Number (cumulative) removed . . 2 4 6 0 12 13 IS 16 19
28 30 36 41 46 50 55 57
Pentachlorophenol, 4.82 percent (by weight) in used crankcase oil. — One post treated
with this preservative was removed from a dry area after 17 years of service because
of decay. This post was treated with 4.6 lb of solution per cubic foot.
Pentachlorophenol, 3.02 percent (by weight) in used crankcase oil. — Of the 02 posts
treated wtih 3.02 percent of pentachlorophenol in used crankcase oil, 3 have been
removed from dry sites because of decay. The average retention of preservative in these
3 posts was 4.1 lb per cu ft, which is lower than that of 6.4 lb for the posts installed.
Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 8 13 19
Number (cumulative) removed 1 2 3
Sodium dichromate — ^Approximately 73 percent of the posts treated with sodium
dichromate have been removed, for the most part because of termite attack or com-
bined decay and termite attack. The average retention by the removed posts was 0.89 lb
per cu ft, nearly the same as that for the installation. The estimated average life of the
97 test posts is 19 years. Seventy-five percent of the posts set on dry sites, 94 percent
of those set on damp sites, and 50 percent of those set on wet sites have been removed.
Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Number (cumulative) removed . . 4 10 12 13 14 16 25 27 37
40 50 55 61 64 68 71
Sodium chromate — Seventy-five percent of the posts treated with sodium chromate
have been removed, principally because of termite attach or combined decay and ter-
mite attack. The estimated average life of the 88 posts in test is 19 years. For the 66
posts removed, the average retention of sodium chromate was 0.97 lb per cu ft, or
slightly greater than that of 0.93 lb for the installation. Eighty-five percent of the posts
set in dry areas, 65 percent of those set in damp area, and 53 percent of those set in wet
areas have been removed. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 IS 16 18 19 20 21
Number (cumulative) removed ..1 9 lO 13 21 23 25 33 37
40 49 51 59 62 64 65 66
Wolman salt (Tanalith) — Wolman salt (Tanalith) contains sodium chromate, sodium
arsenate, sodium fluoride, and dinitrophenol. Approximately 35 percent of the posts
treated with this preservative have been removed, mostly because of decay or combined
decay and termite attack. The estimated average life of the 97 posts in test is 2S years.
The 34 posts removed had an average preservative retention of 0.34 lb per cu ft or
approximately the same as the average for the installation. Thirty-three percent, 41
percent, and 38 percent of the posts set on dry, damp, and wet sites, respectively,
have been removed. Removals to date are as follows:
W
0 0 d
P r e s e r V
a
t io n
369
Years after
installation . . . .
7
8
9
12
14
15
16
17
18
20
21
Number (cumulative)
removed
2
3
4
6
10
13
IQ
21
29
32
34
12
13
14
IS
17
18
19
20
2
3
4
5
6
9
10
12
Tetrachloro phenol, 2.9 percent (by iveight) in used crankcase oil — Approximately 13
percent of the posts treated with 2.9 percent of tetrachlorophenol in used crankcase oil
have failed because of decay. The estimated average life of the 92 posts in test is 31
years. The 12 posts removed had an average solution retention of 5.1 lb per cu ft;
that for the installation was 7.1 lb. These" removed posts constituted 18 percent of
those installed in dry areas and 7 percent of those in damp sites. There have been no
failures in the wet sites. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 11
Number (cumulative) removed . . 1
Tetrachlorophenol, 4.83 percent (by weight) in 'used crankcase oil — Approximately
6 percent of the posts treated with 4.83 percent of tetrachlorophenol in used crankcase
oil have failed in dry sites due mostly to decay after 21 years of service. The posts
removed had an average solution retention of S.4 lb per cu ft, compared with the aver-
age of 5.8 lb for the installation. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 18 19 20 21
Number (cumulative) removed 2 3 4 6
Water-gas tar — Approximately 8 percent of the posts treated with water-gas tar
have failed because of decay and combined decay and termite attack. One post failed
in a damp site, and 6 failed in dry sites. The average retention of preservative in the
7 posts was 3.9 lb per cu ft, compared with the average of 6.3 lb per cu ft for the
installation. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation 14 16 19 20 21
Number (cumulative) removed 1 2 4 6 7
Zinc chloride — Approximately 35 percent of the posts treated with zinc chloride,
with an average retention of 0.99 lb per cu ft, have been removed because of decay or
combined decay and termite attack. The estimated average life of the 96 posts in test
is 25 years. Thirty percent, 56 percent, and 35 percent, respectively, of the posts set
in dry, damp, and wet areas have been removed. Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation ..5 8 13 14 16 17 IS 19 20 21
Number (cumulative)
removed 1 2 3 9 15 18 23 25 32 34
Zinc meta arsenite — Zinc meta arsenite is prepared from arsenious acid, zinc oxide,
and acetic acid. One post treated with 0.42 lb of this preservative per cubic foot was
removed from a dry site after 20 years.
Copper sulfate and sodium arsenate applied by double diffusion — Two posts treated
with copper sulfate and sodium arsenate applied by double diffusion have failed because
of decay. One was located in a dry site and one in a wet site. Removals to date have
been as follows:
Years after installation 12 16
Number (cumulative ) removed 1 2
Osmoplastic (ground-line treatment) — The Osmoplastic used was reported to con-
tain sodium fluoride, dinitrophenol, potassium dichromate, refined coal tar, and coal-tar
,^70 WoodPreservation
creosote. Approximately '^S percent of the posts treated with this preservative at the
ground-line zone (a 15-in band extending 3 in above and 12 in below the ground line)
and at the immediate tops have been removed after nearly 17 years of service. Removals
were because of decay and termite attack, alone or in combination. The estimated
average life of these posts is 13 years. Failures have occurred in 100 percent of the
posts set in dry sites and in damp sites, and in 72 percent of tho.se set in wet sites.
Removals to date are as follows:
Years after installation ... .3 ,=; 6 7 S 0 10 11 12 13
14 15 16
Number (cumulative)
removed 1 3 6 13 10 2.\ 30 .54 6S 74
82 85 05
Conditions of Posts Installed in 1949
All of the untreated control Rosts failed after approximately 3^ years of service.
Their average life was 2.3 years. Failures were mostly because of combined decay and
termite attack. Removals were as follows:
Years after installation IJ/^ 2^ 3J^
Number (cumulative) removed 13 20 25
Forty-four treated posts failed because of decay and combined decay and termite
attack after approximately 8J/2 years of service. Sixteen of the posts were treated with
Wyoming residual petroleum oil, 22 with No. 2 fuel oil, 2 with aromatic petroleum
oils, 2 with copperized chromated zinc chloride, 1 with Boliden salt A, and 1 with
lignite coal-tar creosote, SO percent and Wyoming residual petroleum oil, 50 percent.
The estimated average life for posts treated with the No. 2 fuel oil is 7 years while
that for the posts treated with Wyoming residual petroluem oil is 8 years.
Summation of Results
A summary of information obtained during the 21 years since the beginning of
this study follows:
1. The untreated posts installed during 1937 and 1938 had an average life of 3.3
years. The untreated posts set in swamps failed mostly because of decay and lasted an
average of 4.8 years. Those set in damp soil (outside of swamps) also failed mostly
because of decay, after an average life of 4.0 years. Those set in well-drained, compara-
tively dry soil failed because of combined decay and termite attack after an average
life of 2.6 years. The untreated control posts set in 1949 in a dry site had an average
life of 2.3 years.
2. All of the posts treated with an average of 0.92 lb of borax-boric acid (50-50)
per cubic foot failed after 20 years of service with an average life of 10.6 years. On the
basis of removals to date and of the preservative retentions used, not including posts
installed in 1949, posts given the following treatments are estimated to have an average
life of 13 to 21 years: posts pressure treated with beta-naphthol in oil, 10 percent
of coal-tar creosote and 90 percent of used crankcase oil, crankcase oil alone, No-D-K
(hardwood-tar creosote), P.D.A. (phenyldichlorarsijie), sodium dichromate, sodium
chromate, and those treated at the ground line and top with Osmoplastic. Posts given
the following treatments are estimated to have an average life of I.'i to .'>2 years: post.<.
pressure treated with Celcure (acid copper chromate), chrumated zinc chloride, coal tar,
coal-tar creosote, lignite coal-tar creosote, Wolman salt (Tanalith), tetrachlorophenol
(approximately 3 percent) in used crankcase oil, and zinc chloride; posts steeped in
WoodPreservation .^71
mernirir rhloride; and posts treated full length with Osmosar. Posts pressure treated
with >0 percent ni coal-tar creosote and 50 percent of used crankcase oil, penta-
chlorophenol (approximately 5 percent and S percent) in used crankcase oil, tetra-
chlorophenol (approximately 5 percent) in used crankcase oil. water-gas tar, and zinc
meta arsenite, and those treated by the double-diffusion process with copper sulfate and
sodium arsenate should last longer than M years on an average, but have not yet
shown a sufficiently high percentage of removals to warrant an estimate on possii)le
average life.
3. The failures of treated posts to date, on the basis of posts installed under the
three site conditions, have been heavier in the dry and damp areas than in the swamps.
In the installations showing more than 30 percent failure, the percentage of failures
in the swamps has been significantly high.
4. The posts installed during 1949, except for petroleum oil-treated controls, have
not been in test long enough to indicate important differences in the preservatives.
Posts treated with No. 2 fuel oil and those treated with the Wyoming residual oil are
estimated to have an average life of 7 years and 8 years respectively. One of the posts
treated with Boliden salt A failed after 6J/2 years because of decay and 2 of the posts
treated with copperized chromated zinc chloride failed within 5J4 years because of decay
caused by a fungus, Porta ridiculosa, which is fairly tolerant to copper compounds. In
the case of posts installed in 1936 and treated with Celcure, another copper compound,
a small percentage of the posts failed during the first years of test, presumably from
decay caused by the same or a similar fungus. One post treated with 50-50 lignite coal-
tar creosote and Wyoming residual petroleum oil failed after 7J^ years, and 2 treated
with different aromatic petroleums have failed during the same period.
Although some of the posts installed during 1936 and 1937 were pointed after
treatment to facilitate driving in wet or damp sites (this practice should not be en-
couraged), few if any post failures can be charged to this factor alone. In most cases,
the pointed part of the post was submerged in water or water-soaked soil so that decay
and termite attack at the pointed section were not the controlling factors in its life.
Furthermore, the posts were mostly of sapwood, which was generally well penetrated
by the preservative, and cutting of such treated wood was less serious than it would
be with poorly penetrated posts.
The results obtained in this particular test are not necessarily indicative of the
perfcrmance that can be expected of the preservatives under other conditions of ex-
posure. Furthermore, they should not be considered as indicating the service life to be
expected from the preservatives applied to other species or applied by other methods.
Water borne preservatives usually perform better under conditions not favorable to
leaching than when used for the treatment of wood installed in contact with the ground
or water. Some of the water borne preservatives appear to be performing well in this
test, but the fact that others are performing less satisfactorily does not indicate that
they will not provide adequate protection when used under drier or more favorable
circumstances. .Adequate retentions and penetrations are necessary for a high degree of
protection with any preservative, and it follows that high retentions and heavy concen-
trations of preservative usually perform better than low retentions and low concentra-
tions. For the preservatives included in Tables 1 and 2, Federal Specification TT-W-571
recommends the following minimum retentions for lumber and posts:
372
Wood Preservation
Minimum Retention (Pounds per cubic foot)
Lumber and structural timber
In contact Not in contact
with the ground with the ground
Preservative or fresh water or water Posts
Coal-tar creosote 10.0 6.0 6.0
Creosote petroleum solution (50-50) 12.0 7.0 7.0
Pentachlorophenol, 5 percent in petroleum .... 10.0 6.0 6.0
Copper naphthenate, 0.75 percent copper
equivalent in petroleum 10.0 6.0 6.0
Acid copper chromate (Celcure) 0.75* O.SO 0.75
Ammoniacal copper arsenite (Chemonite) .... 0.50* 0.30 0.50
Chromated zinc arsenate (Boliden salt A) 1.00* .SO 1.00
Chromated zinc chloride 1.15* .75 1.15
Copperized chromated zinc chloride 1.15* .75 1.15
Osmosar (Osmosalts) .55* .35 .55
Tanalith (Wolman salts) .55* .35 .55
* Occa.sional exposure to water or constant exposure to the ground in areas of moderate rainfall.
Report on Assignment 8
Destruction by Marine Organisms: Methods of Prevention
A. P. Richards (chairman, subcommittee), W. Buehler, C. M. Burpee, G. L. Cain,
R. F. Dreitzler, H. M. Harlow, B. D. Howe, M. F. Jaeger, P. B. Mayfield, F. H.
Taylor, C. H. Wakefield.
This report, for period 1958-1959, is submitted by your committee in connection
with the activities of destructive marine organisms and methods of preventing such
deterioration.
PROGRESS REPORTS ON TEST PILES AND SPECIMENS
Through the cooperation of W. M. Jaekle, chief engineer of the Southern Pacific
Company, the results of the latest inspections of the following test programs are given.
The examination of the specimens was made by R. M. Alpen, manager of wood
preserving plants for the Southern Pacific.
Report of the January 8, 1958, Inspection of Specimens Furnished by the
Chemical Warfare Service and Placed on Test in San Francisco Bay
AT THE Request of the Late Dr. Herman von Schrenk
Gate 25-1- A. Installed at Biological Station, Oakland Pier, July 1925, removed
1942, replaced 1946. The untreated pieces hung at this station, 1957, show heavy limnoria
and heavy bankia attack, the average loss in weight being 30 percent.
No. 2. (Creosote and 1 percent diphenylamine chlorarsine) . Heavy limnoria attack.
Chemical Warfare Service Test Pieces Forwarded from Edgewood Arsenal
BY Lt. Col. C. E. Brigham and Hung at Oakland Pier, February
1932, Removed 1942, Replaced 1946
Specimen Treatment Condition
A-11 Creosote, 21.6 Ib/cu/ft Heavy limnoria attack
D-11 Creosote plus 2J4% dinitrophenol 23. 7 Ib/cu/ft Heavy limnoria attack
WoodPreservation 373
Report of January 8, 1958, Inspection of Specimens Furnished Through
Dr. H. von Schrenk and Col. Wm. G. Atwood and Installed
in San Francisco Bay Area
Barrett Manufacturing Company Material placed at Station B, Pier 7, San Fran-
cisco, January 1923, moved to Biological Station, Oakland Pier, SPCo., Dec. 1925, re-
moved 1942, replaced 1946. Total exposure to date 30 years. (See accompanying
photographs). (P — Pine; F — Fir)
Gate. Sprchiieu Treatment Condition
B-4 P-1 Coke oven original 50% destroyed
P-2 " " solids removed Heavy limnoria attack
P-3 " " acids removed " '• ''
P-4 " " bases removed " " "
P-5 ■' " oil minus residue at
360° C Very heavy limnoria attack
P-6 " " oil minus fraction 230-
270 Heavy limnoria attack
P-7 " " oil minus fraction up
to 230 " " "
P-8 " " oil minus fraction
270-360
B-6 P-9 \ertical retort original oil Very heavy limnoria attack
P-10 " minus solids " " " "
P-11 " " acids 50% destroyed
P-1 2 " " bases 50% destroyed
B-7 P-13 " " residue above 360° C Almost destroyed
P-14 " " fraction 230-270° C . Very heavy hmnoria attack
P-1 5 " " fraction up to 230° C Almost destroved
P-lb " " fraction 270-360° C Destroyed
B-S F-1 Same as P-1 Heavy limnoria attack
F-2 " " P-2 Moderate limnoria attack
F-3 " " P-3 Heavy limnoria attack
F-4 " " P-4 Moderate limnoria attack
B-9 F-5 " " P-5 Heavy limnoria attack
F-6 " " P-6 Almost destroyed
F-7 " " P-7 Heavy limnoria attack
F-8 " "P-8
B-10 F-9 " •' P-9 "
F-10 " " P-10 50% destroyed by limnoria
F-1 1 " " P-11 Heavy limnoria attack
F-12 '• '• P-12
B-U F-13 " " P-13 Very heavy limnoria attack
F-14 " " P-14 Heavy limnoria attack
F-15 " " P-15 " " "
F-16 " " P-16
The untreated specimens at this station, 1957, show heavy limnoria and heavy
bankia attack; average loss in weight was 39 percent.
.574
Wood Preservation
P-1, P-2, P-3, P-4
•1» ; ' :i. ;.*
Ui ■ ■
r *,«. 1. -^
P-9, P-10, P-11, P-12 p_i3, P-14, P-lS, P-16
Pine specimens exposed in San Francisco Ray area.
Wood Preservation
375
\
I:}
F-2, F-3, F-4, F-1
F-S, F-6, F-7, F-
F-Q, F-10, F-11, F-1 2
F-13, F-14, F-15, F-16
Fir specimens exposed in San Francisco Bay area.
376 Wood Preservation
Hercules Powder Company products exposed from 1948 to 1958 were found to be
in the following condition:
Rosinamine D Destroyed
Cuprolignum treated samples exposed from 1948 to 1958 were found to be in the
following condition:
Cua, pressure treated Heavy limnoria attack, about Yi destroyed
Copper naphthenate, pressure treated Heavy localized limnoria attack
Four samples exposed April 5, 1950, to 1958 were as follows:
Standard (of Calif.) Wood Preservative
No. 1 6 Ib/cu/ft Destroyed by limnoria in 1954
No. 2 13.7 Ib/cu/ft Nearly destroyed by limnoria
Creosote
No. 1 12.6 Ib/cu/ft Moderate localized limnoria attack
No. 2 6.2 Ib/cu/ft Nearly destroyed by limnoria
Five samples treated with "Gasco" oils (Portland Gas & Coke Co.), exposed in
October 1951, were reported to be as follows in 1958:
HC Gasco creosote 14.6 Ib/cu/ft Light limnoria activity
LC Gasco creosote 6.6 Ib/cu/ft Moderate limnoria activity
HD Gasco distillate 13 Ib/cu/ft Light limnoria activity
MD Gasco distillate 10.3 Ib/cu/ft Heavy limnoria activity
LD Gasco distillate 3.9 Ib/cu/ft Heavy limnoria activity
Eight samples treated with various preservatives at Wsst Oakland were exposed
January 20, 19S4. After 4 years exposure these were found to be in the following
condition:
PCPL 4% pentachlorophenol in toxisol WTL, 12.85 Ib/cu/ft Destroyed
PCPH 10% pentachlorophenol in toxisol WTL, 12.85 Ib/cu/ft Destroyed
CL Creosote 7.45 Ib/cu/ft Heavy localized limnoria attack
CM " 10.58 Ib/cu/ft Nearly destroyed
CRM " 18.97 Ib/cu/ft Light limnoria attack
CRL " 13.24 Ib/cu/ft Heavy localized limnoria attack
CH " 11.21 Ib/cu/ft Moderate limnoria attack
TEST BOARD STUDIES
The marine borer test panel studies at the William F. Clapp Laboratories, Inc.,
located in Duxbury, Mass., which have been in continuous operation for over 20 years,
are being continued. By means of the monthly laboratory examination of untreated
panels which have been submerged at approximately 300 locations on a nearly world-
wide basis, long-range marine borer activity may be studied and evaluated from an
engineering standpoint as well as for a basis of fundamental research. Annual reports
dealing with these studies are published and may be obtained without charge from
the Laboratories. Those sponsoring the work are the Navy Department, Bureau of
Yard': Mnd Docks, as well as a number of private organizations.
Wood Preservation 377
WOOD PRESERVATIVE STUDIES
Work continues by numerous organizations regarding the search for new preserva-
tives as well as the improvement of well known materials and treating techniques.
During the past years considerable effort has been directed toward the development
of an inspection method which would more accurately indicate the quality and location
in the wood of the preservative used. Toward these ends there is now being proposed
the "assay method" by means of which the amount of preservative present is referred
to as the actual amount extracted from a given length of a standard diameter increment
boring taken from the material after treatment.
Reference is made to the paper, "Determination of Retentions of Oil Preservatives
in Heavily Treated Piling by the Extraction of Borings", by Dr. R. H. Baechler in the
American Wood Preserver's Association, 1958, as well as to the Report of Preservative
Committees of that same organization, in the 1955 proceedings for more detailed infor-
mation regarding the apparatus used.
Present indications are that the method holds considerable promise.
Report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
E. R. Andklik N. M. Newmark
J. M. Bentham a. L. Piepmeier
E. S. BiRKENWAi.P M. J. Plumb
E. R. BRETsrHKK E. W. Prentiss
T. F. Creed. Jk. H. C. Prince
*"^' Tf^l^ J. W. Davidson C. A. Roberts
K. L. Deblois M. B. Scott
VV. E. DowLiNc, J. H. Shiebek
X. E. Ekrem A. P. Smith
J. A. Erskine C. B. Smith
A. T. Granger J. E. St)UTH
A. R. Harris L. F. Spaine
R. H. Heinlen F. W. Thompson
W. B. Kuersteiner G. S. Vincent
C. V. Lund J. R. Williams
J. F. Marsh W. M. Wilson (E)
James Michalos J. D. Woodward
D. S. Bechly, Chairman, p l Montgomery M. O. Woxland
D. W. MussER, W. H. MuNSE L. T. Wylv
Vice Chairman, C. H. Newlin
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the Amreican Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Steel girder spans.
Progress report, presented as information page 380
2. Steel truss spans.
No report.
3. Viaduct columns, collaborating with Committee IS.
Progress report, presented as information page 380
4. Longitudinal forces in bridge structures collaborating with Committees 7,
8 and IS.
Progress report, presented as information page 381
5. Distribution of live load in bridge floors:
(a) Floors consisting of transverse beams.
(b) Floors consisting of longitudinal beams.
Progress report, presented as information page 381
6. Concrete structures, collaborating with Committee 8.
Progress report, presented as information page 382
7. Timber structures, collaborating with Committee 7.
Progress report, presented as information page 382
8. Vibrational characteristics of bridges affecting deflections and depth ratios.
Progress report, presented as information page 383
379
380 Impact and Bridge Stresses
9. Use of electronic computers for railroad bridge problems.
Progress report, presented as information page 383
10. Steel continuous structures, collaborating with Committee IS.
Progress report, presented as information page 384
11. Composite design of steel structures having concrete decks, collaborating
with Committee 8 and IS.
No report.
The Committee on Impact and Bridge Stresses,
D. S. Bechly, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 547, December 19S8.
Report on Assignment 1
Steel Girder Spans
M. J. Plumb (chairman, subcommittee), E. R. Andrlik, D. S. Bechly, E. R. Bretscher,
T. F. Creed, Jr., W. E. Bowling, H. C. Prince, C. A. Roberts, J. H. Shieber,
A. P. Smith, C. B. Smith, L. T. Wyly.
A report on tests on three plate girder spans on the Genesee & Wyoming Railroad
was published in Bulletin 544, as reported on under Assignment 3. This report covered
the stresses in the girders and towers of a steel viaduct produced by diesel locomotives
operating over the structure at a range of speeds up to 33 mph.
The research staff of the AAR is currently preparing information on the complete
series of tests covering 37 steel girder spans for a summary report on this assignment.
Report on Assignment 3
Viaduct Columns
Collaborating with Committee 15
A. T. Granger (chairman, subcommittee), N. E. Ekrem, R. H. Heinlen, W. B. Kuer-
' steiner, J. F. Marsh, C. H. Newlin, M. B. Scott.
A report on tests conducted in 19S6 on a steel viaduct on the Genesee & Wyoming
near Retsof, N. Y., was published in AREA Bulletin 544, June-July 19S8, page 51.
These tests were made at the expense and request of that railroad to determine the
direct and bending stresses in certain members of the viaduct. Stresses were measured
in the columns and tower bracing under static and dynamic loading to determine the
effect of braking and traction forces.
Impact and Bridge Stresses 381^
Report on Assignment 4
Longitudinal Forces in Bridge Structures
Collaborating with Committees 7, 8 and 15
J. A. Erskine (chairman, subcommittee), J. M. Bentham, T. F. Creed, Jr., W. B. Kuer-
steiner, C. V. Lund, J. F. Marsh, A. L. Piepmeier, C. A. Roberts, L. F. Spaine,
M. O. Woxland, L. T. Wyly.
A report on tests conducted on a steel viaduct on the Genesee & Wyoming Rail-
road was made under Assignment 3. This report includes the results of measurements
of stresses produced in the tower bracing and in the rails by braking and accelerating
the test train on the bridge.
A report on tests made on two ballasted-deck timber pile trestles on the Seaboard
Air Line Railroad was published in Bulletin 545, as reported on under Assignment 7.
Data on the effects of starting and stopping test trains on the bridge in producing
longitudinal stresses in the running rails, bending in the piles, and pressure on the
backwalls against the embankment are included in this report.
Report on Assignment 5
Distribution of Live Load in Bridge Floors
(a) Floors Consisting of Transverse Beams
(b) Floors Consisting of Longitudinal Beams
N. M. Newmark (chairman, subcommittee), D. S. Bechly, E. S. Birkenwald, J. W.
Davidson, K. L. DeBlois, W. B. Kuersteiner, C. H. Newlin, E. W. Prentiss, J. E.
South, M. O. Woxland.
An extensive study on this subject was started at the University of Illinois in
1957. During 1958 analytical methods were developed for studying the floor systems
of bridges having either transverse floorbeams or longitudinal floorbeams. These meth-
ods of analysis will permit the study of the different variables in bridge floors which
affect the floorbeam stresses. These variables include:
1. Number of floorbeams and their spacing.
2. Ratio of bridge length to bridge width.
?>. Location of diaphragms and their stiffness.
4. Depth of ballast.
5. Train load.
6. Ratio of beam stiffness to slab stiffness (includes either steel plate or concrete
slab) .
7. Existence of composite action.
The analytical procedures are being correlated with bridge tests previously reported
by Committee 30. With the aid of the University of Illinois digital computer, a large
number of results will be obtained, including a complete range of each variable in the
floor system.
After analysis of these results, simpHfication of the entire procedure will be made
so that it will be readily useful in design office work. It is expected that this study wnll
be completed in 1959.
.^82 Impact and Bridge Stresses
Report on Assignment 6
Concrete Structures
Collaborating with Committee 8
P. L. Montgomery (chairman, subcommittee), J. W. Davidson, W. E. Dowling, N. E.
Ekrem, J. A. Erskine, R. H. Heinlen, C. V. Lund, James Michalos, N. M. New-
mark, A. L. Piepmeier, J. H. Shieber, A. P. Smith, F. W. Thompson, J. R. Williams,
J. D. Woodward.
Initial work on the theoretical fatigue resistance of prestressed pretensioned con-
crete, and the satisfactory correlation between the theory and the laboratory testing
of six beams subjected to static and repetitive loading, were done at Lehigh University
in 1957. This work was reported in Bulletin 544, June-July 1958, page 1.
During 1958 the research staff of the Association of American Railroads conducted
tests on two prestressed concrete bridges, one on the Santa Fe Railway at Colorado
Springs, Colo., and the other on the Southern Railway at Dry Fork, Va.
The Santa Fe bridge is a single-track structure with two spans, 69 ft 10 in center
to center of bearings. Each span has 4 post-tensioned girders with a cast-in-place con-
crete deck slab which forms the ballast trough and the sidewalks. The girders were
designed for E 72 loading and full impact as prescribed in the current AREA specifica-
tions. A preliminary analysis of the records indicates a very uniform distribution of
load between the four girders.
The Southern Railway bridge is a double-track structure in 3 spans, 26 ft 5^2 in
center to center of bearings. Each span has 12 rectangular pretionsioned beams. Pre-
cast concrete curbs are bolted to the outside beams to form a ballasted trough. The
beams are not tied together laterally. They were designed for E 60 loading and full
impact prescribed by the current AREA specifications. The records indicate that most
of the live load is being carried by the four beams directly under the ties, which was
an assumption made in the design. The report of the field test on these Southern Rail-
way beams will be combined with data obtained during static testing of a similar
beam by the research staff.
Report on Assignment 7
Timber Structures
Collaborating with Committee 7
C. V. Lund (chairman, subcommittee), E. R. Bretscher, T. F. Creed, Jr., K. L. DeBlois,
R. H. Heinlen, C. H. Newlin, F. W. Thompson, J. R. Williams, J. D. Woodward,
M. O. Woxland.
A report on tests on two ballasted-deck pile trestles located on the Seaboard Air
Line Railroad appears in Bulletin 545, September-October 1958, page 143. This is the
committee's first report on field tests undertaken specifically on timber trestles.
Analysis has been completed of tests made on four ballasted-deck pile trestles located
on the Santa Fe, and a report is in preparation. In these tests strains were measured
in the piling and stringers, and determination was made of braking and traction forces.
During the past year tests were rcindurted on a 60 ft long glued laminated girder
Impact and Bridge Stresses 383
span located on tht- logging railroad ol the Weyerhauser Timber Company near Long-
view, Wash. This is the first known test made of a girder span of this type under
railroad loading. The data is currently being analyzed.
Report on Assignment 8
Vibrational Characteristics of Bridges Affecting Deflections
and Depth Ratios
James Michalos (chairman, subcommittee), D. S. Bechly, K. L. DeBlois, A. R. Harris,
M. J. Plumb, E. W. Prentiss, H. C. Prince, C. A. Roberts, M. B. Scott, J. E. South,
G. S. Vincent.
An analytical study was started in the Department of Civil Engineering, New York
University, in January 1957 to determine the effects of various parameters on the
vibrational characteristics of railroad bridges. A method of analysis has been developed
and programmed for solution by use of a digital computer; 95 percent of this pro-
gramming has been completed.
Use of the computer will allow numerous studies to be made to ascertain the
effects of such factors as depth ratio, stiffness, etc., on the dynamic behavior of bridges
and rolling stock. Experimental records previously obtained by the research staff of the
AAR are to be compared with the analytical results.
Report on Assignment 9
Use of Electronic Computers for Railroad Bridge Problems
E. R. Andrlik (chairman, subcommittee), D. S. Bechly, W. E. Dowling, J. Michalos,
P. L. Montgomery, M. J. Plumb, E. W. Prentiss, H. C. Prince, L. F. Spaine,
G. S. Vincent, J. R. Williams.
The use of electronic computers in the accounting departments of railroads has
become common. A more recent application of these versatile machines is now being
made in the field of engineering, where it has been found that their use will save
valuable time in the solution of lengthy or repetitive problems. The computers have,
in fact, made possible the solution of research problems that heretofore would have
required prohibitive calculation time.
A major deterrent to the use of the computer in an engineering application is the
time required to develop the machine program for a given problem. One railroad,
working alone, may not have enough similar problems to warrant the expense of
writing a program for their solution. The large group of railroads represented in the
AREA, however, affords an opportunity to spread the cost of developing programs for
common problems over a far wider base.
A railroad bridge problem common to all railroads, and one that with present
methods requires a vast number of technical man-hours for solution, is the compara-
tive rating of bridges and moving loads, coupled with the stress analysis of truss bridges.
.As part of this assignment, your committee proposes to develop computer programs
for the solution of these problems. When developed, these programs will be made
available to the individual railroads for their use, or if any road does not have the
iie<-pssHry romput<>r available, its |irnhlptns may be referred In the Rpsearrh Center
384 Impact and Bridge Stres se s
of the AAR for solution. Another proposed service is the development and distribution
of shear and moment tables for the many large, high-capacity freight cars now in
operation in this country.
Because of the shortage of necessary personnel on the Research Center staff, it was
felt necessary to contract for the development of these programs, in order to make
them available at the earliest possible date. Accordingly, Hazelet and Erdal, con-
sulting engineers in Chicago, have been engaged to do this work. The programs are
being developed for the IBM Model 650 computer, which appears to be the computer
most commonly in use.
The programming for the development of shear and moment tables for any given
combination of wheel loads is nearly completed, and it should be available for dis-
tribution early in 1959. The program for the analysis of truss bridge stresses under dead
load and live load is being developed concurrently, and its solution is expected to follow
later next year. The basic truss program is being written to cover simple truss spans
of symmetrical construction having parallel or non-parallel chords, any number of
panels, and with or without counters. Expansion of this program to cover other cases
is planned for the next stage of this assignment.
Report on Assignment 10
Steel Continuous Structures
Collaborating with Committee 15
A. R. Harris (chairman, subcommittee), E. R. Andrlik, J. M. Bentham, E. S. Birken-
wald, J. W. Davidson, A. T. Granger, J. F. Marsh, W. H. Munse, D. W. Musser,
H. C. Prince, C. B. Smith.
During 1957 field tests were made of three bridges with continuous steel spans on
the heavy freight and passenger traffic main line of the Southern Pacific Company near
Redding, Calif. The principal purpose in making tests on these continuous spans was
to determine their dynamic behavior and the shape of the moment curve as compared
to simple spans. These tests are outlined as follows:
1. Bridge No. 283.77, three 192-ft 6-in deck riveted truss spans with timber bal-
lasted floor, E 72 design, over Doney Creek. The superstructure is fixed to one abut-
ment with a horizontal traction anchor, and the other bearings are expansion rockers.
Runs were made from 5 to 60 mph with (a) a test train covering one span, and
(b) a test train covering two spans, so that the maximum moment diagram could be
constructed. Readings were also taken to obtain secondary stresses.
2. Bridge No. 282.93, three 40-ft deck plate-girder spans with concrete-slab bal-
lasted deck, E 72 design, on a 3-deg curve. The two piers are steel bents on rock
foundation. The distribution of stresses between the top and bottom flanges was
obtained to determine the composite action effect of the concrete deck.
3. Bridge No. 284.16, two 46-ft 8-in through plate-girder spans with transverse
floorbeams and concrete ballasted deck, E 72 design, on spiral run-off from 2 deg
curve, over U. S. Highway No. 99. The center pier is a steel bent on rock foundation.
The data obtained in these tests have been analyzed by the research staff of the
AAR, and will he reviewed by Committep .^0 during 1050,
Report of Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor
L. A. LoGGiNs, Chatrman,
J. E. ElSEMANN,
Vice Chairman,
L. C. Gilbert, Secretary,
Lem Adams (E)
A. D. Alderson
M. B. Allen
R. M. Bailey
V. A. Barnhart, Jr.
J. F. Beaver
W. H, Brameld (E)
E. J. Brown
R. H. Carpenter
A. B. Ciianev
W. E. Chapman
B. S. Converse
S. A. Cooper
P. A. COSGROVE
C. G. Davis
L. R. Deavers
L. E. Donovan
M. H. Dick
W. M. S. Dunn
H. J. Fast
J. L. Fergus
R. T. Fortin
R. L. Fox
R. J. Gammie
R. A. Gravelle
V. C. Hanna
E. B. Harris
Gene L. Harris
W. W. Hay
W. H. Hoar
R. J. Hollingswortii
T. B. Hutcheson
Claitde Johnston
H. W. Kellogg
N. M. Kelly
H. E. KiRBY
R. L. Mays
J. S. McBride (E)
j. R. Miller
H. C. MiNTEER
G. M. O'ROURKE
R. W. Pember
C. T. POPMA
R. R. Pregnall, Jr.
R. W. Preisendefer
M. S. Reid
D. E. RunisiLL
H. W. Seeley, Jr.
E. J. SlERLEJA
R. G. Simmons
J. S. Snyder
F. R. Spofford
John Stang
A. H. Stimson
J. T. Sullivan
W. B. Throckmorton
W. H. Vance (E)*
H. J. Weccheider
H. M. Williamson
H. E. Wilson
F. R. WOOLFORD
C. R. Wright
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
* Died February 11, 1958.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following .subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Analysis of operations of railways that have substantially reduced the cost
of labor required in maintenance of way work.
Progress report, presented as information page 387
3. Labor economies to be derived from cyclic maintenance.
Final report, presented as information page 402
4. Relative advantages of renewing ties in advance of out-of-face surfacing
with mechanized tie gang, compared with renewing ties with a surfacing
gang.
Report presented as information, v\'ith recommendation subject be discon-
tinued page 404
5. Labor economies to be effected through use of power tools and mechanized
equipment by bridge and building gangs.
Progress report presented as information page 407
38S
386 Economics of Rail way Labor
f>. Labor economies to be derived from the use of radio by maintenance of
way gangs.
Progress report presented as information, with recommendation that snbject
be discontinued for several years and then renewed l)age 411
7. The specific and ultimate improvements in various types of track mainte-
nance equipment that would provide the greatest economies in maintenance
practices and how these potential economies would compare with present
costs, collaborating with Committee 27.
Progress report, submitted as information page 41 1
8. Labor economies to be derived from the use of various machines available
for calculating and for lining curves.
Final report, submitted as information page 41.<
9. Relation between the nature of traffic and the interval between out-of-face
resurfacing of tracks of relatively similar characteristics.
Progress report presented as information page 416
The Committee on Economics of Railway Labor,
L. A. Loggins, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 547, December 1958.
MEMOIR
A man who was symbolic of all the loyal, conscientious and hard-working mem-
bers of the American Railway Engineering Association passed away at his home in
Louisville, Ky., on February 11, 1958. He was William Herbert Vance, who retired in
1947 as assistant engineer maintenance of way of the Missouri Pacific Railroad.
Mr. Vance joined the AREA in 1911, and became a Life Member of the Associa-
tion in 1946. His longest term of AREA service was with Committee 22 — Economics
of Railway Labor, of which he was a member for 21 years. In 1953 he was made a
Member Emeritus of that committee, and thus continued to serve until his demise.
Mr. Vance was born in Effingham, 111., on November 6, 1876, the son of John
Albert Vance and Nancy Ellen Barnsback Vance. In 1902 he was married to Julia
Tindall, who died in 1955. They are survived by one daughter, Mrs. Nancy Ruth
Baldwin.
Prior to his graduation from the University of Illinois in 1899 (B.S.C.E.), Mr.
Vance spent several summer vacations on various field engineering jobs. Following his
graduation he was engaged for three years in river surveys, channel improvement, and
maintenance and operation of locks, all under the War Department, United States
Army.
Mr. Vance's railroad career began in 1002 and spanned a period of 45 years until
his retirement in 1947. During all of this period he was engaged in railroad construc-
tion, engineering and maintenance. First with the Peoria & Eastern in subordinate jobs
for three years, he gained valuable experience in work involving replacement of wooden
bridges and trestles with steel and concrete structures, construction of yards and related
facilities, and in track relocation and maintenance. Then followed a 14-month period
as assistant engineer on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, which was notable
for the maintenance experience he acquired.
Economics of Railway Labor 387
On June 1. 1Q06, Mr, Vance was appointed division engineer on the Louisiana &
Arkansas. He remained with that company nearly 11 years, becoming progressively
engineer maintenance of way and chief engineer, with attendant responsibilities. Fol-
lowing a 15-month period of service as engineer maintenance of way of the St. Louis
Southwestern Lines, which began on April 1, 1917, he served under the United States
Railroad Administration until March 1, 1920, as top maintenance officer of the St. Louis
Southwestern and associated area properties.
Mr. Vance's career with the Missouri Pacific began on March 1, 1020, and extended
over a period of more than 27 years until his retirement on August ,51, 1947. He joined
that property as district engineer of its Southern District, and retired as assistant engi-
neer maintenance of way, System. In the interim he was a most loyal and conscientious
officer and an able administrator widely recognized for his sound professional judgment,
for which his thorough and well-rounded experience so well fitted him.
In addition to his 26 years of service with AREA Committee 22^ Mr. Vance was
for two years (1918-1920) a member of Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles, and
also, in 1936-1938, a member of Committee 12 — Rules and Organization. It was for
Committee 22, however, that his most notable work was performed. His chairmanship
of several of its subcommittees was outstanding, and his active participation in all of
the deliberations of the committee was marked by his forward-thinking and serious
purpose. He contributed unstintingly of his experience, knowledge and time. Among
others, many of the younger members were indebted to him for sound advice and
counsel.
A man with few outside interests or hobbies, Mr. Vance was chiefly concerned
with his family and home, his church and his profession.
In addition to being a Life Member of the AREA, Mr. Vance was a Hfe member
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and was active in the American Railway
Bridge and Building Association. He was a registered civil engineer for 45 years.
L. A. LoGGEsrs,
J. S. McBride,
A. B. Chaney,
H. E. KiRBY,
Committee on Memoir.
Report on Assignment 2
Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have Substantially
Reduced the Cost of Labor Required in Maintenance
of Way Work
J. S. Snyder (chairman, subcommittee), M. B. Allen, V. A. Barnhart, Jr., J. F. Beaver,
E. J. Brown, R. H. Carpenter, B. S. Converse, S. A. Cooper, L. E. Donovan,
J. E. Eisemann, J. L. Fergus, V. C. Hanna, W. W. Hay, R. J. HolHngsworth,
T. B. Hutcheson, Claude Johnston, H. W. Kellogg, H. E. Kirbv, H. C. Minteer,
G. M. O'Rourke, R. W. PrisLndefer, M. S, ReM.
This report is submitted as information.
Your committee is making the seventeenth report of a series on this subject whidi
has been reassigned annually since 19,55. The current .study covers the program in effect
on the Missouri Pacific Railroad to reduce its cost of maintaining trestle bridges and
highway crossings, and installing ties. The committee and guests were provided an excel-
388 Economics of Railway Labor
lent and profitable opportunity to inspect the property of the Missouri Pacific Railroad
at Little Rock,, Ark. This included the concrete products yard, the timber framing
plant, a concrete pile trestle of recent construction, a recently installed heavy-duty road
crossing, the operation of a tie gang and the operation of a specially fitted gondola car
for the distribution of ties.
Concrete Products Yard
Approximately 30 years ago, the Missouri Pacific adopted a plan to replace the
timber trestles on its primary lines with pre-cast concrete pile and concrete-slab bridge
construction. The work is being programmed with company forces doing the preponder-
ance of the work, and a concrete products plant was estabhshed at Benton, Ark., and
later moved to the present site in Little Rock.
This plant is operated by the bridge engineer as a fabricating plant for 14 road
system bridge gangs under his direct supervision on the three districts of the Missouri
Pacific. Nine of these gangs are 20-man concrete trestle gangs, one is a 20-man struc-
tural steel erection gang and 4 gangs have 10 men each for steel bridge repairs. The
fifteenth gang of 29 men operates the concrete products plant at Little Rock.
In addition to producing all the concrete piles and concrete slabs used on the Missouri
Pacific, this plant also produces standard concrete backwall members and signal foun-
dations. It is equipped to cut and bend the reinforcing steel, as required, and fabricate
miscellaneous structural steel items, such as grillages and minor replacement members.
Initially, the trestle bents were constructed of 16-in octagonal concrete piles, using
5 piles for each bent. This plan involved considerable work shifting the timber deck
to permit driving the new piles. Later the design was changed to use three 24-in octag-
onal concrete piles per bent. A few 16-in concrete piles are still used where close
clearances are involved and for foundation piling.
The plant consists of a reinforcing steel storage yard and a steel tying area equipped
with necessary jigs and a power bender for reinforcing steel. This equipment is designed
to simplify tying and forming the reinforcing steel mats before they are placed in the
forms. All the steel mats for the concrete piles and the bridge slabs are assembled and
tied in this area and later placed in the forms by a locomotive crane.
Adjacent to the steel tying area, there is a reinforced concrete castiiig table (45 by
210 ft) for casting concrete piles. Ramps are provided at each end of the table for
ready-mix concrete trucks. Concrete is delivered from the truck to the forms by concrete
buggies. It is now proposed to rearrange the ramps in order that the concrete can be
delivered directly from the truck to the forms. The plant produces 16-in and 24-in
concrete piles from 20 to 55 ft in length. Normally, 7 piles per day are poured; the
piles are stripped the second day and the steel forms are set up in the adjacent area,
whereupon, the operation is repeated. The 24-in piles weigh appro.ximately 500 lb per ft
and are removed from the casting table by a locomotive crane 72 hr after pouring.
They are placed in a large storage area south of the plant.
The concrete piles are stocked according to the best estimated requirements for
the anticipated program of bridges for renewal, and at present, approximately 400 piles
are in stock. The normal practice in providing piles for a new project is to ship two
cars to the job site containing piles of the estimated required length. Test piles are
driven at several bents, and subsequent shipments are scheduled in proportion to
driving progress. Thus, penetration changes can be adjusted without field splices or
excessive cutoffs. Where ground collars are involved, a recent practice is to use precast
posts spliced into the collar of the pile, utilizing posts and shorter piles at less unit cost
Economics of Railway Labor 389
per foot over longer piles. Immediately west of the pile table are two small tables
where concrete backwall segments are cast.
Across the crane runway track and opposite the pile casting table is the concrete
slab table. This table is 321 ft long and 16 ft wide and permits pouring two panels
of standard concrete slabs per day. The forms used on bridge slabs are steel and of a
very simple design that can readily be adapted to various length panels. Skew ended
or haunch slabs require special form work and cannot be produced on a production
basis. The slab production works from both ends of the table, and when the center
forms are filled, the end slabs are five days old and can be removed from the table
and the operation repeated. The slabs are not placed in service until 21 days old and
are identified by panel number, bridge number and date cast. Bridge slabs vary in
length from 16 to 24 ft and weigh appro.ximately 1 ton per lin ft. Service roads
located on each side of the slab table permit the ready-mix trucks to pour concrete
from the trucks directly into the slab forms.
Adjacent to the bridge slab table and south of it there is a small table where
signal foundations are cast, utilizing any surplus concrete left after the bridge slabs
are poured. Again, steel forms are used to simplify the manufacture of these units.
The committee had an opportunity to inspect a flat car equipped as a mi.xer car
used by the foundation gangs at bridge sites where ready-mix concrete is not available.
This is equipped with a Yi cu yd mixer, water storage tank, steel aggregate bins and
a bucket conveyor that provides much better concrete with very little labor required
to charge the mi.xer. The car is designed to pour 25 cu yd of concrete without refilling.
The equipment repair shop and equipment storage shed was inspected. All construction
equipment for the system bridge gangs except cranes and motor cars is scheduled for
periodic overhaul at this location, and costly delays due to equipment failures are
reduced to a minimum.
Metallizing Structural Steel Members
The committee observed a wide-flange beam span being treated to protect the
top flanges against brine damage. The top surfaces and edges of the top flanges in all
new deck-girder spans and the corresponding surfaces of stringers and floorbeams in
new truss spans are coated with a mechanical bond of molten zinc to an average thick-
ness of 0.012 in prior to erection. In some instances, the top flanges of girders and
floor members deteriorated by brine drippings have been repaired by a combination
of welded cover plates and metallizing at considerable less cost than replacement.
The surface to be metallized is first sand blasted with a coarse chatt sand to pro-
vide a rough surface and then molten zinc is sprayed by means of a gun. The produc
tion of this process has been greatly increased by guns designed for ili-in wire and
mechanical sand driers. Traffic conditions control to a great extent the cost of such
work on bridges in service. Damp days and extreme cold weather prevent successful
metallizing.
Concrete Trestle Bridge
The concrete trestle approach to Little Rock Junction Bridge No. 3452 was inspected
by the committee. This bridge is a typical example of the type of work the Missouri
Pacific has programmed to reduce its maintenance on wooden trestles.
The concrete trestle of 11 panels and a total length of 208 ft was constructed in
1045-1046 and replaced a 17-panel untreated pile trestle bridge and one I-beam span
over a highway — a total length of 215 ft.
390
Economics of Railway Labor
The following is a table of quantities anrl cost data:
Qudiititirs
35 — 24-in reinforced concrete piles (l,t)S6 lin ft)
100 cu yd reinforced concrete (caps, abutments, sidewalks)
12,800 lb reinforcing steel
21 reinforced concrete slabs
2,742 lb pipe handrail
110 cu yd rock ballast
132 cross ties
Actual Cost (labor and material)
R & E $17,007
Operation 4,758
Total $21,756 ($105 per lin ft)
Estimated Cost (labor and material — based on 1958 wages and prices)
R & E $32,418
Operation 5,682
Total $38,100 ($183 per lin ft)
Bridge 3452 was built in 1946 at a cost of $105 per track ft. At present the cost
would amount to $183 per track ft. The latter cost is representative of average current
costs at present production levels. Traffic conditions, pile lengths, flood conditions and,
particularly, locomotive-crane performance exert considerable influence on cost figures.
Curtailed production in this program may also increase costs which will be difficult
to offset by improved methods or new equipment.
(Text continued on page 394)
Pouring concrete bridge slab.
Economics of Railway Labor
391
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392
Economics of Railway Labor
..jwWSiPWiK?
Pouring 24-in concrete piles.
Pouring concrete backwall members.
J- ^ Bridge
5-0"
A/o/e ■■
Et /2 Sjpac.fi 4£'' 4-6' ^^* A/ female s/irrups k> be
/nrerfed as /ndica/ed by
do/fied //nes.
SECT/ON B-B
/'"S'Aspfta/fP/anM
2 Ply Membrane iVafcrproof/ng
Set i/ ir/jfh p/asf/'c
4'4'
T.tlAm
cemenf
End of Slab
i
J'EndofS/ab
C'C SECT/ON D'D
S FOP y\Mr£J?P/^00F/A/6 JO/NTS
NOTE-
Lengths of p//es ranges from 20' fa 55'.
Lengfhs of slabs ranoes from 16' fo 24.'.
Cross sec f /'on ofs/aBs /s same for a// /en^f/js.
k
A !MM!II|
S
^^^m^
' 'III! l! 'I !
i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II III
2-0"
-rV
SECTION £-£
M/SSOUjQ/ pac/f/cp./?.
TYP/CAL CONCRETE SLAB <S^P/LE
I&-O"o.
HALF ELEVAT/ON
4-0" _ 5-0"
1 /" ^ Bridge.
L
HALF SECr/OA/ A -A
5-0" ^ 4-0'
~\B
^
*I1 Hand/ing Bars
PLAN
(Send Nof* Anneal)
^
D
/^ Slope guff-ers /o /vge/? hole
~Nofe ■■
I £' A/fern afe sf/rrups h) be
/hyerfed as /ndicafed by
dofftd //nes.
n
D
J
SECTION B-B
4' 4"
4"4'
/''8"AsphalfP/ank
2 Ply Membrane iMaferproof/n^
Seal wifh p!(Lsfrc
cemenf-
EndofSlab-
^EndofSlab
END V/EW C- C SEC T/OJV D - D
DETAILS FO/? yVATEPPROOF/m JO /NTS
-J5
DETAILS 0F/8FT. CONCRETE SLAB
Sca/e •%"-/'
40-0
NOTE--
Lengths of pi/es ranges from 20' fo 55'.
Lengfhs of slabs ranges from /&' fo 24'.
Cross sec f /on ofs/abs fs same for a// /enff/hs.
2-0"
DETAILS OF 24-" x 40 FT COMCJ^ETE P/LE
Jca/e i"-!'
M/SSOU/^/ PA C/F/C /?./?.
TYP/CAL COJVC/^ET£SLAB&P/LE
Economics of Railway Labor
393
Metallizing top flange of steel beam span.
f
Concrete trestle approach to bridge No. 3452.
.594
Economics of Railway Labor
Concrete mixer car.
Special Tie Cars
In 19SS, tests with iive special tie cars demonstrated the economy in their use
for handling ties from treating plants.
. In 19S6, 115 additional cars were authorized, which cost $161,005, or $1400 per car,
as follows:
$ 330 — Salvage value of retired gondola car
1,070 — Labor and material converting to tie car
$1,400— Total
The 115 cars are numbered TX-1885 to TX-1999.
Principal advantages of the special tie cars are:
1. Reduce hazard of personal injuries.
2. Reduce unloading costs to 5 to 6 cents per tie.
3. Release other cars for revenue service.
Timber Preframing Mill
The Missouri Pacific has been preframing bridge timbers and bridge ties before
treating for the past 35 years; however, with the program in effect to replace timber
trestles with concrete pile trestles, the need for preframing bridge timber has been
reduced considerably. In 1955 the preframing mill was enlarged to accommodate the
manufacture of full-depth plank highway crossing units. The plant is operated by a
unit of the division bridge and building gang and consists of an assistant foreman, five
mechanics and seven helpers. The gang works under the supervision of the Arkansas
Division bridge and building supervisor, collaborating with the treating plant supervisor.
Solid timber highway crossing units are fabricated to specifications shown on the
standard plan as requisitioned for a particular crossing location. A sketch plan accom-
Economics of Railway Labor
395
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^ M M M:
«<-^<:o
396
Economics of Railway Labor
panics each requisition and gives all pertinent information concerning the weight of
rail, angle of intersection of highway and railroad, and the width of highway.
The committee inspected the timber preframing mill and observed the manufacture
of the solid timber plank crossings.
The preframing plant is located at the tie yard and the following equipment
is used:
Saw Mill — 48-in circular saw powered by a 440-v 50-hp electric motor.
Planer Mill— The planer is run by two 440-v SO-hp electric motors. It will plane a 24
by 30-in piece of timber.
Cut-off Saw — The 36-in circular saw is powered by an 1800 rpm, 220-v, 10 hp electric
motor and is overhead suspended.
Angle Saw — Same as above.
Dado Saw — The 16-in circular saw, powered by a 220-v, 7>2-hp electric motor, is over-
head suspended.
Multi-Borer — The 10-spindled multiborer is powered by a 220-v, 10-hp electric motor
and the carriage is operated by a 220-v, 3-hp electric motor.
Dust-Control System — Running from all this equipment are duct works that carry saw-
dust from the machines to the blower house and from the blower house to the
incinerator. The exhaust system is operated by two 42 -ft fans, one fan powered
by a 10-hp electric motor and the other fan by a 220-v, 20-hp electric motor.
Investment in Timber Preframing Plant at North Little Rock, Ark.
Description
Buildings
Machinery
Tctal
Saw Mill (1947)
Shed
$ 595
1,766
455
$ 2,323
8,085
977
3,284
8 2 918
Sizer House (1953)
Sizer House-- _
9,851
Blower House .. . . _
1,432
Blow Pipe System
3,284
Incinerator
5,492
661
440
5,492
Platforms . -- _
661
Miscellaneous J- -.
440
Crossing Plant (1957)
Metal Building and Multi-Borer _
$ 8,814
3,477
$12,346
27,833
$21,160
31,310
Total Investment
$12,886
$42,502
$55,388
The full-depth plank highway crossings are made from cross ties purchased by
the tie and timber department at on-line locations and shipped to the North Little
Rock tie yard. The ties are placed in the storage yard in the proper stacks for
seasoning.
When the cross ties are properly seasoned, fork lift trucks move the ties from the
storage yard to the loading dock at the saw mOl. The ties are sized and placed on a
conveyor and moved to the planing mill. After planing, the material is stacked on a
loading dock. These two operations are continuous until all material has passed.
The material is again placed on the conveyor and passed to th« cut-off saw and
Economics of Railway Labor 397
cut to the desired length; then passed to the multi-drill; then to the dado saw where
the timbers that fit each side of the rail are grooved. The timbers are then passed to
the angle saw, where the dump sections are dapped and stacked on a loading dock.
When enough timbers are accumulated, they are loaded on push cars distributed along
the assembly area. After the crossings are assembled, they are loaded on trams and
sent to the treating plant. At the treating plant, the crossings are treated by the open-
cell process with 0.750 gal of 70-30 creosote-coal tar solution per cubic foot. When
treating is completed, the crossings are loaded in gondola cars and shipped to the
locations where orders were placed for this material.
Solid Timber Crossing Installation
The committee inspected a recent installation of a prefabricated full-depth timber
crossing at Forbing Road, Ensign, Ark. The two main-line tracks at this crossing were
completely rebuilt and ballasted with stone ballast and new 1.^2 RE rail was installed
with the joints laid tight. New creosoted ties were installed on 1Q34-Jn centers, fully
tie plated and further protected with tie pads. This tie spacing was exact as the holes
in the timber sections for the drive spikes are prebored at the fabricating plant. The
solid timber crossing sections were then installed in accordance with the Missouri Pacific
standard plan for highway grade crossing for heavy vehicular traffic. The timber sec-
tions are positioned with a gage so they will be exactly lYz in from the head of the
rail. Holes are drilled in the ties for the drive spikes with an electric drill powered by
a portable generator, and the drive spikes are then driven into the ties with a sledge.
Three types of Y^- by 12-in drive spikes were used in this crossing to determine their
relative resistance to corrosion. One-third are uncoated (20.6 cents each), one-third are
galvanized (27 cents each), and one-third are nickel alloy coated (25.6 cents each).
Labor Cost to Install Prefabricated Crossings
(Compiled from actual cost of 6 crossings located on 5 different divisions
in 4 states— 1956-1958)
Heavy vehicular traffic — Plan 401. 0-E
Total lin ft 255
Total cost (labor only) $654.91
Cost per lin ft $ 2.57
Light vehicular traffic — Plan 401.01-B
Total Hn ft 230
Total cost (labor only) $593.20
Cost per lin ft $ 2.58
Cost of asphalt (used with Plan 401.01-B)
Total lin ft 230
Cost of asphalt (material) $186.27
Cost per lin ft $ o.81
Total cost of labor and material — prefabricated crossings in place exclusive of any
required track work
Heavy vehicular — Plan 401. 0-E — per lin ft $10.82
Light vehicular — Plan 401.0-B— per lin ft $ 6.72
(Text continued on page 400)
398
Economics of Railway Labor
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Light crossings
Dec. 1957
Jan. 19.58
Feb. 19.58
Mar. 1958
April 1958
Heavy crossings
Dec. 1957
.Jan. 1958
Feb. 1958
Mar. 19.58
April 1958
REVISION RECORD
BEVtSION
401.01-B
DATE
SUPERSEDES
PAGE
(•2058 «HOVA
FILE NB
12-3650
APPROVED
A^/t¥.
SIZE OF PLANKS AND DRIVE SPIKES
RAIL
90*
PLANKS
DR. SPIKES
SISIE 5Vx8V
H\ 10"
no
" 6^'x8V
V8Mr
112-115
oVmSV
^8"x12'
131-132
7>5', 8V
-
3CIC INSIDE ENDS
JF PLANKS
TES:
inks to b« preframed creosoled red oak or gum.
jnkstobe pre-drill€d-5'8"holes.
Ijovid* interlocking notches on ends of all planks except the
jveled end of outside plank,
^s within limits of crossing ghall be sawed, pre adzed,
S/B'x (0*
Wx H*
5/8'x (2*
4"
'eosoted and tie plated.
■H spacinq shall be WW.'
.sId drill *!6" holes into ties to aaommodate lenqth of driv« spikes,
lerlocked joints to be centered over tie.
nqth of intermediate planks to be 8 feet,
inqth of end planks may be variable but not less than three tie
•aces plus one-half width of tie. Increase lenqth of plankinq
rvecessary.
.here unavoidable adzinq and cuttinq of material is r^cessary
,eat cut surfaces with creosote. Treat holes drilled in field
th creosote.
jil anchors normally located within limits of crossing may be
I'ided equally on adjaceni approach rails,
ack between ends of planking and shoulder line of hiohway
all be filled with ballast material.
>l«ss Chief Engineer System mstructs otherwise, rail liohterthan
) shall be relaid with 90* or heavier. Where practicable, no
ints shall be permitted in the crossing nor within 6 feet of the
,^-jds of the crossing. Joints which are unavoidable within these
iits shall be pressure welded.or laid tight and frown. Build up
^^il ends and gnnd to equal height where required.
^^ROVED:
AdJ-'^^^io-^-i^^
%
SECT
CHIEf ENdlNEER SYSTEM AND CHAIRMAN COMMITTEE
ON ROADWAY DEPARTMEMT 3TANPAR0S ''"""'^"
MISSOURI PACIfIC LINES
STANDARD
HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSING
FOR MEDIUM AND LIGHT
VEHICULAR TRAFFIC
SCALE AS NOTED MAfl.l.WSS
OFFICE OF CHIEF ENSINEER SYSTEM, ST LOUIS MO
PAfiE401.0lB f iLE M* 12-3fi50
3' Minimum — -
€d(je of f raveled way
Edge of traveled way
^t^V .,,-j-'.'^f'v,i:>^^,-.if',--A-^.K> L
1 ' ,
3' Minimum -
'"1 r
REVISION RECORD 401.01-B 1
BEVISION
SUPtRSEDtS
APPROVED
PAfiE
DESCRIPTION
DATE
pageI
FILE N«
WUM
Addition «o not»3-l«n^th-
of driv« spikes shown.
1 20« tOtOVA 12-3650
.(Aufrf/mrf.
TERLOCK INSIDE ENDS
OF PLANKS
SIZE OF PLANKS AND DRIVE SPIKES
RAIL
PLANKS
DR. SPIKES
90*
sisiE sV.aV
5/8\ 10"
no
■ 6V.8V
VsMl"
IIMI5
gVxbV
^8'«12"
131-132
7V. 8*4-
■c^ifipi3^^^>?i^^
PLAN
5/3"x lO'Washer Hd Timber Drive SplkeC 90 lb. rail)
V8"« If
V8"x 12-
Every other tic
( no lb. rail)
( 1 1? lb. rail and heavier)
i'/i^fi^ 1.^7'^" ^Roclc Ballast with IV2 minimum toppingof Asphaitic Concrete thru traveled way
See DetaiPA'
•v.j:a_[s l: e-y tie ; £;.•<••
To join road surface
SEaiON A-A
"''1^^-i^^
"
4'
J.
^^(
SECTION B-B
DETAIL "A'
DETAIL"B"
FOR. 112 To 132 LB.RAIL
DETAIL "A" DETAIL'S"
FOR 90 and HO LB. RAIL
a
b
c
d
IW
I'/le*
2'/2"
1"
a
b
c
d
1"
\"
■'/a"
H
Planks to b« preframed creosoted red oali or gum.
Plsnks to be pre-drilled- V8' holes.
Provid* interlockinq notches on ends of all planks except the
beveled end of outside plank.
Ties within limits of cross inq shall be sawed, pre adzed,
creosoted and tie plated.
Tie spacinq shall b« I9V4'.'
Field drill ^"holes into ties to accommodate lenqlh of drive spikes.
Interlocked joints to be centered aver tie.
Lenqth of intermediate planks to be 8 feet.
Lenqth of end planks may be variable bul not less than three tie
spaces plus one-half width of tie. Increase lenqth of plankinq
if necessary.
Where unavoidable adzinq and cuttinq of material is rwcessary
treat cut surfaces with creosote. Treat holes drilled in field
with creosote.
Rail anchors normally located within limits of crossing may be
divided equally on adjacent approach rails.
Track between ends of planking and shoulder line of hiqhway
shall be filled with ballast material.
Unless Chief Enqineer System instructs otherwise, rail liqhterthan
90* shall be relald with 90' or heavier. Where practicable, no
joints shall be permitted in the crossing nor within 6 feet of the
ends of the crossinq. Joints which are unavoidable within these
limits shall be pressure welded, or laid tiqht and frozen. Build up
rail ends and qrind to equal height where required.
APPROVED; /ArJf~L^r^r^i:^^
CMUf ENUINEER SYSTEM *MD CHAIRMAN COMMITTEE
ON ROADWAY OtPARTMEMT 3TAN0AR0S
MISSOURI RACIfIC LINES
STANDARD
HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSING
FOR MEDIUM AND LIGHT
VEHICULAR TRAFFIC
SCALE AS MOTtO MAB l,W55
OfflCEOf CHIEF ENSINEER SYSTEM,STLO«IS,Ma
PA6E401.01-B f ILE N« 12-3S50
REVISION RECORD
401.0-E
REVISION
DESCBIPTION
>Wdrt(on to not*5- kr^*9
<rf driv» ytlKt »(»..
ijoafc
yuuBtitf
Length of end sections nw| be variable but not less
than three tie spaces (I9V4") plus one-half width of tie.
Increase length of planking, if necessary.
SHE OF PLANKS AND DRIVE SOKES
RAIL
PLAhJKS
DS.SPIKES
90 Lb.
3tSlE 5*i".7V
Sfs\ 10"
• si'.sV
•
110
• 6^1 7*"
SbMi-
• 6W.8V
•
112-115
' 6%'. 7h'
5«'» 12"
' 6V.8V
131-132
• 71?-WV
7I»V8*«"
a*"
Nut
J.^ir-,
er H,*;^"^ ^.
NOTE CD
Emulsified asphalt shall b« applitd in open
spaces around rails when'.
1-Crossin^s ara within a populated area and
fr»<)uently us«d by padestrians.
2-Crossing angi* with track is lass than
70 degrees.
K*H
nk sections to be preframed, bolted and drilled - VS'holes.
inks to be creosoted red oak or gum.
3 shall be 8-6" long or 8' long staggered 3"
II Vift'holes into ties to accommodate length of drive spikes.
a wrthin limits of crossing shall be sawed, pre-adied,creo9otod and tie pl«ted.
spacing shall be 19 V4" throughout crossing.
'ere unavotdaUc adzingandcuttingof material is necessari) treat cut surfaces
h creosote. Treat holes dnlted infield with creosote.
I anchors noonallij located within limits of crossing may be divided equally on
acent approach rails.
ck between ends of planking and shoulder lineof highway shall be filled with
last material.
t of emulsified asphalt to be applied to entire surface of crossing
ately after installation,
cial plan will be required where crossing is located on curves over fe'or within
ts of tvrnout or other speaal condition. ~
ess Chief Engineer System nstructs otherwise, rail lighter than 90*shall be
''sid with 90*or heavier. Where practicable, no joints shall be permitted in the
■ssing nor within 6 feet of the ends of the crossing. Joints which are unavoidable
hin these limits shall be pressure nwelded.or laid tight and frozen. BuiUup
lends and grind to equal height where required.
-T-dif-fi-S-^
MISSOUBI PACIFIC UN£S
STANDARD
HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSING
FOR HEAVY VEHICULAR TRAFFIC
SCALCAJMOTtO MAR.I,(*SS
Of FICi Of CMlf CNOINEtR SYSTtM
ST. LOWS, Ha
R*fiE40tO€ FILE N« MXl
Lwiqth o< end sections maj b« vwilWe but not less
ttan tt\r«e tie sdaces (1")V/) pKis one-Mf width of tie.
Increase length of planking, if necessary.
SHE OF PLANKS AND DBIVt SPIKB
Joints to b« staggered
BAIL
Planks
D8.SPIHES
90 Ux
SISIE 5^l".7V
5»".I0-
• sV.sV
110
• 6K7*-
!w-.ir
fiW.s'*^
112-115
• 6V-7V
V.12-
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131 -131
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DETAIL"!
FOR 112 TO 132 LB. RAIL
a
b
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iVis"
21/2" 1"
DETA1L"B"
90 and no LB.RAIL
a
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r
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ts'
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NOTE (1)
Emulsifisd isphalt thtll b« applitd in open
spaces around rails when
t-Cro9sing9 «-« Mtthin a popuUtadar«a an<
frequently usad tHj pcdastnant.
2-Cro9ling angle wrth track 13 Ia5s than
TO degree*.
N0TE3: Plank sections to be preframed. bolted and drilled- VS'hote^.
Ranks to be creosoted red oak or qum.
Ties shall be 6-6' long or 8' long staggered 3"
Drill ^/ifiTholes into ties to accommodate length of dnve sp'kes.
Ties within limitsof crossing shall be sawed, pre-adied.creosotod and tie pl*twt
Tie spacing shall be t9V4" throughout crossing.
Where unavoidaNc adring and cutting of matenal is necessanj treat cut surfaces
wrth creosote. Treat holes dniled m field with creosote.
Rail anchors normally located wrthm limits of crossing may be divided equally on
adjacent approach rails.
Track between ends of planking and shoulder line of highway shallbe filled with
ballast material.
Coat of emulsified asphalt to be applied to entire surface of crossing
immediately after installation.
Special plan wdl be required where crossing is located on curvej over fe'or within
limits of turnout or other speaal condition.
Unless Duef Engineer Syetetn nstructs otherwise, rail tighter than 90*shall be
rclaid with 90"or hewier. Where practicable, no joints shall be permitted m the
crtissing nor within 6 feet of the ends of the crossing. Joints which are unavoidable
withinthese lifrtts shall be pressure welded, or laid tiqSt and frozen. BuiUup
rail ends and grind to equal height where required-
AArT-^^^-^-^-^
HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSING
FOR HEAVY VEHICULAR TRAFFIC
Economics of Railway Labor
390
-•?/iSS-. f^H^
Timber preframing mill.
Highway grade crossing for heavy vehicular traffic.
400 Economics of Railway Labor
Special Track Gangs
Special track gangs are used to operate power tampers, tie renewal equipment and
for other tasks commonly assigned to extra gangs. These gangs vary in size from 10
to 15 men depending on the requirements of the job.
The committee observed the operation of a tie renewal gang while at Forbing Road.
The gang consisted of a foreman and 12 trackmen. The ties for renewal were marked
by the roadmaster ahead of the unloading train, so the ties were unloaded very close
to the point of application. The tie renewal gangs precede and work independently
of the surfacing gangs and, as a rule, ties are renewed only where renewals exceed 300
per mile. Section gangs make any spot renewals required. New ties are tamped so as
not to impair riding conditions of the track.
The organization of a typical tie renewal gang is as follows:
Operation Equipment Force
Remove spikes from ties to be renewed Spike puller 1 Trackman
Remove tie plates and anchors from old ties Hand tools 1 Trackman
Remove old tie Tie extruder 2 Trackmen
Prepare tie bed and insert new ties, set spikes Hand tools 3 Trackmen
Hold up ties for spiking Tie nipper 1 Trackman
Spike new ties .'. Air-driven-spiker 1 Trackman
Tamp new ties Air-driven tamper 2 Trackmen
Replace anchors and fill cribs Hand tools 1 Trackman
1 Foreman 12 Trackmen
Note: The head-end men, when a sufficient distance ahead, drop back and assist
in preparation of tie bed.
The tie renewal gang is so organized that ail machines can be removed from the
track and replaced by the gang easily and quickly ahead of a train, and very little time
is lost clearing for trains. The special track gangs work without flagmen, and train
crews are given a train order to reduce speed to 30 mph prepared to stop where gangs
are working. The foreman works closely with the tower operator and gives a hand
signal to the train crew to proceed when the gang is in the clear.
The following is a typical train order for protecting special track gangs used on
the Missouri Pacific.
"Effective 7:30 am until 3:30 pm. May 21, all trains approach tie renewal gang
Sedalia sub-division between MP 231-20 and MP 232-20 prepared to stop and proceed
on hand signal given with yellow flag by foreman in charge. A speed of 30 mph will
not be exceeded within the limits of this order."
CONCLUSION
The Missouri Pacific has programmed the replacement of its worn-out timber trestles
with permanent concrete pile and slab bridge construction in a most economical and
efficient manner.
The permanency of this type of structure, requiring little or no maintenance, has
proved to be a sound investment as compared to the use of timber construction requiring
renewals in a continually rising material and labor market. It is concluded therefore,
that under conditions similar to those encountered on the Missouri Pacific, substantial
labor savings may be realized by the replacement of wooden trestles with those of
reinforced concrete design.
This road has also made substantial savings in labor by prefabricating full-depth
timber highway crossings at a centralized framing plant.
Economics of Railway Labor
401
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402 Economics of Railway Labor
The Missouri Pacific has progressed the design of new equipment and machines,
such as the tie car and spiking machine, that have been effective in the economical use
of maintenance of wav forces.
Report on Assignment 3
Labor Economies to Be Derived from Cyclic Maintenance
H. W. Seeley (chairman, subcommittee), A. D. Alderson, V. A. Barnhart, Jr., R. H.
Carpenter, W. E. Chapman, S. A. Cooper, P. A. Cosgrove, C. G. DaVis, R. A.
Gravelle, E. B. Harris, W. H. Hoar, N. M. Kelly, J. S. McBride, H. C. Minteer,
R. W. Preisendefer, E. J. Sierleja, A. H. Stimson, J. T. Sullivan, F. R. WooUord.
Your committee submits the following final report as information.
In considering this subject, reference should be made to a report on a similar
assignment published in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, 1956, page 417.
The information for the following report was obtained from a questionnaire that
was answered by 29 railroads. The replies indicated that 22 of these railroads have
adopted some form of cyclic maintenance, while 7 have not. Of the 22, 12 roads report
that their tie renewal and smoothing or surfacing operations are completely mechanized,
and 10 report that on their lines these operations are partly mechanized. Of the 7 rail-
roads reporting that they are not using cyclic maintenance, 3 report that these opera-
tions are partly mechanized and 4 indicate that they have mechanized to only a small
degree. Twelve roads report that they started their cycle program prior to 1956; S
started in 1956; 3 in 1957; and 2 in 1958. Only 3 of the railroads replying to the
questionnaire indicated that they had completed a full tie renewal and surfacing cycle.
There is considerable variance as to the degree to which various roads have adopted
the cyclic method of programming maintenance work, and the length of the cycles used
or anticipated vary considerably. However, they fall generally into four groups:
1. A few railroads have arbitrarily adopted a tie renewal cycle which varies
from two to seven years and an out-of-face surfacing cycle of from two to ten
years. The length of the cycle was determined as the result of past experience
and consideration of the tonnage, speed of trains, and class of traffic, and will
be adjusted from time to time, based upon the results after the first cycle is
completed.
2. Another group has adopted a tentative cycle length which is based upon
working the track when the tie renewals needed are about equal to the num-
ber of ties per mile that their mechanized tie gang will renew most economically.
Between tie renewal cycles, some of these roads also have an out-of-face
surfacing cycle.
3. Several roads have based the length of the cycle upon the length of time that
the track can be maintained with a minimum amount of spot surfacing. Tie
renewals are made each time that the track is surfaced out-of-face.
4. Some railroads, while they do a complete tie renewal and out-of-face sur-
facing job with mechanized gangs when working a section of track, and in
that respect are following the cyclic maintenance principal, have not estab-
lished any regular cycle frequency. They program the work when necessary,
as determined by periodic inspection.
Economics of Railway Labor 403
It is impossible to arrive at any reliable quantitative conclusion as to the labor
economies to be derived from cyclic maintenance because:
1. Very few railroads have used cyclic maintenance lonn enough to determine the
economic length of the cycle.
2. The cyclic method of maintenance has probably greatly increased the savings
that were first made possible by mechanization, but most railroad cost infor-
mation is not detailed enough to separate the savings that can be attributed
directly to mechanization from the savings resulting from cyclic maintenance.
3. During the period of change-over to mechanized cyclic maintenance, there is
a certain amount of rehabilitation work as well as some temporary carry-over
work that must be done, and this tends to distort any cost figures that may
be available.
However, based on the opinion of the 29 railroads that furnished information for
this report, the following conclusions may be reached as to what savings may be antici-
pated when cyclic maintenance is established:
1. The resulting more uniform quality track and better general standard of
maintenance which results should reduce the amount of labor required for
spot surfacing and spot tie renewals.
2. The necessary long-range programming and budgeting will result in reduction
in inventory, savings in labor for material handling, more stable force and
greater utilization of available machinery. On the other hand, short-term
programming and budgeting may disrupt this type of maintenance program
to the extent that much of the economy would be lost.
3. Fewer gangs and working units will permit closer supervision and better organ-
ization, resulting in increased production per man and possibly will result in
a reduction in the amount of supervision required.
4. Fewer gangs, on some railroads, will cause less traffic interference and may
make it possible for operating departments to permit more uninterrupted
working time, resulting in an increase in production per man.
SUMMARY
Most railroads that have adopted cyclic maintenance methods, appear to be
progressing toward establishing a length of cycle for out-of-face surfacing which will
eliminate, or at least reduce to a minimum, the need for intermediate spot surfacing.
Also, they anticipate making necessary tie renewals at the time that out-of-face sur-
facing is done, thus causing the tie renewal cycle to coincide with the out-of-face
surfacing cycle.
The physical condition, the riding quality, and the standard to which it is desirable
and economical to maintain these conditions will generally be dependent upon the
tonnage, speed and class of traffic that the track will carry and will determine the
length of the maintenance cycles. Once the cyclic method of maintenance is established,
the greatest economy that can be directly attributed to it will result from correctly
determining the most economical length of cycle necessary to maintain the railroad to
the standard required and, at the same time, to permit the work to be accomplished
economically with the organization and equipment that is available.
404 Economics of Railway Labor
Report on Assignment 4
Relative Advantages of Renewing Ties in Advance of Out-of-Face
Surfacing with a Mechanized Tie Gang, Compared
with Renewing Ties with a Surfacing Gang
Claude Johnston (chairman, subcommittee), A. D. Alderson, R. M. Bailey, E. J.
Brown, R. H. Carpenter, A. B. Chaney, W. E. Chapman, P. A. Cosgrove, L. R.
Deavers, M. H. Dick, W. M. S. Dunn, j. E. Eisemann, J. L. Fergus, R. A. Gravelle,
Gene L. Harris, R. J. Hollingsworth, T. B. Hutcheson, H. W. Kellogg, J. R. Miller,
R. W. Pember, M. S. Reid, H. W. Seeley, R. G. Simmons, W. H. Vance, F. R.
Woolford.
When ties are installed in advance of a surfacing operation, no slow order is
required. Also, the tamping operation is not delayed by tie renewal work. However,
when ties are installed with a surfacing operation, the supervision problem is simplified,
as one supervisor can handle the entire operation. One operation is more economical
than two separate operations.
These "relative advantages" and other information for this report were developed
from a survey of 66 railroads in the United States and Canada.
The respondents were divided equally between those who favored renewing ties in
advance of surfacing and those who preferred to renew ties with the surfacing gang.
Each group claimed that the method they use offers advantages for their particular
situation.
Questionnaire Results
A total of 37 railroads replied to the questionnaire, but five did not complete
the questionnaire. Of the 32 roads furnishing information, 14 stated that they renew
ties in advance of surfacing and 14 stated that they renew ties with surfacing. Of the
14 roads which use the "advance" method, 11 install ties with mechanized gangs on
main track, with some installations by hand on branch hnes. Three of these railroads
install ties entirely by hand.
Two railroads, each with annual tie programs divided about equally between
heavy and light tie replacements, claimed this condition influenced them to renew ties
in advance. Those roads with light tie renewals stated that frequency of renewal did not
influence them as to the choice of method.
Some of the roads reported that they do not raise the track for tie replacements,
while others reported a raise ranging from 1 to S in. Five railroads stated that the
amount of raise influenced their choice as to the method used, with light raises con-
fined generally to mechanized operations. Nine roads reported that the amount of raise
has no relation to the method used.
Eleven of the railroads renewing ties in advance are predominately single-track
lines. Only two of this group are largely double-track roads.
In replying to a series of questions designed to develop how track is occupied by
track forces and the method of protection used, only two railroads stated that these
factors had any bearing on their choice as to method of installing ties. Twelve railroads
reported that these factors had no bearing on the method used.
All of these railroads in this category occupy track between trains by communica-
tion with train dispatcher. Only one reported having work time assigned in CTC ter-
ritory. Three reported that they occupy track under special rules in CTC territory.
E conomics of Railway Labor 405
Gang size varied from 6 trackmen to 35 trackmen and foreman, with 7 roads
using an assistant foreman. The number of machine operators used varied from one
to nine.
Eight railroads reported costs ranging from 0.50 to 1.00 man-hours per tie, for tie
installations only. Five reported costs for advance tie replacements plus follow-up
surfacing which ranged from 0.00 to 4.0 man-hours per tie.
Seven railroads reported that they follow up with surfacing operation as soon as
possible after ties are installed; others allow from 1 to 3 months between.
Five railroads replied that the delay time between tie installation and surfacing
operation allows ties to become more firmly bedded, which provides better track con-
dition and lengthens periods between surfacing and smoothing cycles. Six railroads
stated that this result was not apparent.
A random sampling of the "relative advantages" suggested by the railroads installing
ties in advance of a surfacing gang is as follows:
"Tie gang has time to work road crossings and hand-tamp switches."
"Permits small number of men for mechanized tie gang."
"Surfacing done on track where required by surface conditions and not tie renewals."
" difficult to synchronize the production of our tie installing and
tamping machines."
The second group of 14 railroads reported renewing ties with a surfacing gang.
All of this group stated that they are mechanized. These roads indicated that frequency
of tie renewals did not influence their choice of method. However, all reported rela-
tively light tie renewals and a program of cycle maintenance.
It is apparent that there is more uniformity in the amount of track raise reported
by this group. Most reported a raise of V/i to 3 in, while one road uses a raise of 6 in.
The majority stated that high raises are not satisfactory for mechanical tampers. Most
of this group unload ballast before surfacing.
This group is evenly divided between those being predominately single-track rail-
roads and double- or multiple-track railroads.
This group of respondents indicated that such factors as occupancy of track,
method of protection and being single- or double-track Hnes, did influence their choice
as to method of operation. Most stated that they are required to communicate with
the train dispatcher for occupancy of track. Five stated that they are given assigned
hours on track. Some of this group work track under the detour method. Because of
the added surfacing operation, gang size reported is larger. Track gangs vary from 4
to 26 men. One road reported using 80 trackmen in timbering and surfacing gang. This
gang does not use power tampers, but does tamp track with hand-held power tools. The
number of machine operators used vary from 2 to 17. All roads employ from two to
three assistant foremen in each gang. Eight roads reported that gangs work under the
direct supervision of a supervisor while six stated that the surfacing gang is directed
by a foreman.
Costs reported by 13 railroads varied from 0.42 to 1.0 man-hours per tie for
complete operation of timbering and surfacing.
More than 75 percent of the respondents listed the advantages of installing ties
with a surfacing gang. Here is a random sampling of their reports.
" lowest cost per tie and complete the entire working of piece of track
in one operation."
"A lag (between tie insertions and surface) induces rougher riding and would
shorten smoothing or surfacing cycle."
406 Economics of Railway Labor
"Lower cost tor supervision, flag protection, etc."
"In double-track territory it decreases length of time single-track operation is
required."
P'rom the response to the questionnaire it would seem that neither method has any
particular advantage over the other; however, an analysis of the replies to specific
questions on each method reported used does tend to reveal that under certain conditions,
each method offers advantages to the user. From the stand point of cost per tie installed,
the combined timbering and surfacing operation is more economical. However, these
figures represent direct labor costs and do not take into consideration the cost of owner-
ship of equipment for a large mechanized gang. Such items as depreciation, interest on
investment, repair and maintenance costs would materially increase the cost per tie
installed.
To apply a meaningful comparison of costs between the two methods would require
a system of measurement that would evaluate the many variables that are present on
different railroads.
From the response to questions relating to factors that could influence a choice of
method in timbering and surfacing it is significant that more than 50 p>ercent of the
railroads had made an effort to tailor the method to the circumstances peculiar to its
own property.
A respondent, an all single-track railroad, stated: "We believe that the best job
with the least train delay is performed when ties are installed with surfacing."
Another railroad, 80-percent double- or multiple-track, stated: "It is our general
over-all opinion that on double- and multiple-track territories where detour interlock-
ing stations and crossovers are available, installing ties with a surfacing gang is superior.
Installing ties in advance of the surfacing gang is far superior on single-track territories
where it is necessary to continually put on and take off all of the machinery that
would be used in making installations with surfacing gangs."
Negative factors reported in the survey were: lack of power-tamping equipment
and improper coordination of track work with train movements.
CONCLUSIONS
From the replies to questions on this assignment, it may be concluded that advan-
tages can be derived from either method. However, before these advantages can be
realized, all factors influencing the operation must be analyzed. If the method of opera-
tion can be tailored to meet the circumstances that exist on each road, the method
offering the most advantages can be chosen.
This report is presented as information, with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
Economics of Railway Labor 407
Report on Assignment 5
Labor Economies to Be Effected Through the Use of Power Tools
and Mechanized Equipment by Bridge and Building Gangs
W. E. Chapman (chairman, subcommittee), A. D. Alderson, R. M. Bailey, W. H.
Brameld, R. H. Carpenter, B. S. Converse, C. G. Davis, L. R. Deavers, M. H.
Dick, L. E. Donovan, W. M. S. Dunn, J. L. Fergus, R. T. Fortin, R. L. Fox,
W. H. Hoar, N. M. Kelly, C. T. Popma. F. R. Spofford, John StanR, A. H.
Stimson, W. H. Vance, H. E. Wilson.
Your committee submits the following report of progress in determining the labor
economies to be effected through the use of power tools and mechanized equipment
by bridge and building gangs.
This, of course, in view of increased cost of materials and labor, and the need for
keeping outgo of monies within the limits of income, is a very pertinent subject and of
interest to all carriers.
Because of the voluminous material that would be required to cover all tools,
large and small, this report covers only those tools found by certain reporting carriers
to be the most economical.
While this report refers primarily to maintenance, the tools and equipment described
are also economical in construction work.
UNLOADING BRIDGE MATERIAL AT SITE OF USE BY BRIDGE
HOIST OR CRANE
The material for each structure is banded or bundled separately, each bundle
being marked prominently with its designated structure number. Then it is loaded at
the treating plant or storehouse so that the material for the first structure reached by
train (local freight when available, otherwise a work train) will be the top bundle
or bundles. Then the next bundle or bundles to the second trestle or structure, and
so on.
These bundles of material are unloaded at each structure by a bridge hoist or crane
under the supervision of the bridge and building supervisor. This opveration is scheduled
so that the material will be unloaded just before the gangs arrive at the structure to
begin work.
Comparison of the cost of handling materials in this manner with the cost of
handling material by loading in cars unclassified, placing at nearest siding, unloading,
stacking and then later hauling to the site of the work by push car or truck is shown
below:
Unloading 349 pieces of treated timber, 20.625 MBM, plus 484 lin ft of treated
piling with work train and dragline at 22 trestles in a distance of 63 miles — •
1 — 8 hr work train day
1 — 8 hr day for operator
1 — 8 hr day for one laborer
1 — day of b&b supervisor's time
Additional cost of banding material at treating plant — Unloading by b&b gangs
at six stations, stacking and later hauling out to trestles as needed —
64 man-hours, foreman
384 man-hours, bridgemen
408 Economics of Railway Labor
No cook's time included, as all carriers do not provide cooks. Too, material cars
are eliminated.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF GANGS
AND RESULTING ECONOMIES
Timber Bridge Gang
1. One hydraulic hoist mounted on a heavy-duty truck with the following equip-
ment and features: telescoping boom (16 to 24 ft), mounted on a 360-deg
pivot, swinging through an 85-deg vertical plane, with two load lines capable
of lifting 1200 lb each; two hydrauhcally operated outriggers; four manual
rail clamps; five-speed transmission with full high-speed reverse; expanded
metal floor; hydraulically operated retractable flanged rail wheels; 2J^-in ball
trailer hitch for handhng house trailer; points on four corners for attaching
snatch blocks which serve the same purpose as a winch on the front and rear
of the machine. All hydraulic controls should be easily accessible to the operator
who also has remote control of truck from his hoist operating position. The
truck should be capable of highway speeds over 40 mph (minimum state speed
on some roads) while towing trailer. Two power outlets from hydraulic plant
on truck and so built that boom will not extend beyond front bumper of the
truck when traveling.
2. One hydraulic chain saw, which will work under water.
3. Four hydraulic jacks.
4. One hydraulic bolt puller.
5. One hydraulic bolt cutter.
6. One hydraulic auger or drill.
7. One hydraulic impact wrench.
8. One hydraulic hammer.
9. One hydraulic power source capable of operating any four tools at the same
time.
10. One bridge master.
With the above tools and equipment, all timber bridge work, such as replacing
timbers, lining track, pulling in braces, lining piling, placing material at exact spot
needed and transporting material throughout the length of trestle, can be done.
The above tools and equipment have increased production 3.45 times. For example,
using this new equipment, an inside open-deck stringer can be replaced in less than
35 min instead of the 75 to 80 min previously required.
The larger roads have specialized gangs, some working bridge timbers from the
caps up, and others working from the caps down. Smaller carriers have gangs that do
all the work with the above equipment.
Steel and Concrete Bridge Gangs
1. One bridge hoist mounted on truck as for timber bridge gang and/or one
locomotive crane.
2. One air compressor with all types of air tools for both concrete and steel
work.
3. One set of portable platforms and scaffolding.
i
Economics of Railway Labor 409
These gangs purchase ready-mixed concrete when available. Some ready-mixed con-
crete has been delivered to practically inaccessible locations and over distances of 30
miles or more.
Production has been doubled by the use of the above equipment and tools.
Bridge Greasing Gangs
1. One production spraying machine, with retractable flanged rail wheels, speed
in excess of 40 mph minimum highway speed, self propelled, capacity of six
5S-gal drums, thermostat controlled heating system to warm the material to
be sprayed and with power to operate eight regular paint guns or three grease
material guns.
2. One set spider staging and scaffolding.
With this equipment, about six times as much structural steel has been greased
as was being done with brush painting. This is due to the increased speed of the
greasing equipment plus the fact that greasing is a one coat operation requiring a
minimum of pre-cleaning. The above equipment used for greasing structural steel
reduces the over-all cost to about 17 percent of that required for painting, and provides
equal protection for a comparable period of time.
Bridge Deck Coating Gangs
1. One production spraying machine, with retractable flanged rail wheels, speed
in excess of 40 mph minimum highway speed, self propelled, capacity of six
SS-gal drums, remote control of machine on one of the three pole guns,
thermostat controlled heating system to warm the material to be sprayed,
power to operate eight regular paint guns or three asphaltic material guns.
2. One gravel distributing attachment, capacity of 41/2 cu yd, adjustable up to
12 ft in width.
This equipment makes possible an increase in production up to 2^ times that of
previous machines.
For example: the tops and ends of ties, tops of stringers and caps on a 315-ft
open-deck trestle were coated with an asphaltic, asbestos compound and roof gravel
in 70 min. A 186-ft open-deck trestle was coated in the same manner in about 45 min.
The larger carriers have gangs equipped as above that specialize in deck coating
only, whereas shorter roads combine this type of work with other spraying operations,
using the following equipment:
1. One hydraulic aerial boom mounted on heavy-duty truck as for timber gangs,
with heating and spraying equipment and gravel distributing attachment.
2. One air compressor with all types of air tools for both steel and concrete
work.
3. One set spider staging and portable platforms.
Spraying structural steel and coating decks are generally done during the warmer
months and bridge repairs made during the cold months. Therefore, all of the equip-
ment, with the exception of the sprays and pumps, are used throughout the year.
The average increase in production derived from this equipment, for all types of
work, is about three-fold.
410 Economics of Railway Labor
Building Paint Gangs
1. One heavy-duty truck with outriggers on which is mounted two 55-gal airless
spray outfits and one 55-gal spray outfit for roof coating and other metal
preservatives that must be heated.
2. Hydraulic aerial boom, mounted on the truck, with a work basket for carry-
ing two men up, out, over and down to a distance of 48 ft from the base
of the boom, operated by men in the basket by means of three levers. The
mast will pivot the boom 360 deg horizontally. The inner boom can be
swung through an 85-deg vertical plane, and the outer section of the boom
positioned anywhere within a 265-deg vertical plane. With the above equip-
ment, eight times as many yards of wall area can be painted as can be
done with scaffolds.
Carpenter Gangs
1. One carpenter trailer, enclosed on all sides and arranged so that the sides can
be raised to form a roof over the trailer floor which serves as a work bench.
2. One power plant for furnishing power for various power tools.
3. Power saws, drills, joiners, planers and other power, hand-held carpenter
tools.
This equipment is producing IYt. times the amount of work done previous to the
use of such equipment.
All of the gangs mentioned are housed in highway trailers. The gangs that are not
provided with one of the specialized trucks are assigned a conventional heavy-duty
truck to handle their trailers. This enables the gang to be camped at the site of the
work in most cases. Therefore, they only have to walk out of their trailers to be
on the job.
All gangs are equipped with radios for instant communication with their super-
visors, approaching trains and with other forces if necessary.
CONCLUSIONS
Many combinations of the equipment and tools described above can be made.
The combination and make-up of the gangs depend upon the size of the carrier,
their contractural requirements and also their particular maintenance requirements.
One of the most important results of mechanization is the realization of the full
abilities of men throughout the entire working day, as the addition of machines has
practically eliminated all arduous labors.
The over-all reduction in bridge and building expenses due to the acquisition and
use of the above described tools and equipment approaches 70 percent.
Economics of Railway Labor 411
Report on Assignment 6
Labor Economics to Be Derived from the Use of Radio
by Maintenance of Way Gangs
H. M. Williamson (chairman, subcommittee), R. M. Bailey, W. H. Brameld, A. B.
Chaney, B. S. Converse, C. G. Davis, L. R. Deavers, W. M. S. Dunn, H. J. Fast,
R. T. Fortin, R. L. Fox, R. A. Gravelle, G«ne L. Harris, H. W. Kellogg, R. L. Mays,
J. R. Miller, C. T. Popma, H. W. Seeley, E. J. Sierleja, R. G. Simmons, John Stang,
A. H. Stimson, W. H. Vance, C. R. Wright.
Information developed at this time discloses that there was nothing new in this
field since the last AREA report on the subject (Proceedings, Vol. 59, 19S8, pages 590
to 592, incl.).
It is the recommendation of your committee, therefore, that this subject be discon-
tinued for a period of several years, at which time it should be renewed.
Report on Assignment 7
The Specific and Ultimate Improvements in Various Types
of Track Maintenance Equipment that Would Provide
the Greatest Economies in Maintenance Practices,
and How These Potential Economies Would
Compare with Present Costs
Collaborating with Committee 27
P. A. Cosgrove (chairman, subcommittee), L. A. Loggins, Lem Adams, J. E. Eisemann,
V. A. Barnhart, Jr., J. F. Beaver, S. A. Cooper, L. E. Donovan, R. L. Fox, V. C.
Hanna, E. B. Harris, T. B. Hutcheson, N. M. Kellv, H. C. Minteer, G. M. O'Rourke,
R. R. Pregnall, Jr., J. S. Snyder, J. T. Sullivan, H. J. Weccheider, H. E. Wilson,
C. R. Wright.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
Thirteen railroads replied to a questionnaire sent to 40 roads requesting recom-
mendations covering improvements in track maintenance equipment which would provide
economies in maintenance practices.
Listed below are the improvements recommended:
Multiple Power Tampers
a. Develop an off-track multiple power tamper. Estimate 10 percent reduction in
expenses.
b. Develop on-track tamper with rubber tires and adjustable guide wheels which
can be easily removed from the track and driven to another location. Estimate 20 percent
savings.
c. Construct tami)ers so they may be swung onto and off the track by cranes.
Unable to estimate savings.
d. Develop set-off equipment designed to be an integral part of the machine. Save
at least 10 percent.
412 Economics of Railway Labor ^^
Spot Tampers
a. Develop small lightweight spot tamper designed to accomplish tamping on both
rails. Save 24 man-hours per day.
b. Work toward simplicity so the machinery is not so complicated. Increase
productive time.
Power Jacks
a. Consolidate jack, tamping and lining attachments into a single unit. Unable to
estimate savings.
b. Increase speed and power of present jacks to permit them to stay ahead of
multiple power tampers. Save an estimated 8 man-hours per day.
Spike Setting Machines
a. Develop machine so a keg of spikes can be dumped into a hopper and spikes
can be set automatically. Estimate 50 percent reduction in present expense.
b. Attach automatic spike setters to present spike drivers. Save 24 man-hours per
day.
Rail Anchor Applicators
a. Equip with hopper and automatic feed to hang anchors. Save .$20 per day.
Ballast Cleaners
a. Develop off-track unit to provide mobility as well as more work time without
train interference. No estimate made of savings.
b. Develop machine to clean under and between ties. Cost reduced 25 percent.
Detector Cars
a. Either magnetic or induction type should be wired so the detection of a defect
would register a signal along with the indication shown on tape. Unable to estimate
savings.
Bolt Machine
a. Machine to handle four to six bolts in joint at one time. Reduce present cost
70 percent.
Brush Cutter
a. On-track cutter with hydraulic cutting arms to be used in rough terrain. Estimate
30 percent savings on present cost.
Tie Remover
a. Provide a mechanized rail clamp to be applied by operator, replacing present
chains and hooks. Estimate 50 percent savings on present cost.
b. Attach to tie bed scarifier. Save 16 man-hours per day.
Surfacing Device
a. Use electric eye. Save 16 man-hours per day.
Curve Lining Instrument
a. Provide electric device for measuring, recording and computing revised ordinates
on curves. Estimated saving of 40 man-hours per day.
E CO nomics of Railway Labor 413
Tie Plug Applicator
a. Automatic hopper-type feeder and driver. Save 65 percent of present cost.
Combination Tie Nipper, Spike Setter and Driver
a. For use with under-track plow or sledge as well as with steel gang. Save
approximately 80 man-hours per day.
CONCLUSION
The committee realizes that there are machines available equipped to perform some
of the tasks mentioned in this report; however, the suggestions were not deleted in the
interest of possible further refinement. The estimated economies to be derived from the
recommended improvements are individual suggestions of the reporting railroads. All
are in agreement that increased production with reduced cost per unit of work accom-
plished would be obtained by the continued development of ideas such as those presented
in this report.
Report on Assignment 8
Labor Economies to be Derived from the Use of Various
Machines Available for Calculating and
for Lining Curves
M. B. Allen (chairman, subcommittee), L. C. Gilbert, Lem Adams, A. B. Chaney, M. H.
Dick, H. J. Fast, R. T. Fortin, Gene L. Harris, W. W. Hay, W. H. Hoar, R. L.
Mays, J. R. Miller, C. T. Popma, R. R. Pregnall, D. E. Rudisill, E. J. Sierleja,
J. S. Snyder, F. R. Spofford, H. J. Weccheider, H. M. Williamson, C. R. Wright.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
A questionnaire was sent to the chief engineers of 72 railroads in the United States
and Canada, and the following is a summary of information furnished by the 45 roads
which replied.
As was anticipated, very few railroads have made any comprehensive time studies
in connection with lining curves, either of the time required to set stakes or determine
throws, or of the actual time involved in shifting the track. In order to determine what
economies might result from the various machines available for calculating and for
lining curves, it was thought necessary to determine how stakes are set or throws deter-
mined and what use is made of power lining machines and the conditions under which
they are used.
Five of the roads report they use a transit for setting stakes on all curves. The
remaining 40 report they use stringlining principally, although some make occasional
use of a transit where shifts are beyond the acceptable limits of stringlining. The replies
indicate that stringlining is used on approximately 90 percent of all main-track curves.
Of the roads using stringlining, 55 percent use mechanical full-throw computers,
25 percent use the so-called Bartlet or half-throw method, IS percent use a full-throw
method sometimes called the Snyder bracket system, and the remaining 5 percent com-
pute their throws using a center-of-gravity system and a new graphic system. Half of
the computations are made in the field and half in the office, generally by rodmen,
instrumentmen or higher classified engineering department employees, and roadmasters
or track supervisors. No time studies have been made of the computing or calculating
414 Economics of Railway Labor
time, but there is a unanimous agreement that mechanical and graphic computing is
twice as fast as mathematical computing, and that stringlining is three or four times
faster than transit staking. Because of the increased speed of mechanical or graphic
computing, the use of machines results in a 50 percent reduction of labor in deter-
mining throws. Also, the throws resulting from the use of machines are usually con-
siderably smaller than throws resulting from mathematical computing, and this results
in considerable labor economies in actually shifting the track.
Stakes are set on approximately two-thirds of the mileage, and throw meters are
used on the remaining third. Stakes have the following advantages: they can be used
from time to time in rechecking a curve, they provide a semi-permanent center line
monument, they can be reused when it is necessary to recompute the curve, and they
can be set at any time ahead of programmed work. There are also the following dis-
advantages: they are expensive to install, they create a possible stumbling hazard, and
they interfere with the use of mechanical on-track equipment, particularly a ballast
regulator.
About half of the railroads use throw meters to some extent and, as mentioned
before, approximately one-third use them 100 percent and set no stakes. It is estimated
that their use will result in savings of labor of 25 percent, and the expense of the
stakes themselves is entirely eliminated.
About one-fourth of the railroads use a mechanical device for measuring ordinates.
Generally, two men are used in measuring ordinates with this device, which results in a
saving of one-third of the labor required compared with the conventional use of three
men, two holding the cord and one measuring the ordinates.
Approximately half of all curve lining is done by power machines of various makes,
and the other half of the lining is done by manpower. One-fourth of the railroads report-
ing use manpower only, one-fifth use machines only and 60 percent use both man-
power and machines in varying degrees. Two general types of power lining machines are
in use — on-track machines and portable machines (portable machines being defined as
relatively small machines which can be removed from their position in the track at any
location at which they are being used and on-track machines being defined as those
which require either a siding or a special set-off for their removal from the track.)
These are generally used in conjunction with other machines in out-of-face surfacing
and timbering operations. This is particularly true of the on-track type machines
which are seldom used singly in touch-up or spot lining. Several railroads report the
efficient use of portable machines for touch-up and spot lining. When on-track machines
are used as single units, 70 percent of the railroads use two maintenance-of-way em-
ployees as flagmen and 30 percent use two operating department employees for pro-
tecting these machines. Flagmen are not generally used with portable lining machines
when being used as single units, as one of the men required for their use usually serves
as a lookout. Three roads do not use flagmen as they protect their lining operations
by radio, train order or track out of service.
The savings which may result from the use of power lining machines may vary
considerably, depending upon how the machines are used. If they are used in conjunction
with other machines, no flagman, other than those used for the entire operation, are
required and the lining may be done using one, two, three or four men in place of
perhaps 10 to IS men required using manpower. If on-track machines are used singly,
the expense of the machine, the foreman, the flagman and operator may closely approxi-
mate the cost of doing the work by manpower. Portable lining machines are more
Economics of Railway Labor 415
adaptable to single use, as no flagmen are generally required and such use results in
approximate savings of 40 percent as compared with lining with manpower.
During the past year an attachment has been developed for an on-track lining
machine which permits the lining of curves without computing throws or shifts. Also
during the past year a new graphic system has been developed for computing half
throws without the use of any numbers or computations. Both the curve lining attach-
ment and the graphic computing machine are now in use on several railroads and if
they prove satisfactory over a period of time, may in the future affect or change present
curve lining practices. Sufficient information is not available at this time to determine
the ultimate labor economies which mav result from the use of these two machines.
CONCLUSIONS
The replies indicate general agreement on the following:
The use of either mechanical or graphic computing machines for calculating curves
results in a SO percent reduction in the labor required to determine throws as compared
with mathematical computing. The use of power lining machines results in a 60 percent
reduction in the labor required to line track as compared with the use of manpower.
416 Economics of Railway Labor
Report on Assignment 9
Relation Between the Nature of Traffic and the Interval Between
Out-of-Face Resurfacing of Tracks of Relatively
Similar Characteristics
R. W. Pember (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, L. E. Donovan, W. M. S. Dunn,
H. J. Fast, L. C. Gilbert, R. J. Hollingsworth, Claude Johnston, H. E. Kirbv,
R. L. Mays, J. S. McBride, R. R. Pregnall, Jr., R. W. Preisendefer, D. E. Rudisill,
R. G. Simmons, F. R. Spofford, John Stang, J. T. Sullivan, W. B. Throckmorton,
H. M. Williamson, H. E. Wilson.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
A questionnaire was submitted to the chief engineers of 49 railroads in the United
States and Canada and replies were received from 34. Of the 34 replying railroads 10
were either resurfacing track by hand or had no information available concerning the
interval between out-of-face resurfacing operations.
Due to the many variables of climate, basic track structure, speeds, types of traffic,
terrains and tonnages on the various railroads spanning this continent, your committee
has presented the information received from the above mentioned questionnaire in
tabular form to enable the reader to make his own comparisons as to similar charac-
teristics in regard to his own or other railroads.
To increase the length of time between out-of-face resurfacing of track, 12 rail-
roads indicated they are staying abreast of new developments in tamping machines and
expanding the use of them on their railroads; six indicated they are installing and
expanding the use of spot tampers; while one reports discontinuing smoothing rather
than increasing the time between out-of-face resurfacing. Nine railroads are using an
improved grade of ballast, six railroads replied they are laying heavier rail, and five
are expanding their welded rail program.
Other practices designed to increase the interval are: using a better grade of ties.
improving drainage, roadbed stabilization, ballast cleaning, and enlarging the ballast
section, the use of ballast drainage cars, improving joint conditions, rail grinding,
welding of engine burns and rail ends, and weed control.
SDIIUARIES OF REPL133 TO QOESTIOHNMRE
Paroont
Ifolded No. Ties Ifax.Halss Poroont Prodomlnato Type Traffic
Ma-nniii^ Spsed or Proton No. of Anchors per (in)diirlng
Pass Prslght ?folght of Rail Jt. Const. par Panel Panel Type Ballast Osed Hssurf ' ing For. Mine Per-
VL BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL 10, BL ML BL ML BL Mdse Coal Ore Oil Prods. Prods. Ish. Agri. Misc.
Intor-val between Out-of-Faoe
Terrain (Percent) Method of Resurfacing Resurfacing (Years)
Moun- Track (Percent) Under 10-20 20-40 40-60
tainous Rolling Prairie Mooh.(;ang Hand Taup. 10 UGT MOT MOT HOT
ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL
Allq.t Sou.
(Yard only)
20
115- 90
BiM
C. of G.
90 59 60 45 136-119 110-112
80 59- 65 40- 132-115 100- 70
30 30
55 60 49 44 115-100 100- 70
70 40 45 30 131- 85 100- 72
70 65 55 40 115 115- 80
0 - 22 - None - 2-3 Steal Mill ram materials, ladles, etc.
Rook Scgs 4-5 3 --... . ..
0 12-14 6-10 24 24 Cr. Stone Gravel 2^ Si ^
0 100
90
10
Depends on traffic
0 0 24
8
21
21 Hook
Gravel
Gravel
»-4
3-4
6
23
20 Stone
Gravel
1*
3
^
16
24
22 Rook
Cinders
Gravel
Rock
^
2i
31
100 100 None Nona 15 15-2
20 20 78 80 100
0 100 100
0 100 100
79 45 50 35 129-112 112- 66 -1
25 25 75 76 0 0 100 76
17 17 72 72 11 11 100 100
65 68 25 29 95 50
basis. No cyclic maintenance.
No records available
4 6 4 -
Generally 15 years in ML territory
nepi?
040
70 60 45 132- 90 90- 65
16 24 24 Gravel Gravel
80 59
40 140-110 132- 67 0 0 16-32 12-24
23 Gravel Gravel
Slag Stona
Stone
2 30 17 10
3 29 61 2
C5?f 90 - eOTiSLriea 115 112- 60
Clinchfield Sone Sone 55 46 132-112 112- 85
24 24 Cr. Stone Cr.Stono 2 2 15 70
0.7 1.6 10.6 1 1.3
13 18 79 76 8 6 85 60 15 40
20 30 30 30 60 40 95 80 6 20
10 20 90 80 100 60
90 60 10 20 0 0 100 100
6-10 12-16 - . - -
3- 6 4-10 2-5 3-6 2-4 3-6 2-4
Depends on traffic and subgrade conditiona.
SUMMARIES OF REPLIES TO QUESTIONHilRB
Railroad KL BL ML BL
CEB - . . .
rear TSmrles Wariel
DTil 45 SO 46 SO
Peroent Intorral between Out-of-Faoe
Welded No. Ties I4ix. Rales Peroent Predominate Type Traffic Terrain (Percent) Method of Resurfacing Resurfacing (Years)
or Froien No. of Anchors per (in)durlng Moun- Track (Peroent) Under 10-20 20-40 40-60
Weight of Rail Jt. Const. per Panel Panel Type Ballast Used Resurf ' Ing For. Mine Per- tainous Rolling Prairie Mech.Oang Hand Tamp. 10 MOT MGT MOT MGT
ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL Mdae Coal Ore Oil Prods. Prods. ish. Agri, Misc. ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL
133-100 Varie
0 12-24 Varies 24 20 SI
90-85 1 0 IS
. . - - 100 100
70 90 0 0 30 10 100 0 0 100
10 20 90 80 0 0 90 20 10 60
Do not use maohlneryind no cycle
As required
7 Indef.
DiiilS
-16 6-16 23 22 Cr.GraTel Mine
Tailings
79 50 80 40 132-100 100-56 0 0 10-16 8
22- 21- Cr.Rook Cinders
23 22 Limestone Gravel ^ 2
100 - 60 50
70 40 50 35
132-116 112 10.07 0 12 12 12.2 12.2 Slag Stone
13 2-100 100-70 0.1 0 16
44.6 1.0 0.7 4.7
0 100 100
0 100 100
0
95 95
90 10 10 90
0 17.5 100 86.2 0 100 100
60 20 50
10
IfeC
Sio.Fao.
(ArlmilsaaaT)79 45 SO S5
150-100 100-90 3 0 12
132
90 0.6 0 12-
16
24 - Stone Gravel
24 22 Stone
STC
85
60
60
50
SYCaStL
70-
.
BO-
45-
65
SS
35
sal
78
-
78
SO
SP
75
55
65
45
127
127-80 1 0 16 Varies 24 24 Stone
132-110 110-90 0 0 24 6-16 24 22 Gravel Gravel ^4 2-2|
Stone, Slag Stone
lSl-}30 1 0 24
24 24 Limestone Limestone 2|-3 2^3
132-100 100-72 7 0 Weld 54 Bolt 23 21 Cr.Rook Prooessed 2 0-2
Bolt 28 20 Gravel
- - . - 0 0 100 100
44 20 56 80 90 50 10 50
0 100 100 0 100 100 0 0
95 96 0 0 100 100 0 0
76 75 25 26 80 0 20 100
50 90 35
16 6 100 100
40 - 100 100
On section force basis, no cyclic maint.
2-6 4-10 2-6 4-10 2-6 4-10 2-6 4-10
SOTMARIBS OF REPLIES TO ^OESTIONHMBB
Percent
TTelded No, Ties MBLX.Ralae Peroent Pradomlnata Type Traffic
ikjclm-im Speed or Froten No.of Anohon per (In)durlng
Pa«a Freight Weight of Sail Jt. Const. per Panel Panel Type Ballast Used Reiurf ' Ing . For. Mine Per-
10, BL UL EL UL
BL ML DL UL
80 70 SO 50 155-lSO 131-70 -1
Pil£ 70 SO 60 SO 152
HP4P 80 56 - - 140-151
ML
BL
ML
EL
ML
BL
ML BL
8-10
-
22-
24
20-
22
Stons
Slag
Gravel
Stone, Slag
Gravel
Cinder
3 5-4
16
10
24
20
Slag
SUg
4 S
Weld
AREA.
16
-
24
-
Stone
-
1-li-
Mdse Coal Ore Oil Prods . Proda . ish. Agri. Mis
Terrain (Percent) Method of Hesurfaoing
Mount- Track (Percent)
alnous Rolling Prairie Mech.Gang Hand Tamj.
ML BL ML BL ML BL ML BL ML EL
26 26 75 76 0 0 86 40 IS 60
0.5 1 9E 96
0 - 100 -
Interval between Out-of-Face
Resurfacing (Years)
Under
10 MGT MGT
l!L BL ML BL
20-40 40-60
KGT MGT
ML BL ML BL
26 100 100
14 14 12 14
46 55 SO 100
- 20 - 115-100
76 40 60 26 132-112 110-76 10 0 12-16
90 70 55 60 133-112 131-66 0.19 0
10 24 22 Gravel Gravel
- 24 22 Trap Rook -
Mine
Tailings
22 20 Cr.Eook Gravel
^3
9 10 2 IS 12
0 0 26 10 76 90 100 16
0 0 0 0 100 0 100 -
10 0 65 60 26 60 100 60
56 36 31 16 34 49 33 0
10 20
Noflgures
Tarlos conalderably
No information available
(x) Indicatae no percentage reported*
(-) Indicates infcraiation not ftimiBhed.
Report of Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way
Work Equipment
A. W. MuNT, Chairman,
F. L. Horn,
Vice Chairman,
R. S. R.ADSPINXKR,
Secret arv,
R. W. Bailey
R. M. Bai.dock
T. S. Bean
0. C. Benson
R.
E.
Berggren
I.
M.
Boone
1.
H.
Brown
R.
E.
Russ
L.
B.
Cann, Jr.
G.
R.
Collier
L.
E.
Conner
P.
H.
Cote
J.
W.
CUMMINGS
A.
C.
Danks, Jr.
T.
0.
Elliott
F.
L.
Etchison
E.
H.
Fisher
J.
S.
Fluke
S.
E.
H.\iNES, Jr.
w
. T
. Hammond
Haynie Hornbuckle
R.
A.
HOSTETTER
N.
W
. Hutchison
R.
K.
Johnson
M
. E
. Kerns
S.
H.
Knight
w
. F
. Kohl
w
. E
. Kropp
Jack
Largent
C.
F.
Lewis
H.
F.
LONGHELT
Francis Martin
Paul Martin
Harry' Mayer
F. H. McKenney
E. L. Mire
C. F. Montague
H. C. Nordstrom
V. W. Oswalt, Sr.
P. G. Petri
H. C. POTTSMITII
T. J. Reagan
J. E. Reynolds
J. W. Risk
F. E. Short
N. E. Smith
R. J. Smith
F. N. Snyder
M. M. Stansbury
R. S. Stephens
G. M. Strachan
M. C. Taylor
T. H. Taylor
H. A. Thyng
S. E. Tracy
L. B. Waterman
F. E. YOCKEY
G. L. ZiPPERIAN
Committee
To the American Raihoay Engineering Association :
Your committee reports on the following subject.s:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
1 (a). Revision of Handbook of In.structions for Care and Operation of
Maintenance of Way Equipment.
Progress report including recommended revisions page 418
3. New developments in work equipment.
Final report, presented as information page 42i
4. Improvements to be made to existing work equipment.
Progress report, presented as information page 427
5. Instructions for preventive maintenance of trucks.
Final report, presented as information page 430
6. Equipment for loading, transporting, unloading and installing continuous
welded rail, collaborating with the Special Committee on Continuous
Welded Rail.
Final report, presented as information page 442
7. Number of units of work equipment to be repaired by field repairmen.
Final report, presented as information page 446
8. Fuel and lubrication trucks for use with mechanized gangs.
Final report, presented as information page 448
417
418 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
9. Instructions for the care and safe operation of welding equipment.
No report.
10. Four-cycle vs two-cycle gasoline engines used on small equipment.
Final report, presented as information page 455
11. System vs division shops for maintaining work equipment.
No report.
12. Shop machinery and equipment needed for work equipment shops.
Final report, presented as information page 461
The Committee on Maintenance of Way Work Equipment,
A. W. MuNT, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 547, December 1958.
Report on Assignment 1 (a)
Revision of Handbook of Instructions For Care and Operation
of Maintenance of Way Equipment
S. E. Tracy (chairman, subcommittee), R. E. Berggren, L. E. Conner, J. W. Cummings,
Haynie Hornbuckle, C. F. Lewis, J. W. Risk, F. E. Short.
Investigation discloses that since the revision and reprinting of the handbook in
1957 three additional types of units of work equipment have been developed and now
have sufficient general distribution and use to justify the writing of instructions covering
their care and operation.
Your committee therefore submits the following report with the recommendation
that this material be included in the next revision of the handbook.
TIE BED SCARIFIER
DESCRIPTION: A self-propelled, four-wheel, on-track unit con-
sisting of a power plant and a hydraulic system to provide propul-
sion, operation, and control of a turntable, and a three-section hori-
zontal revolving drum equipped with renewable points.
APPROXIMATE WEIGHT: 5200 lb
MFG. RECOMMENDED SPEED:
Engine governor setting — No load 1900 rpm
TRENCH LENGTH:
Main drums 9 ft 1 in
Extensions 9 in and 15 in
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:
Reservoir Capacity 27 gal
Pressure, Maximum 2000 psi
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 419
USE: To facilitate the installation of ties by scarifying the tie bed
and removing a portion of the ballast to provide a tie bed of
uniform depth at the proper position in the track.
CARE AND OPERATION:
General
3.26.35 Before starting the engine
a Open both gate valves, one on each side of hydraulic oil
reservoir,
b Disengage clutch.
c Set hand brake.
3.26.36 Before traveling with machine
a Check vacuum pressure. (Brakes require 10 to 18 inches
vacuum for proper operation.)
b See that digging drums are locked in the raised position.
c See that turntable ram is fully retracted and control valves
are in proper position.
d Place two-speed gear in proper position.
e Place 4-way control valves in proper position.
3.26.37 While traveling
a Use low gear while working and when traveling short dis-
tances.
b Use high gear for traveling or as conditions require.
c Do not attempt to shift gears while machine is in motion.
3.26.38 Towing
a On machines equipped with two-speed gear, place in neutral
position.
b Machines not so equipped shall not be moved in e.xcess of
10 mph.
3.26.39 Before putting the digging mechanism in operation
a Place 4-way valve handle in left position.
b See that guards are in satisfactory condition and properly
secured.
c See that the renewable digging teeth are properly mounted
and secured in the revolving drum.
d See that there are no obstructions which will interfere with
the free movement of the revolving drums.
e See that drive chains are in line with sprockets and in proper
adjustment.
3.26.40 To scarify
a Lower revolving drum slowly into ballast until digging frame
rests on stop blocks.
b Set and lock adjusting screws as necessary to obtain desired
depth.
c Adjust valve controlling speed of descent to suit ballast
conditions.
3.26.41 While scarifying
a Reverse control lever must not be moved while drums are
revolving.
420 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Hydraulic System (See Rules 4.10.1-4.10.16, inclusive)
3.26.42 Do not use hydraulic brake fluid in this hydraulic system.
3.26.43 Replace return line filter elements when filter pressure of
15 psi is indicated by gage mounted on top of filter case.
3.26.44 After using the emergency hand-operated pump see that
valves are placed in proper position before attempting to use the
power system.
3.26.45 Move control levers slowly to prevent sudden reaction
which might result in damage to the machine.
COMBINATION TAMPER-JACK, TYPE 1
DESCRIPTION: A self-propelled, four-wheel, on-track unit con-
sisting of power plant, three hydraulic systems, and an electric gen-
erator. The hydraulic system provides the power for the propelling,
track raising,, clamping and tie nipping mechanisms, and the raising
and lowering of the tamping heads. Each tamping head has two
electric motors (4 tools) which operate outside the rail. A leveling
device using standard cross level and spot board are incorporated
in the design.
APPROXIMATE WEIGHT: 8000 lb
MFG. RECOMMENDED SPEEDS:
Engine
Generator 2260 rpm
Vibratory Motors 4500 rpm
Travel, Maximum 25 mph
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS, PRESSURES:
Jack Rams, Max 3500 psi
Travel, Max 700 psi
Workhead, Rail Clamps,
Tie Tongs, and Nipper 700 psi. Max
GENERATOR VOLTAGE:
Tampers Operating In Air 150-160 v
No Load 160-170 v
ATTACHMENTS:
Various widths of tamping bars.
USE: To provide a mechanical means of raising the track in con-
nection with spot or out-of-face surfacing operations and to
tamp the tie at the point of lift.
CARE AND OPERATION:
General
3.17.20 The operator and others concerned in the operation ot
this machine shall be governed by the applicable instructions under
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 421
jacks, power track, hydraulic; and tie tamper, multitool, electric
Types 1 and 2 ; and the rules which follow.
3.17.21 Before starting engine, see that over-center clutch is in
neutral position.
Before Traveling
3.17.22 See that the tamping heads, rail clamps, and jack rams
are locked in the raised po.sition.
While In Operation
3.17.23 Operators and other concerned in the operation of this
machine shall keep in the clear of the tamping heads and clamping
mechanisms while machine is being operated.
3.17.24 Observe action of tamping blades and reverse direction
of motor rotation if blades do not move toward the rail when
penetrating the ballast section.
3.17.25 Generator and tamping motors must be operated at recom-
mended rpm to prevent damage.
Towing
3.17.26 Place the transmission in neutral position if necessary to
tow this unit.
Hydraulic Systems
3.17.27 Do not use hydraulic brake fluid.
3.17.28 A non-detergent light weight oil, SAE lOW or equal, is
recommended for use in this hydraulic system.
ADJUSTMENTS:
3.17.29 Rail clamps are in proper adjustment when front wheels
of the machine are raised 14 i" to 5/2 in above ball of rail when
making a lift.
3.17.30 The sighting blocks are in proper adjustment for use
with standard spot board when the top edge of the block is 12 in
above the rail ball.
3.17.31 Unless otherwise instructed, adjust motor belts as neces-
sary to provide 17 in space between tip of opposing tamping blades.
3.17.32 Unless otherwise instructed, adjust positioning belts to
provide 0 in space between ball of rail and nearest edge of tamping
blade.
3.17.33 Adjust motor limiting belt as required to prevent contact
between tamping blade and base of rail when tamping head is at
lowest point of travel.
3.17.34 Motor suspension belts are in proper adjustment when
tension permits motor sag of about ^ in between belt supports.
3.17.35 All bolts must be kept tight, paying particular attention
to tamping blade bolts.
3.17.36 Adjust tamper workhead stop (bumper) as necessary to
prevent damage to workhead ram.
422 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
COMBINATION TAMPER-JACK, TYPE 2
DESCRIPTION: A self-propelled, four-wheel, on-track unit con-
sisting of a power plant, a hydraulic system which provides the
power for raising the track, and an off-center revolving drum type
of vibrating mechanism which activates the tamping bars. The unit
is equipped with an adjustable leveling device; and is also used in
conjunction with a track surfacing wire. The former unit is pro-
pelled by a friction drive and the latter units are equipped with a
transmission drive.
APPROXIMATE WEIGHT: 5900 lb
OPERATING SPEED:
Engine, Max 2800 rpm
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:
Pressure, Max 3000 psi
ATTACHMENTS:
Various sizes of tamping bars.
USE: To provide a mechanical means of raising track and tamping
jack ties in track surfacing operations.
CARE AND OPERATION:
General
3.17.40 The operator and others concerned in the performance of
this machine shall be governed by the applicable instructions cover-
ing jacks, power track, hydraulic, in addition to the rules which
follow:
While In Operation
3.17.41 The lever controlling the tamping head must be held
down during the period of tamping to provide maximum effect.
3.17.42 The operator shall manipulate the control levers on the
hydraulic jack as necessary to insure that the sighting rail will be
the first to reach the desired height; then level the opposite rail as
indicated by the leveling device.
Before Traveling
3.17.43 The operator shall perform the following before traveling,
except while engaged in tamping.
a Release the vibrator drum drive clutch.
b Lock the rail clamps in the raised position.
c Lock the tamping head in the raised position,
d Lock the leveling device in the raised position,
e Remove the sighting gages, if necessary.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 423
ADJUSTMENTS:
Rail Clamps
3.17.44 The rail clamps are in proper adjustment when there is a
space of ys in between rail and contact points.
Rail Clamp Hooks
3.17.45 Rail clamp hooks are in proper adjustment when they
clear inside edge of bail of rail % in.
Vibrating Drum
3.17.46 Proper distance between the face of the shaft and the
face of the weight bolt nut is J^ in to il in.
3.17.47 Increasing the space results in greater vibration. Adjust
with special wrench so as to provide only enough vibration to
produce satisfactory results.
Jack Spud Shoe
3.17.48 Set the jack spud shoe to suit the average tie spacing
by moving the jack frame in the desired direction as necessary to
permit tamping bars to enter the crib without interference.
Bevel Friction
3.17.49 Adjust friction drive as required to maintain iV in clear-
ance between each side of the cone and the face of reverse bevel
friction.
Report on Assignment 3
New Developments in Work Equipment
F. H. McKenney (chairman, subcommittee), A. C. Danks, Jr., W. E. Kropp, Francis
Martin, F. N. Snyder, M. M. Stansbury, R. S. Stephens, T. H. Taylor.
This is a final report, presented as information. Previous reports on this subject
are to be found in the Proceedings, Vols. 45, SO, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 and 59. The
current report covers machines marketed since the last report. As is customary, it
includes the major improvements and additions that have been made to existing
machines since last year's report.
Track Surface Wire Indicator System
In the development of combination machines for jacking and tamping track a piece
of new equipment has been devised for establishing the grade line and indicating the
amount of lift at the jacking machine. The equipment consists of two carriages, held
rigidly at fixed distances ahead and behind the tamping jack by metal tubing supported
on two-wheel buggies, carrying two tightly drawn fine wires 125 ft long over the top
of the jack. These correspond to the line of sight of the raising foreman. The tamping
jack raises the track to the wire in the same manner it would raise to the line of sight
of a foreman. The sections of the surfacing wire attachment are light in weight, and
one man can handle any one of them, except the end carriages which two men can
handle easily.
424
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
This has recently been modified to permit shortening the wire to 50 ft-30 ft ahead
of the jack and 20 ft behind — where it is desired to spot track without making a raise.
Observation of this operation shows that a very fine rail surface results. A multi-tool
tamper follows the jack tamper, completing the spotting job.
Wire Line Indicator for Curves and Tangent
A modification of the above wire surfacing attachment is a wire lining attachment
to accompany a power track liner. For this purpose a similar carriage and buggy
arrangenient, attached ahead and behind the track lining machine, carries a single
tightly stretched wire 120 ft long just above rail level and at an arbitrary distance of
about 8 in outside the rail so as to be in the clear of the equipment. A measuring device
attached to a pointer shows the ordinate of curve at the liner. In operation the liner
with the wire attachment is moved around a curve and ordinates recorded at each joint.
These may be plotted on coordinate paper and a graphic solution made to equalize the
in and out throws and produce a smooth curve. The liner is then rerun around the
curve and lines track at joints, quarters, and centers, to the new selected ordinates.
This device is equally useful in removing short kinks from tangent track. It will not
remove long swings but will remove the short irregularities within the 120-ft length of
line wire.
Radio-Controlled Track Surfacing System
Another manufacturer is coming out with an optical device to be used with any
power jack, jack tamper, or with hand jacks for establishing grade for raising track for
surfacing. This consists of a radio-controlled spot board which can be moved along
the track either backward or forward by remote control. It is used in the same manner
Radio-controlled spot board.
Maintenance of Wa\- Work Equipment
425
as the familiar spot board except that instead of being moved forward and set by hand,
it is motor-operated by the man with the sighting telescope. The dev-ice consists of three
parts: the battery-operated, motor-driven spot board on a carriage; a middle self-
leveHng sighting bar at the point the jack is placed; and a si.x-power surfacing telescope,
mounted on a carriage with the radio control apparatus for push-button operation of
the spot board. It is said the board can be controlled for distances of several hundred
feet.
Rail Anchor Applicator Machines
Several manufacturers are now developing machines for applying rail anchors. All
but one of the machines are designed to apply singly only one kind or type of anchor.
One machine has been developed which applies any one of several types of anchors
Rail anchor applicator.
and applies them two at a time, box anchoring the tie while holding the anchors tight
against the tie face. All of these machines are still going through the development stage
with frequent changes. One machine is operated by compressed air and others by
hydraulic power. One has a mechanical hammer which is quite effective in applying
drive-on anchors.
Bridge Spray Machine
-•V new adaptation of a rubber-tired, two-wheel-mounted 125-cu-ft air compressor
426
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
is a machine for spraying heavy protective coatings on bridges, track ties, etc. The basic
unit is the rubber-tired compressor which has been fitted with a frame and retractable
flanged wheels for operating on the track. The frame provides space for carrying six
SS-gal drums of coating material. It can operate up to eight standard paint guns. It is
provided with a thermostatic-controlled heating system for maintaining proper temf>era-
ture of the spray material. The machine is self propelled on the rail and with the flanged
wheels retracted, may be towed on the highway on the rubber-tired wheels.
Multi-Tool Tampers
Another European multi-tool tamper has been introduced in this country. It differs
from other machines in that it is hydraulically driven and controlled. It incorporates
push-button operation and is said to have pressure adjustments for the 16 tools, some
of which are automatic in action.
A Canadian built multi-unit machine has just been introduced which is equipped
as a multi-tool tamper of the electric vibrator type, a power jack and track lining
Multi-unit tamper with crawler set off and hydraulic tail rack.
device said to be able to line 2000 ft per hr, a spike puller and spike driver (with
proper conversion unit), a tie-pulling and replacing unit, and a power drill and wrench
attachment. The tamping unit carries a hydraulically operated tail rack on which three
of the auxiliary units may be loaded and carried.
Rubber-Tired Cranes
Several of the manufacturers of rubber-tired cranes are now adding flanged wheels
to permit operation on the rails as well as off track. This is a trend in new develop-
ments to make the equipment more flexible and simplify its movement when used
around or upon tracks.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 427
Set-Off Equipment
While not in itself a piece of work equipment, several manufacturers are now
producing lightweight, adjustable, metal set-offs for machines up to 8 tons in weight.
These set-offs have adjustable legs to lit the ground and can be carried along and
quickly erected where needed. Several of these have recently been marketed. It is
claimed to save considerable machine travel time.
Report on Assignment 4
Improvements to Be Made to Existing Work Equipment
G. L. Zipperian (chairman, subcommittee), R. M. Baldock, P. H. Cote, Haynie Horn-
buckle, C. F. Montague, H. C. Nordstrom, G. M. Strachan, L. B. Waterman, F. E.
Yockey.
A progress report, submitted as information, this is a continuation of the progress
reports submitted by this committee and found in Vol. 53, 1Q52, page 396; Vol. 54,
1953, page 666; Vol. 55, 1954, page 502; Vol. 56, 1955, page 525; Vol. 57, 1956, page
488, and Vol. 58, 1957, page 585. It covers changes in work equipment that this com-
mittee has found to be practical and desirable.
Diesel Pile Hammer
This is a self-contained, single-acting pile hammer using the same principle as a
diesel engine.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Install a lock-out dev-ice making it impossible to latch the starting mechanism
when the hammer is actually driving a pile.
2. Improve the material in the studs or redesign method of bolting the fuel pump
mounting bracket and the starting device cover to avoid stud breakage.
Tie Handler
This is a three-wheel, track-mounted self-propelled machine lor applying ties in
track.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. It should have a boom that can be swung 180 deg instead of a stationary boom.
2. The machine should be mounted on four 14-in wheels and two axles of push-car
design and propelled by two wheels instead of one. The present machine cannot be
towed or self-propelled any distance and has difficulty in moving through frogs, switches
and highway crossings.
Tie Remover
Thi; is a three-wheel, track-mounted machine with h.\draulic ram for removing ties
from the track.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Provide a mechanical rail clamp to be applied bv the operator instead of the
chains and hooks to permit one-man operation.
428 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Track Broom
This is a four-wheel, track-mounted, self-propelled machine for sweeping the excess
ballast from the tops of the ties between and outside the rails and distributing it on
the shoulder.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. All sprockets should be of the draw-in bushing type with key ways instead of
being loose on the shafts and held with keys and set screws.
2. The hydraulic system should be redesigned in an effort to eliminate transmission
failures.
3. Replace one-shot lubricating system with pressure gun fittings for grease. The
one-shot oil lines are too small and fragile. The operators tend to ignore the lubrication
entirely in case of broken or plugged oil lines.
4. Wheels and hubs should be designed to carry the load on the hubs instead of
the bolts.
5. The machine has insufficient side clearance to clear all switches and has close
clearance between the conveyor belt frame and crossings.
Ballast Regulator
This is a self-propelled, track-mounted, four-wheel-drive machine for equalizing
ballast and shaping shoulders.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Sprockets are loose on the axles and shafts, and should be provided with a
means of being tightened, such as a draw-in tapered bushing.
2. Recommend using split-plate sprockets on axles to eliminate removal of axle
when sprockets become worn in the field.
3. Replace one-shot lubricating system with fittings for a grease gun. Present system
oil lines are too small and fragile. In case of broken oil lines and failure, operators tend
to ignore lubrication entirely.
4. Wheels and hubs should be designed to carry the load on the hubs instead of
the bolts.
5. On the slider box for adjusting side wings up and down by means of long
adjusting bolts, threads are being stripped on the bolt and in the hole. These com-
ponents should be redesigned to provide better wear.
6. The horizontal slider boxes are equipped with roller bearings which are exposed
to dust and dirt, and are small and easily broken. Steel rollers with bronze bushings
are recommended.
Combination Tamper-Jack
This is a four-wheel, track-mounted, self-propelled machine used to raise track
hydraulically and to tamp sufficient ties to eliminate the use of leveling jacks in
surfacing operations.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. The machine vibrates excessively, causing the bubble in the cross-level to fluctuate
making accurate reading difficult.
2. The power tamping jack should have sufficient speed and power to pick up
and tamp the desired number of ties ahead of the multiple-tool tampers. These machines
Maintenance o f Way Work Equipment 429
should be speeded up and should provide greater tamping action to accurately hold the
surfaced track without settling until tamping can be completed.
Track Surfacing Machine
This is a mechanical device with track-wheel-mounted bogies and two steel refer-
ence wires. It is propelkd by and works in conjunction with a combination tamper-jack.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Further improvements should be made to incorporate a means of correcting the
track surface to a given elevation, making it possible to take out sags and other surface
defects in one operation. At present the device makes corrections proportionate to a
one-fifth ratio of the existing track surface.
Tie Tamper — Multi-Tool, Mechanical, Vibratory, Impact
This is a four-wheel, track-mounted, self-propelled machine, mechanical vibratory
type, with tamping bars that are closed by a clutch-operated lead screw.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Equipped with four-wheel instead of two-wheel brakes.
2. Clutch shifter fork for tamping bar closure screws should be reinforced to prevent
breakage.
3. Tamping chassis crosshead guides should be redesigned to prevent shearing of
bolts.
Tie Tamper — Multi-Tool, Mechanical, Vibratory Impact
This is a four-wheel, track-mounted machine, self-propelled, mechanical vibratory
type, with a belt-driven, revolving, adjustable, off-bahnce weight which transfers vibra-
tion to the two splitheads with eight tamping bars on each head.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Extend crankshaft of gasoline engine and apply outboard bearing to prevent
breakage.
2. Considerable difficulty is experienced with this machine due to the length of
the V belts driving the revolving weights. The belts flip over in the grooves and wear
is excessive, causing frequent renewal of complete belt sets. Should be redesigned to
shorten centers between pulleys.
Track Liner
This is a four-wheel, track-mounted, manually propelled machine with a hydraulic
ram, the cylinder for which moves through an arc to reverse the lining action as
needed.
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Provide a method of locking the cylinder in an upright position to avoid .shifting
of the cylinder when setting off.
Multiple Spike Driver
This is a four-wheel, track-mounted, self-propelled machine with air-operated spike-
driving guns, two for each tie plate, capable of driving .spikes .simultaneou.sly or
.separately.
4.<0 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Suggested improvements to this machine:
1. Lifting bail assemblies should be provided with bronze bushings and suitable
lubricating fittings to provide a means of readily making repairs when parts become
worn.
2. Slop plate for gun depth adjustment screw is not strong enough to resist the
shock when the stop block strikes the plate, causing it to break or bend. Should be
reinforced.
3. This machine should be equipped with a self-setting spike mechanism to eliminate
the need of hand setting.
4. Provide an automatic valve to prevent the operator from placing it in motion
while the guns are in operation driving spikes.
5. Provide a mechanical brake for parking and emergency.
Report on Assignment 5
Instructions for Preventive Maintenance of Trucks
E. H. Fisher (chairman, subcommittee), T. S. Bean, I.M. Boone, R. E. Buss, W. T.
Hammond, S. H. Knight, W. F. Kohl, J. E. Reynolds, G. M. Strachan.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
Many preventive maintenance programs, control systems, and driver instruction
methods are currently in use throughout the North American continent. They are em-
ployed in small, as well as large truck fleets, where efforts are being made to increase
efficiency and improve the economy of operations. Needless to say, such systems vary
from one location to another. This may be caused by one or many factors, such as
conditions of operation, company policy, labor restrictions and a host of others.
First and foremost, proper operation of a vehicle is essential to maintaining high
vehicle availability at minimum cost. Therefore, one of the first steps should be the
careful selection and training of truck drivers. Failure at this point can easily result
in unnecessary maintenance expense, even if repair facilities are ideal.
After the proper selection of an operator, the man should be provided with a
vehicle that is clean and in sound operating condition. He should then be induced to
take pride in his unit. A suggested routine for developing driver assistance in the
preventive maintenance program is outhned hereunder;
Driver Instructions Before and After Starting the Engine
a. See that horn and lighting system, including stop light, are working properly.
b. Make certain that license plates are affixed to the truck and are clean.
c. Check steering as soon as the vehicle is moving by turning the steering wheel
in both directions.
d. Check brakes by making an application as soon as the vehicle is in motion.
e. See that engine is performing properly.
f. Check to see if all tires look properly inflated. Check the pressure at least once
a week.
g. Check to see that windshield wipers are working properly,
h. Cab glass should be clean to insure safe driving visibility.
i. Clean and adjust rear-view mirrors to the proper position,
j. Allow engine to warm up before applying load.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 431
Before Starting Engine
a. Check the water level in the radiator.
b. Check fuel supply and see that tank is properly capped.
c. Check the engine oil level.
d. Place gear shifting lever in neutral.
e. De-clutch while starting the engine.
f. Check water level in battery when fueling vehicle.
While Vehicle Is in Operation
Check the dashboard instruments frequtMitl\ to see:
a. That oil pressure is normal.
b. That ammeter charging rate is normal.
c. That the speedometer is working.
d. That the heat indicator reading is normal.
Driver Training
Competent drivers are essential to economic operations. Therefore, careful consid-
eration should be given to the development of correct driving habits. This means that
a training program, together with a regular follow-up, is essential in the war against
mounting costs. Many automotive manufacturers and some suppHers will be glad to
assist in the preparation of a course to fit your particular situation.
Driver's Report
The reduction in costly road failures and breakdowns can be materially assisted
if the operator has a means of reporting defects. Any report used should be simple.
Remember your operator is a vehicle driver, not a clerk. The report can be made daily,
or only when there is something abnormal to report. Repairs should be carried out
as soon as possible after the report has been made. A sample report presently being
used is included in this report as Exhibit "A".
Preventive Maintenance -^
"Preventive maintenance" means exactly what the words denote — preventing main-
tenance. To do this requires vehicle inspections at regular intervals and repairing com-
ponents before they fail in actual service. It is worthwhile to remember that a vehicle
only earns its keep when it is working. Downtime means repair expense plus lost
rev^enue.
A typical inspection cycle will now be described. However, it should be pointed
out that its application must be tailored to actual service requirements. Naturally, an
inspection cycle for ideal operating conditions will not be the same as one designed for
extremely adverse operations. Individual judgment is required in each case. Once the
cycle has been decided upon, it should be rigidly adhered to for optimum results, until
such time as experience indicates a need for modification.
In E.xhibits "B", "C", and "D" included herein it will be noted that the inspection
intervals are spaced at 2,500 miles (Class A Inspection), 5,000 miles (Class B Inspec-
tion), and 10,000 miles (Class C Inspection), respectively. The estimated times required
to carry out such inspections are 1 hr or less, 2 hr or less and 4 hr, in the same order.
As an inspection is made, the work to be done is noted in the right-hand column,
and the definition of the inspection terms appears at the top portion of the report.
432 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment ____^___
The inspection reports when completed are reviewed by a supervisor who arranges for
the repairs to be made, based upon the schedule set up for this purpose. If, for instance,
the repairs are extensive, he may decide, in the case of an old vehicle, that the unit
should be scrapped, or minimum repairs made until replacement is procured. He, there-
fore, would take the necessary action along this line.
Another system employs an inspection guide to be used when vehicles are in the
garage for lubrication. A further A & B guide is used when scheduled preventive main-
tenance inspections are made. An inspection defect report used in conjunction with the
lubricating and A & B inspection guides is placed under a material, such as celluloid or
glass, and is used by the mechanic doing the work. Samples are shown in Exhibits "E",
"F", and "G". The inspection defect report is used for either greasing and/or A & B
inspections. The mechanic makes notations of defects for the headings located in the
left-hand column of the inspection and defect report. Work resulting from the lubrica-
tion inspection is usually done immediately, if of a minor nature. The required work
from A & B inspections is generally done by a mechanic other than the one performing
the inspection.
The period between greasings will naturally depend upon the severity of operations.
A suggested time interval for starting a system, similar to those described in the fore-
going, would be 1000 miles or 2 months for summer and 500 miles or 1 month for
winter operations, whichever is first.
A suggested interval for A & B inspections for high-mileage vehicles is 4000 miles,
with two A inspections between each B inspection. For low-mileage vehicles, under
6000 miles per year, for example, one B inspection per year is all that is required.
During the winter months only the greasing is done at the 500-mile intervals. Estimated
time for inspections is 3 hr for an A and 5 hr for a B inspection.
Lubrication
Trucks should be lubricated as recommended by the manufacturers. For special
operating and weather conditions your oil supplier should be consulted. Insofar as
practical, lubrication should be scheduled during inspections; otherwise it should be
done at regular intervals. Do not overlook the oil filter. The life of your truck depends
on proper lubrication.
Tires
For information concerning rotating tires, balancing and front-end alinement, over-
loading, hitting holes and curbs, and other maintenance problems, consult your tire
dealer.
Field Inspections of Motor Trucks
If facilities and skilled personnel are readily available, cither through private
garages or company-owned establishments, inspections and lubrications should be per-
formed at such centers. This method provides a means of more efficient control over
the maintenance dollar. In the absence of such maintenance centers, field inspections
could be carried out by a mechanical supervisor, using a form similar to Exhibit "H".
Any work that could not be done by a mechanic in the field could be carried out by a
local garage.
Some companies have found it advantageous to have a non-schedule mechanical
supervisor perform the inspection in local garages, as.sisted by a mechanic. Nece.s.sary
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 433
repairs are authorized by the supervisor and carried out by the mechanic in the pri-
vately owned garage. This method provides a measure of control over work that has
to be done at points where company-owned facilities are not available.
For further information, and as a matter of interest, see pages 11 to 20, Section 2 —
Internal Combustion Engines, and pages 95 to 99, Trucks — Automotive, of the AREA
Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment.
Also sec iKiges 505 to 507, \'ol. 55, and page 5.56, Vol. 50 of the AREA Proceedings.
KxhiLdt "A"
.Department Plice Date
llotor Vehicle Ko. Route No.
Speedometer Reading-out In Mileage
Gasoline Supplied Gals. Oil Supplied l,!ts.
Mechanical or Other
Repairs necessary
Time out TL-ne in Signature_
Kotorman
Give d e tails of
work performed Date
Siftn.j. ture
434
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Kxhibit "B"
l-iotor Vehicle Inspection Report (Trucks & Buses)
Class "A" Inspection
(At 2500 mile intervals)
Truck No.
Odometer Rdg.
Definition of terms: L = Light or visual checkup
A = Adjust
T - Test
No.
Check
Item
Work to be done
1
Front end. Wheel Alien.. SteerinK
L
1
2
Fire extinguisher
L
?
Flares
L
4
Instrument panel
L
■?
Windshield wiper
LT
6
Windshield glass
L
7
Brake s
LAT
8
Clutch
T
9
CoolinR & heating system
L
10
Electrical system
LT
11
Electrical system - lights
LT
12
En^ne
L
1?
Air Compressor
LT
1^
Drive shaft
L
15
Wheels, rims, etc.
L
16
terker Lights & turn signals
L
17
Other (list belarf)
Work performed by:_
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
43S
Exhibit "C"
Motor Vehicle Inspection Report (Trucks & Buses)
Class "B" Inspection
(At 5000 mile intervals)
Truck No.
Date
Odometer Kdg.
Definition of terms: L = Light or visual checkup
A = Adjust
T = Test
No.
Check
Item
V/ork to be done
1
Front end, 'rfheel Align., Steering
L
2
Fire extinguisher
L
?
FUres
L
I-^arker li?:hts & turn simals
L
5
Instrument panel
L
6
Windshield -wirf r
L
7
Windshield Rlass
L
2
Brakes - adjust travdl
A
?
" check Dressure
LT
LO
LI
" check linkap.e
A
Clutch
T
L2
Coolinp, & heating system
L
L3
lilectrical S'/ste.-a
L
h
Lights « Focus
LT
1.5
Wiring;
L
L6
Coil
L
L?
Condenser
L
L8
Generator Drive
L
L9
Distributor points
L
20
Horn
L
21
Fuel & exhaust systems
L
22
Crankcase air breather
L
23
Fuel pump
LT
2-^
Carburetor
LA
2^
Fuel lines
L
26
Tail pipe
L
27
EnRine
L
28
Valves
L
2?
Timing
L
30
Sparkplugs
LT
31
Leaks
L
32
Air compressor
LT
V
Springs, clips, bolts, etc.
L
3^
k'/heels, rims, etc.
L
35
Cab, body, etc.
L
?6
Other (list below)
Work performed by_
436
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
EXHIBIT "D"
Motor Vehicle Inspection Report (Trucks At Buses)
Class "C" Inspection
(At 10,000 mile intervals)
Truck No.
Date
Odometer Rdg.
Driver
Definition of terms: L = Light or visual checkup
A = Adjust
H = Heavy or physical inspection or repair
T = Test
Wo.
Check
Item
Work to be done
1
Front end. Wheel Align., Steering
H
?
Fire extinguisher
L
3
Flares
L
li
Marker lifihts & turn signals
L
5
Instrument panel
L
6
Windshield wipers
L
7
Windshield glasi
L
3
Brakes - pedal travel
H
9
" Line pressure
T
10
" Slack adjusters
AT
11
" Handbrake k linkage
AT
12
" Master cylinder fluid
H
l^
" Oil booster cylinder
L
'^■k
" Air, oil or vacuiwi lines
LT
15
Clutch
H
16
Clutch pedal
Ta
1?
Cooling & heating s^b tem
H
IS
Radiator & hose connections
H
19
Radiator tie rods
H
20
Water pump complete
H
2]
Electrical system
H
22
Lights - focus & vrLring
H
23
Ignition wiring
H
?4
Generator & drive & cables
H
2S
Starting motor & cables
H
26
Distributor & points
H
27
Horn, including wiring
H
2fl
Fuel & exhaust systems
H
29
Crankcase air breather
H
30
Fuel pump
H
n
Carburetor
H
32
Fuel lines
T
33
Gas tank
H
H
Tail pipe
H
35
Engine - Crankcase
L
36
" Belting
H
37
" Cylinder head bolts
T
38
" Valve setting
T
39
" Spark plugs
H
40
" Com
pression test
H
1
2
3
k
5
6
7
8
Dry
Wet
41
Air Compressor
H
42
Springs, clips, bolts, etc.
H
4'-'
Steering assembly
H
44
Transmission
H
45
Drive shaft & rear axle
H
46
Under chassis
H
47
Body & cab
H
¥?
Wheels, rims, bearings, etc.
H
49
Other (list on reverse side)
Work performed by
Maintenance of Wa>' Work Equipment
437
Exhibit "E"
IIJSPECTIOK GUDE TO BE fDLLO.VED VWKN LUERICAnKG VEHICLES
Engine
Cooling System
Air Vacuum System
Electrical 4t Wiring
Chassis
1
Steering
1
Front Axle
1
Rear Axle
1
2
Clutch 4c Trans.
1
2
Diff. U Driveshaft
1
2
Springs £: Shocks
1
2
Brakes
1
Body and Cab Assembly
Painting
Tires
1. Check engine running condition
2. Check for oil leaks
3. Check oil filters for leaks
1. Check cooling system for leaks
2. Check fan belt
3. During winter months, (tieck and test anti-freeze
1. Check operation of booster
2, Check windshield vfipers
1. Check all lights
2. Check horn
3. Check heater
U. Check charging rate of generator
5. Clean, check and fill battery v;ith distilled water
Check muffler and tailpipe
Check all component parts of steering
Check kingpins
Check differential breather
Check axle flange bolts
Check clutch pedal travel
Check transmission for leaks
Check universal joints for wear
Check differential for leaks
Check springs and component parts
Check shock absorbers and component parts
Check bralce pedal travel
2. Check and fill master cylinder
3. Check braking system for visible leaks
1, Report body condition
1, Report condition of paint
1. Check tires for unusual vrear
2. Remove foreign objects imbedded in tires
3. Inflate tire to proper pressure
4. Report an;/ tires with scux^fed .alls or tires due
for retreadine
438
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Exhibit "F"
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE A & B INSPECTION GUIDE - IdTCR TRUCK & TRaCTOR
ENGINE
1. A&B
A&B
A&fi
AScB
A&B
a. MlB
9. B
10. AScB
11. AiiB
12. A&B
Engine Oil Inspect engine oil for water and fuel dilution and contamination.
Change oil and filter.
Cylinder Head Inspect for evidence of coolant loss. Adjust valve lash. Tighten
cylinder head bolts to torque specifications with torque wrench.
Inspect to see that proper oil flow is talcing place. Replace
valve cover, use new gasket.
Engine Inspect for external oil leaks. Examine outside oil and fudl lines
for chaffing and kinks.
Fuel Filters Clean all - clean fuel pump screen and bowl. Replace gasket.
Fuel Pump Test fuel pump for proper pressure and capacity.
Spark Plugs Remove, inspect, clean and gap. Replace if necessary.
Distributor Inspect points, change if necessary. Replace dist. if necessary
Check rotor and caps for cracks. Grease cam. Check advance
mechanism. Inspect wiring.
Manifolds & Heat Riser Tighten nuts. Inspect for leaks. Test operation of valve.
Engine Supports Inspect condition of insulators, tighten if necessary.
Carburetor Remove and clean air cleaner. Tighten carb. flange nuts. Inspect
choke. Service and replace air cleaner. Check operation of carb,,
and adjust if necessary.
Ignition Timing Set timing with light. Adjust carb, with vacuum gauge. Check
exhaust with gas analyser.
Crankcase Breather Air Cleaner - Clean and service. Remove and clean crankcase
ventilator valve (B only)
COOLING
1. A&B
Radiator Core Inspect for ]eaks. Inspect mounting. HAD. -Examine coolant level -
add water if Iftvel is low or tag steering wheel if level is low and
anti-freeze is used. SUO. & HEATi:,R HOSES & COliH. - Inspect for
leaks, cracks and deterioration. Tighten if necessary.
Inspect for leaks. Inspect condition of bolts. 'iATER FJl'.P PULLEY-
Loosen belt and check pulley for looseness.
A&B Water Pump
AIR VACUUM SYSTtli
1. B Air Compressor Tighten mounts - adjust belts if necessary.
2. A&B' Clean and service compressor air cleaner and governor air cleaner,
3. B Booster Inspect and oil booster. Clean and service air cleaner,
4. ^B Air tanks - drain. Windshield wipers - check for operation and
inspect condition of blades,
LIECrRICAL & iJIHING
1. A&B Lights Test all lights. Inspect lenses. Check aim of headlights,
2, A&B Battery Take hydrometer reading of each cell, to ensure each cell is in
charged condition. Fill with distilled water if necessary.
Remove battery cables. Clean terminals, re-install cables and
coat with petroleum jelly,
3. B Starter & Generator - Inspect commutator and brushes. Tighten connections.
Generator air cleaner - clean and re-oil. Do starter load test,
4, A&;B Voltage Regulator - Test, Adjust if necessary. Check charging circuit voltage drop,
CHASSIS
1. B Fra-ne & Brackets Inspect for loose or broken members. Check security of front
and rear bumpers,
2, A&B Muffler Inspection condition of muffler, tail pipe, exhaust pipe & brackets,
STEERING
1. A&B Steering Gear Housing - Tighten steering gear housing bolts and inspect for leaks.
Inspect al] component parts of steering for wear and looseness.
Front Vfheel Bearings - inspect for bearing looseness. Check
front and rear wheels for evidence of lubricant loss,
2. AuB Wheel Alignment - Adjust toe-in. Before adj. after adj.
FRONT AXLE
1. A&B King Pins
Inspect for looseness. Tighten draw keys if necessary
HEhR AXLE
1 A&B
Tighten axle flange studs. See that rear axle breather exterior
is free from dirt.
CLUTCH & TRANS
1, A&B
(MANUAL OR AUTO.)
Test operation of clutch and adjust to specification if necessary,
CLUTCH & GEARSHIFT LINKAGES - Examine linkages for any abnormal
condition.
TRANS, (3) Inspect for leaks. Tighten rear bearing retainer cap screws.
If equipped with automatic transmission, mike stall test.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 439
Kxhihit "F" (Contd.)
DIFF. & DRIVESHAFT
1, A&B Inspect driveshaft centre bearings and brackets, universal joints
and flanges. Inspect pinion bearing for looseness.
2. AiSiB Differential Housing - Inspect for lubricant leakage around differential housig
and pinion oil seal. Tighten.
SHOCK ABLiURBxiRS & SUSFiil.SIONS
1. A&B Check shock absorbers for leaks, test operation.
2. A&B Tighten spring U bolts, front and rear.
3. A&B Inspect spring shackles for wear. Inspect for breakage, weakness
or misalipn".'»nt of springs.
BRaKKS
1. A&B Master Cylinder Examine fluid level and correct if necessary
2. A&B Brake Mechanism Inspect hooes, lines, chambers, etc., for leiks - tighten connec-
tions, jbcamine cross shaft cables, linkage, slack adjuster, etc.
for abnormal wear. Inspect for oil and grease on drive line
type parking brake. Brakes - adjust, service, front and rear
and parking brakes. Check brakes for leaks, inspect brake pedal
frse travel and report.
BODY Al.'D CaB .oSiJOiY (»,CL. PaIIjT.)
1, A&B Door Locks, Hinges & Window Regulators - Inspect fcr wear :Jid proper operation,
etc., lubricate. STRIKifl PLATES & DOVETAILS - Inspect for wepr
and proper operation. SAFETY DEVICES - Is vehicle ec_uipped v;ith
the following ;- turn siTials, , first aid kit ,
reflectors , jack , clearance lirht^ flarcs_
fire extinijuisher , mirrors , CAB IliTERICR - Check
floor boards, mats, seat cushions, door panels, cab light, rear
vision glass, head lining, etc. P'AlisT & SHEET lETnL - Inspect
condition of cab, fen iers, grill, hood, etc. CaB HOLD DC.iN bOLTS-
Tighten as necessary. BCDY - Tigliten U bolts, check condition of
metal and wood. Check tarpaulin or canvas covering.
TIRES
1. .A&B Inspect for unusuail wear. ueraove stones and other ob^ cts imbedded
in tires. Check tire air pressure and inflate to proper pressure.
NOTE KeDort any other defects found not mentioned i.. the preceding para-
graphs that require repairs before the next 6,000 mile inspection.
ROAD TEST Vehicles should be road tested bisfore and after inspection and the
following is a guide for checks to be made :
Clutch - Check fur slip ing and grabbing.
Instruments and accessories - inspect operation.
Brakes - Test operation of service brakes and parking brake.
Booster - tiefor3 moving vehicle, make booster operating test.
Check transi.dssion for shifting operation
Check speedometer, hubdometer and odometer.
Poi/er train - report on operation.
Check engine for detonation
Check engine operating temperature and record.
Check air compressor governor operation for cutting in and out
at prop'.r Ids. 1 .S.I.
Check horn.
440
Maintenance of Way W ork Equipment
G
- A
- B
Exhibit "G"
INSPECTION IffiFECT REPORT DATE :
1
VEHICLE NO. MILEAGE W/0 NO.
(
rn,.
1
2
?
h
?
6
7
8
OIL PRESSURE (HOT)
IDLE MAXIMUM
CCWPRESSION I
HIY
TEST (
(A & B only) /
)IL
U)D£D
ROAD TESTED BY (A & B only)
L__J
' IF NECESSARY
CLOCK #
DEFECTS REQUIRING REPAIRS BEFORE 6,000 MTT.F.S OR A &B
INSPECTION
ENGI^
COOLING
AIR
VACUUM
SYSTEM
EIECTRICAL
&
WIRDG
CHASSIS
STEERING
(A & B)|rOE-IN -
FRONT AXLE
)LOCK #
REAR AXT.K
CLUTCH & TRANS.
(MANUAL-AUTO)
1 SHIFTING SPEED: UP DOWN
DIFF &. DRIVE
SHAFT
SHOCKS
SUSPENSIONS
BRAKES
BODY ASSY.
CAB ASSY.
(INCL. PAINT)
TIRES
INSPECTED BYs SUPERVISOR
Maintenance of W ay Work Equipment
441
Exhibit ''H"
VEHICLE NO
MAKE
YEAH
MODEL
SERIAL NO
MOTOR NO
ROOY TYPE
LOCATION
1
"*"'
BOOSTER OR
A,R PRESSURE
STEERING
POWER TRA
'
MONTH a ^ H FUL
LYDEPRECiATED
OILCONS. PREV.3 MOS. ^
P A Q
IDLE MAXIMUM
RANGE
INSTRUMENTS A ACCESSORIES
1
2
3 a
5
c
7
e
GRADE OF OIL OR GREASE USED IN
COMPRESSION
TEST, TESTS
SAE
EACH CYLINDER
>Xeo
REPAIRS REQUIRED
REPA.rjoST
12%^M£IBB!^C
COOLING SYSTEM
AIR. VACUUM SYSTEM
!
ELECTRICAL a WIRING
CHASSIS
STEERING
FRONT AXLE
HEAR AXLE
CLUTCH a TRANS > MANUAL OH AUTO ■
DIFF a DRIVE SHAFT
SPRING a SHOCKS
BRAKES
PAINTING
MISCELLANEOUS
SUB TOTAL— REPAIRS
VIAci
•AMOUNT
FRONT RIGHT % WOF
FRONT LEFT -i.WOF
HEAR LEFT OUTSIDE % WOF
REAR LEFT INSIDE V. W/OE
REAR RIGHT INSIDE '/. WOF
REAR RIGHT OUTSIDE % WOE
^
^,
^-
^
N
„
N
SUB TOTAL TtRES
1
I IFF FXPFCTANCY VF
ARS IF
NO
TC
TAL
REP
A1RSL
STED
CARRIED OUT
442 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Report on Assignment 6
Equipment for Loading, Transporting, Unloading and Installing
Continuous Welded Rail
Collaborating with the Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail
J. H. Brown (chairman, subcommittee), R. W. Bailey, O. C. Benson, G. R. Collier,
J. O. Elliott, F. L. Etchison, J. S. Fluke, C. F. Lewis, Francis Martin, N. E. Smith.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
Subsequent to World War II there has been a definite trend toward the greater use
of continuous welded rail by the American railroads. Because of this experience, various
methods of loading, transporting, unloading and installing continuous welded rail here-
tofore deemed impractical have been proved successful. It is the purpose of this report
to describe the most widely used and accepted practices of handhng continuous welded
rail.
At present, from 17 to 37 standard-length rails are being welded and layed. The rail
sections range from new 115 lb to 155 lb, with blank ends and without end heat
treatment. In some instances railroads have justified the welding of lighter weight relay
rail. This procedure requires transporting rails in lengths up to approximately 1500 ft.
The continuous welded rails are usually loaded directly from the welding assembly
line longitudinally onto a sufficient number of either flat or drop-end gondola cars.
Loading the rails is most commonly accomplished by the use of a stationary, gasoline-
powered single-drum hoist, wire rope and a l^/^-in "C" clamp attached to the rail head.
In most plants the same hoist arrangement is used to pull the rail through the line
prior to its being loaded.
The amount of a train load varies, depending on the distances to be transported
and the equipment available, as well as on the extent of the seasons program. As much
as three tiers of 13 rails per tier, or a total of 39 long rails have been moved at one
time; however, when shorter distances between walding plant and laying site are involved
and especially when a not too extensive welded rail program is planned, the more
common practice has been to load only one tier of 11 rails per trip.
Located permanently at the receiving end of the loading track is a flat car which is
used as a platform and on which is mounted metal guide plates or aprons to aline the
rail properly for loading on the cars for transport. The flat or gondola cars used for
transporting the rail are equipped in various ways; the device being used predominantly
is a single-axle multi roller (one roller per car), mounted over the trucks at one end of
each car. The first and last cars of each group have a similar roller arrangement mounted
midway on the car to provide added support and also to reduce vibration in transit to
the unloading site. On some roads the rollers are not used on the center car of the train;
instead, an oak timber of height equal to the rollers is placed across the car to assist
in minimizing unnecessary longitudinal movement of the rail load.
For the general practice of transporting a single tier comprised of 11 rails, the roller
system design, which allows each component part to be fabricated from materials usually
available and without expensive tools, is as follows: each roller is composed of a piece
of cold-drawn seamless, mechanically round tubing, outside diameter 3 in, inside di-
ameter 1^4 in, 6% in long. Around the inside periphery of each tube are placed 18
pieces of % in diameter, and 1 piece of ts in diameter, by 6^ in long maintenance of
way welding rod, which serve as the bearings for the roller. The 11 individual rollers
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 443
are mounted on a 1>4 in diameter cold-formed steel shaft approximately 8 ft long that
extends across the width of the car. The shaft rests on and through intermediate sup-
ports fixed to the floor decking at 7-in intervals. Thus 11 separate spaces are provided
for 11 lengths of continuous welded rail to be loaded independently. By the above de-
scribed method ordinary cars can be readily adapted in on-line shops. On roads where
extensive welded rail programs have not yet been instigated, portable dolly rollers are
used satisfactorily.
After the rails are positioned on the cars they are secured against vertical movement
by means of a 1-in by 6-in by 9 ft clamping bar fastened at each end to the roller
supports and in contact with each rail head. A less complete system used on conjunction
with the portable dollys is to provide a combination arrangement of 1^- and l^-in
bolts to clamp the rail to the car floor and bearing blocks.
Fig. 1 indicates a modified hold-down device used by some roads on the middle car.
It consists of a heavy base plate secured to the flat car deck. The rails are held down by
horizontal plates which contact the rail head at four different points.
After the rails are securely fastened, the cars are blocked apart to eliminate slack
action. The rails are allowed to move longitudinally only enough to allow negotiation of
normal turnouts and main-track curvature. Many roads are transporting continuous
welded rail considerable distances in revenue trains without imposing any speed
restrictions.
Unloading welded rail may be accomplished by track-mounted lifting cranes placing
the rail outside the track on to the tie ends or on the shoulder and also by anchoring
the end of the first rail to be unloaded to the existing track structure and dragging the
rail onto the ground by moving the train. In the latter case the rail can be unloaded
either inside or outside the existing track, as desired. An efficient method of unloading
employs a '"threader" or "needle eye" mounted on the end car which confines the rail to
a particular unloading line as well as reducing the hazard of the rail turning over dur-
ing the unloading process which is apt to occur particularly on curves.
The track anchor method of unloading welded rail requires the use of a ''C" clamp
attached to the rail head, and wire rope through the "threader" mounted on the end of
the initial car and attached to a "'dead-man'" anchor which consists of a length of rail
syz ft long laying beneath the track and against an anchored tie, the space between the
dead-man and adjacent tie being wedged with wooden blocks approximately 2 ft long.
Fig. 2 indicates the above-described method of anchoring the first rail to be unloaded
to the existing track structure as well as the accurate placement accomplished by using a
threader car such as is shown in Fig. 4.
Succeeding rails are unloaded by alining the leaving end of the preceding rail
manually prior to its going off the end of the car and making a connection between the
two rails, using a lever-operated portable grip hoist and applying special splice bars.
After the second rail is unloaded the splice bars are removed and the procedure repeated
for the remainder of the load. On subsequent train unloadings the initial rail is attached
to the previously unloaded rail using a "'C" clamp and -Vj^-in wire rope. Two rails can be
unloaded simultaneously, thereby reducing the unloading time by one-half.
When rail is being unloaded in the center of track and a turnout is encountered, the
train is stopped and the rail cut to skip over the turnout limits. If the rail is not laid
immediately after being unloaded in the center of the track, it should be spiked at two
points each standard rail length to avcid movement that might cause interference with
regular traffic.
444 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
445
Fie:. 4.
Fig. 5.
With sufficient experience it has been found that an equal amount of welded rail can
be laid with the same size of gang normally employed to lay conventional jointed rail in
a given period. The men ordinarily used to place joint bars and bolts are used to apply
rail anchors immediately behind the rail laying operation.
When continuous welded rail has been unloaded outside the track, either a track-
mounted or a rubber-tire-mounted crane goes ahead of the rail laying gang and snakes
the new rail into the center of the track, using the previously described threader attached
to the boom.
In Fig. 3 a track-mounted crane is being used to transfer the previously unloaded
continuous welded rail into the center of the track prior to its being laid. Note the
threader attached to the boom to facilitate a smooth operation.
After the existing rail has been lined out, the welded rail is installed by a truck-type
rubber-tired lifting crane, using the "threader" attachment. This machine should have a
versatile maneuverable boom movement. After one rail has been laid this crane pulls the
next rail approximately 2 in beyond or past the end of the rail already laid, using a
"C" clamp wedged onto the rail head, and attached by four strands of ^-in wire rope
in blocks. This accomplished, the crane goes ahead approximately 100 ft along the rail
to be laid and bends a kink in the rail to take up the 2-in "pull by." In this man-
ner all joints are made with the rail as much in compression as possible, and excess
tensile stresses set up within the rail due to its being dragged are released.
Your committee has concluded that there are many and varied techniques and ap-
pliances being used on the railroads today to accomplish virtually the same results in
loading, transporting, unloading and installing continuous welded rail. The methods dis-
cussed in this report are the most generally accepted to date.
Fig. 4 shows one railroad's arrangement of special threaders used for unloading cun
tinuous welded rail. Two threaders are attached to the dock at strategic locations on each
side of the car to position the rail to be unloaded in the desired position.
When unimportant grade crossings are encountered the continuous welded rail is
buried below the surface as .^hown in Fig. .=! rather than cutting, as is necessary at im-
|ioiManl highwa\' crossings.
446 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Report on Assignment 7
Number of Units of Work Equipment to Be Repaired
by Field Repairmen
S. E. Haines, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee), I. M. Boone, N. W. Hutchison, Jack Lar-
gent, H. F. Longhelt, Harry Mayer, M. M. Stansbury, H. A. Thyng.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
A progress report on this subject appears in the Proceedings, Vol. 59, 1958, page 649.
The problem of determining how many machines a field repairman can maintain
depends on a number of factors which are outlined in the progress report presented last
year, mentioned above. There are many ways to solve the problem. They range from
having a large field force and a small shop force, to having a large shop force and a
small field force.
There is no rigid pattern of equipment used by the railroads. For instance, a
medium-size railroad in the east does not maintain its automotive equipment but rents
trucks from an outside rental company which maintains the equipment. All the railroad
is concerned with is gas and oil. Some railroads have the maintenance of way people
maintain their pile drivers and spreaders. On other railroads this equipment is maintained
by the maintenance of equipment shops.
Of the roads indicated on the accompanying chart. Railroad "G" has all of its field
men enter the shops to become the shop force during the winter. Railroad "F" has the
maintenance of equipment shops do the major repairs to the maintenance of way work
equipment. Undoubtedly some of the railroads on the chart farm out some or most of
their truck maintenance, depending on where a truck is assigned and where it is when
repairs are required. Railroad "D" has three field repairmen, but 75 percent of its shop
men go out in the field from time to time to help out. One eastern railroad will have a
maintenance of equipment shop man working with maintenance of way field repair-
man, and this team will combine to repair a maintenance of way machine.
For this study a field repairman listed on the chart as such is called a field repair-
man because that is his title on his railroad. Obviously, due to the varied conditions, it
was necessary to consider all repairmen as a whole, and indicate how the problem is
solved on the chart. Field work must be supported by shop work, as they both combine
to perform the total maintenance. It was surprising to the committee in studying this
subject that conditions are so varied on the railroads studied.
The accompanying chart shows how eight railroads have handled the problem and
indicates the results obtained. It should be noted that there is no set pattern for types
of machinery on the eight railroads, nor is there a pattern for the number of field repair-
men. However, there is a pattern of total repairmen to total number of machines. Those
railroads with less than 50 machines per repairman are satisfactorily maintained to well-
maintained. Those with 75 machines per repairman encountered maintenance difficulty
and much downtime.
The roads indicated on the chart are identified as follows:
A is a large northern railroad in the west.
B is a small railroad in the east.
C is a medium-sized railroad in the east.
D is a large railroad in the midwest.
E is H .small terminal railroad in the south central region.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
447
T^pe of Machine
Adzers, tie • •
Ballast cleaners
Tj-pe
Tj-pe
Cars - Air dump
- Ballast irainaee Type 1
Type 2
- Ballast discers
- Motor, push and trailer
Compressors, air
Conpactors, electric vibratory
Concrete mixers
Cranes and shovels
Cribber - Chain type
- Wheel TjTJe 1
- V;heel Type 2
- Drop haxmner type
Conveyors - Bucket type
Drills - Kail and bonding
- Earth
Grinders - Rail portable
Graders - Motor
- Pneuinatic
- Hydraulic
Gager - Track
Jacks - Power track hydraulic
tfowers - Weed - Off track
- On track
Pile drivers
Pumps - '.later
Rail layer - Portable
P^il saws - Portable •
Spike drivers - Mechanical •
Spike pullers - Mechanical
- Hydraulic
Sprayers - On track - Oil - Portable . . .
Spreaders
l^e borers
Tie cutters
Tie handlers - lype 1
- Type 2
Tie tanper - >!ulti-tool air
- Multi-tool electric #1 . . .
- Multi-tool electric ,'/2 . . .
- Drop hamner type ••••••
- Multi-tool mechanical' . . . •
- Electric vibratory off track.
- Self contained
Track liner - Type 1
- Type 2
Track wrench - Type 1
- Type 2
Tractors, crawler mounted
Trucks, automotive
Trench excavator - Crawler mounted • . • •
- Pneumatic Tire #1 • . •
- Pneumatic Tire #2 . • .
V/eed burners
Welding units - Electric
- Oryacetylene
Yard cleaner - Type 1
- Type 2
Other r,quipment
TOTAL
Kumber of field repairmen
Nunher of shop repairmen
IJ'iraber of machines per field repairman
Number of machines per shop repairman
Number of machines per repairirian • • •
359
TTf?
6
193
1.6
37.S
b
20
3
1.
62
126
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
11
3
0
1
0
0
0
3
19
167
377
2
9
2
8
«!.=;
1.1.9
a3.s
1.7.1
1.1.7
22.2
."!
.«i
^
r-*
'-
_ ■",
1.1.
31
2610
hh
S
19
23
0
2U
1.
0
0
168
6
97
h
3 i
81
lOl.
7?!
1 !
102,
US
17 j
1.0
lU
11.
299!
3 I
0 1
16
1.9
81.
51.
10
1.9
16
U
0
162
II39H
3
121.
11.6b
35.1.
31..6
289
38
50.8
1060
65
91.
U8.!.
0
u
3
0
1200
1.0
3
128
5
U7
2
30
1.
21
512
30
2625
27
328
97
71.. 9
448 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
F is a district of a large eastern railroad.
G is the district of a large northern railroad.
H is a large western railroad.
A time study was made of what a repairman does, how he travels, and how much
time he spends on the job actually repairing machines. With 10 railroads and 25 repair-
men studied, results on May 5, 1958, were as follows:
25 men worked 203 hr, of which
61 hr were spent traveling (30 percent of the time), and
142 hr were spent working (70 percent of the time).
Four of the 25 men were assigned to large mechanical gangs. The remaining 21 men
repaired an average of 1.86 machines per day.
Referring to the chart, in the well-maintained group this would mean that the re-
pairmen would see each machine about every 20 days on the average.
A well-balanced program with trained repairmen, well-equipped trucks with tools
and spare parts, enough repairmen so they are not scattered too thinly, and a good pre-
ventive maintenance set up, will keep machine downtime to a minimum and production
at a maximum.
Union rules, traffic density, terrain, climate, access roads, and policy affect the way
any railroad will arrange its maintenance program. It is hoped that this report will serve
as a guide to those studying the problem.
In our report last year, the possibility of having a weighted rating for units of work
equipment was proposed. The committee made such a rating based on their estimates.
But because it was based only on opinion and not on facts, the idea was discarded as
not worthwhile. A very exhaustive study with records over a period of years would be
required to make it factually accurate. By the time it was completed, many of the
machines would be obsolete.
There are two conditions under which this report can be used. One is the ideal con-
dition where a railroad is being completely reorganized; the other is where a railroad
finds that it has too many machines for the repairmen to maintain. This will result in
out-of-service time for machines. The latter railroad will know it is in trouble and, by
referring to the progress report in Vol. 59 of the Proceedings, it can take those steps
into consideration first and increase the efficiency of repairmen. After those steps have
been taken, another look at this report may convince the management that more repair-
men are required.
Report on Assignment 8
Fuel and Lubrication Trucks for Use with Mechanized Gangs
L. B. Cann, Jr. (chairman subcommittee), T. S. Bean, E. H. Fisher, R. A. Hostetter,
W. F. Kohl, P. G. Petri, T. J. Reagan, N. E. Smith, R. S. Stephens.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
Your committee has developed that there is only one manufacturer building trucks
suitable for handling the fuel and lubrication needs for mechanized timbering and sur-
facing gangs and heavy earth-moving equipment. Reports from various railroads indi-
cate that there are two large .systems that have designed their own sperilic trucks to
IikhHIp this problem; that the majority is still hauling the I'licls in snuill pi(knp trncki-
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 440
or section trucks out to the job; and that the liihriration equipment is retained with
the tool equipment on each individual machine.
In the following your committee outlines first (under item I ) the manutacturir's
equipment that is now available as a unit lor purchase, alont; with its specifications:
1. Unit to Provide the Following:
Fuel
Two-compartment tank with dc)ul)ic Ijulkheads and cmerjicncy valves.
Total tank capacity 1200 gal, with tentative division of ()00 and 600, This can be
varied to suit individual requirements.
Fuel to be dispensed through two systems to prevent contamination or explosion
hazard. Fuel systems are to be hydraulically operated with power being supplied through
power take off on chassis transmission. Hose reels and product pumps are to be hydrau-
lically driven. Fuel is to be dispensed through meters with reset counters. Printing count-
ers are available as an extra. Hose reels are to be equipped with 100 ft of fuel hose
and automatic shut-off nozzles.
Air — ASME Reservoir
Air is to be carried in 80 cu ft reservoir located in street-side box. Air is to be sup-
plied by 7J4 air compressor mounted on truck engine. This compressor will also provide
air for chassis air brakes. To safeguard against loss of air for chassis brakes, the air
reservoirs are to be separated by a pressure-reducing valve to keep from drawing less
than 60 psi from chassis system. Air hose reel is to be provided with tire chuck connec-
tion. Greasing and water equipment are to be powered from this reservoir.
Water — ASME Reservoir
Water is to be carried in 30-gal reservoir located in street-side box above air reser-
voir. Water to be forced from tank with air pressure and be dispensed through hose reel.
Lube
Three lubricating guns with reels are to be provided. Two units are to be high-
pressure type capable of dispensing high-pressure lubes or track roll lube. One unit to be
low-pressure type for use on gear or motor oils. Lubricating guns are to be powered with
air from air reservoir. Lubricating guns to be type that fit on standard grease cans.
Oil
Space to be provided to carry eight 5-gal oil cans. Case oil can also be carried in
this space.
Chassis
Engine — V8, 272 cu in.
Rear axle — 16000 lb. 2-speed.
Front axle— 7000 lb.
Brakes, service — Full air.
Brakes, hand — Propeller .-^hafl.
Clutch— 11 in.
Transmission — Four-speed .
Fuel tank— 18 gal.
Wheels— Cast.
Tire.s— 0:00 x 20 x 10 ply.
450
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Fuel truck purchased as a unit.
Tank construction— ICC, MC-303.
Compartments — Two, divided 600-600 (optional).
Bulkheads — Double for Class 1 and 2 products.
Surge heads — As required.
Flashing — Full length with drains.
Sills — Steel with oak shock strips.
Bumper — Rigid, mounted on chassis frame.
Walkways — Non-skid, both sides.
Steps — Front, both sides.
Platform — Tapered, rear.
Cabinet curb side — Underslung cabinet with full-height opening.
Cabinet, street side — ^Underslung cabinet with full-height opening.
Cabinet, curb side — Horizontal cabinet above wheel.
Manholes — Approved 16 in with 10 in fills and vents.
Outlets — Flanged .
Capacity indicators^ — Each compartment, not set or sealed.
Lamps — To meet state and ICC requirements.
Emergency valves — To meet gasoline-carrying requirements.
Complete HydrauUcally Powered Pump System
PTO— Heavy duty.
Drive shaft — Heavy duty.
Hydraulic pump — Hannay HD-3, or equal.
Product pumps — Blackmer TN-1^, or equal.
Product motors — Hannay HD-2, or equal.
Hose reels — Hannay hydraulic drive, or equal.
Control valves — Hannay HD-4, or equal.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 451
Hose— Two, 1 in by 100 ft.
Nozzles — Two, automatic shut-off.
Meter — Two, fuel meters with counter.
Lube and Grease Dispensing Equipment
Air tank — SO-gal ASME code reservoir, supplied from truck compressor.
Water tank — 30-gal ASME code reservoir. Water discharged with compressed air.
Air hose reel — Spring return reel with ^-in hose and tire inflation chuck.
Water hose reel — Spring return reel with ^-in hose and water nozzle.
Lube dispenser — Two high-pressure lubricating guns with spring return hose reels
and grease nozzles.
Oil dispenser — Low-pressure lubricating guns with spring return hose reel and
nozzle.
2. Specifications for Cab and Chassis Complete with Specially Equipped 12-
Ft Platform Bed, Type FL — (Fuel and Lube), for Use in Servicing
Mechanized Gangs
Intent
These specifications cover the furnishing of the latest-model gasoline-engine truck
complete with specially equipped bed having a minimum gross vehicle rating of
14,000 lb.
General Requirements
a. Furnish cab and chassis complete with specially equipped platform bed.
b. The truck furnished shall be the manufacturer's latest listed and published
stock model which meets all the applicable requirements of the specifications.
c. Deviations from the provisions of these specifications must be listed on the at-
tached inquiry form, which is a part of the bid. The bidder must comply with
all the provisions of the specifications except those items which are listed as
deviations.
Detail Requirements
a. Engine displacement: minimum 235 cu in.
b. Clutch: The clutch shall be a heavy-duty type with a minimum diameter of
11 in.
c. Transmission: the transmission shall be the manual shifting type with a mini-
mum of four forward speeds and one reverse speed.
d. Rear axle and springs: two-speed rear axle with helper springs.
e. Cab to axle dimension- — 84 in.
f. Brakes: service brakes shall be heavy-duty power type acting on all four
wheels. A mechanical parking brake shall be provided,
g. SLx tires shall be 8.25 x 20, 10 ply with tubes and mounted on interchangeable
wheels having 6-in rims. Four rear tires to be road lug type,
h. Shock absorbers: to be double-acting front and rear,
i. Mud flaps: contour type,
j. Frame: the frame shall have adequate strength to carry the gross vehicle
weight specified,
k. Electric system: a complete electric starting system, including generator and
V'Oltage regulator, shall be furnished. It shall be a 12-v system with a minimum
452 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
25-amp generator and a minimum 70 amp-iir battery. Battery ratings shall
be at the 20-hr rate, in accordance with SAE standards.
1. Lights; all lights in accordance with current legal requirements shall be affixed
to the truck and will include front and rear truck identification markers.
Equipment
The following equipment and acces.sories .shall he furnished:
a. Oil filter — heavy duty.
b. New type dry air cleaner — heavy duly.
c. Fuel tank with a minimum capacity of 17 gal.
d. Front bumper.
c. Heater and defroster — fresh air intake type.
f. Electric horn.
g. Rear view mirrors: (1) inside-tilting type, (2) truck-type outside rear view
mirrors on both sides of the cab. These mirrors shall be rectangular in shape
and the minimum dimensions shall be 5 by 10 in. Diagonal braces shall be
used for reinforcement.
h. Standard jack and lug wrench.
i. Windshield wipers — Dual, positive action.
j. Twenty pound CO2 fire extinguisher.
k. Flares, to be installed to meet legal requirements.
1. Six copies of truck service and maintenance manual with parts list and repair
data (for initial unit only).
Body Requirements
Body furnished shall be platform style with 145-in length and 88-in width, built
and equipped as per attached drawings.
Special Equipment
a. Two Bennett No. 2008-G pumps, or equal, with 25 ft by >:^-in hose and two
John Wood No. E-0684 Fill-0-Matic nozzles, or equal, with clips, installed in
top of 27S-gal fuel tanks shown on attached drawing.
b. Three-hp steel barrel pumps, for use on SS-gal oil drums.
c. One 7^-cu ft fan belt driven air compressor kit, including drive kit, air supply
kit and tank kit, to be installed, (kit must be for type of truck or engine
specified in bid).
d. One portable utility pump, with hose and nozzle for transmission lube.
e. One Alemite pump and drum cover No. 8559-H, or equal, to be furnished and
fitted with the following equipment:
One Alemite No. 6322 control valve, or equal.
One Alemite No. 44734 adapter, or equal.
One Alemite No. 53320 swivel, or equal.
One Alemite No. 317875 hose, or equal.
One Alemite No. 310747 screen, or equal.
Pump to be connected with 25-ft of high-pressure ho.se and linings with quick
disconnect coupler on the air reservoir for u.se on top of grease drum and i)r(i-
tected by cover.
f. One Binks No. 140 siphon gun, or equal, equipped with 25-ft of J/2-in hose
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
45,^
Specially designed fuel truck for servicing mechanized gangs.
and self-sealing quick disconnect coupler for connection to air reservoir, com-
plete with the following equipment:
One Lunkeheimer No. 1841 %-m air nozzle, or equal.
One Shrader No. 8052-12 check unit, or equal.
Two Shrader No. 8050-11 34-in adapters, or equal.
One Shrader No. 8150-B air chuck, or -equal.
One Shrader No. 0350 air gage, or equal,
g. Eight padlocks and keys: Master #105 '"Key-a-Like", or equal, for pumps
and boxes,
h. Two 2-qt oil measures.
U lid ere outing
.\1I metal parts under the vehicle shall he coated with undercoat.
Paint ill i^
Kxterior of vehicle, except chrome:
a. Prime coat.
1). Finish to he ARE.\ vellow.
3. System Truck with the Following Equipment for Grading Gangs:
One fuel tank, 42 in diameter by 03 in long, with partition holding 435 gal of fuel
oil and 65 gal of gasoline with 2 Tokheim high vacuum hand pumps (Model
688), or equal, with bung adapters and two pieces of hose for fuel 25 ft long.
Hose to have 2 Fi!l-0-Matic nozzles No. 1811 with 1820 bu.shing, or equal.
One air compres.sor, 7^{. cfm with appr()|)riate air-cooled engine and IS- x 3S-in air
reservoir.
454
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
HMM
^TOPS
Truck designed for servicing grading gangs.
Three Alemite pumps, Model 317940, or equal, for No. 30-90 motor oil, one for
high-pressure lubricant.
Four reels, Model 320980 (1 for No. 30 and 1 for No. 90, and 1 for H.P. lubricant
and 1 for air). Air hose SO ft long, 3 hose for lubricant 20 ft long.
Four No. 32091 roller-type hose guide and bracket assembly
One 30-lb dry chemical fire extinguisher.
One vaporizing liquid fire extinguisher, 1^ qt, mounted in cab.
One Alemite, Model 7421, "Adjustaslot" control valve for H.P. lubricant, or equal.
One Alemite, Model 6611, motor oil hand meter, or equal.
One Alemite, Model 7490, gear oil control valve, or equal.
One Alemite, Model 306586, tire gage and check, or equal.
One Alemite, Model 6782, booster gun, or equal.
4. The Following Equipment Is Necessary to Equip each Timbering and
Surfacing and Rail Gang Truck:
Two oval fuel tanks, 26S-gal capacity each, mounted on front of body on each side
and parallel with body, walkway between tanks. Each tank has Tokheim hand
pump, Model 688, or equal, with 25 ft of hose and Fill-0-Matic, or equal,
nozzle.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 455
Four barrel racks with hold-down bolts.
Four barrel pumps, Tokheim, Model 688, or equal, with 8 ft of hose and 4 Tokheim,
or equal, nozzles No. 22.
One 30-lb dry chemical fire extinguisher.
One vaporizing liquid fire extinguisher, lYz qt, mounted in cab.
Body of truck is S ft wide and 14 ft long, floored with expanded metal, spec.
4.27 lb.
Report on Assignment 10
Four-Cycle vs Two-Cycle Gasoline Engines Used on
Small Equipment
R. J. Smith (chairman, subcommittee), S. E. Haines, Jr., R. A. Hostetter, M. E. Kerns,
H. F. Longhelt, Paul Martin, Harry Mayer, V. W. Oswalt, Sr., T. H. Taylor, H. A.
Thyng, and F. E. Yockey.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
Practically all of the reciprocating internal-combustion engines built today operate
on either the two-stroke cycle or the four-stroke cycle. For the purpose of this report,
the word stroke will be omitted and the designation "two-cycle" or "four-cycle" will be
used. Also, comments will be confined to engines using gasoline as a fuel, and narrowing
the field still further, only engines of less than 15 hp will be discussed.
The Two-Cycle Engine
This type of engine delivers a power impulse for each revolution of the crankshaft.
There are two strokes of the piston for each revolution — the power stroke when the
piston is traveling away from the cylinder head, and the compression stroke when the
piston is traveling toward the cylinder head. Actually, two things are taking place in a
two-cycle engine during each stroke. On the power stroke, the fuel mixture is being
compressed in the crankcase, and on the compression stroke the fuel mixture is being
drawn into the crankcase. The compressed gases in the crankcase are admitted to the
cyhnder through openings in the cylinder wall that are uncovered by the piston near the
end of the power stroke. The same holds true for the exhaust, which passes out through
openings in the cylinder wall and are uncovered a small fraction ahead of the inlet port.
Major advantages claimed for the 1- to 5-hp air-cooled, two-cycle engines are:
1. Lightweight — more power per pound. Two-cycle engines produce more power per
pound of weight than four cycle-models of comparable horsepower.
Manufacturers of small, air-cooled, two-cycle engines have exploited the advantages
of using aluminum or magnesium alloys in designing lightweight engines for portable
equipment which can be carried by one or two men. In the case of back-packed equip-
ment, such as small brush cutters which are hand held during operation, these lightweight
features have increased importance as every additional pound of weight adds to the
fatigue of the operator.
2. Simplicity — less maintenance cost. Two-cycle engines have about one-third fewer
moving parts than a comparable four-cycle model. This design eliminates camshafts, tim-
ing gears, valve assemblies and the need to grind valves. The fewer number of wearing
parts results in easier maintenance and less maintenance cost.
456 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
3. Assurance of constant lubrication. Two-cycle engines are lubricated by the oil in
the oil — gasoline fuel mixture, and lubrication of all parts is assured at all times, provided
that the proper mixture is used in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendation.
When the engine is started, clean, fresh oil reaches the cyUnder walls in full strength be-
fore the engine fires, regardless of temperature, providing a complete change of oil each
revolution. When the choke is used on cold mornings, excess gasoline can do no harm as
there is also more oil to protect the metal parts, and on hot days, fresh, cool oil is drawn
in with the incoming combustible mixture. In addition, two-cycle engines need only be
drained of fuel for storage or long periods of idleness.
4. All-angle operation. Two cycle engines do not require an oil sump and can be
operated at any angle. Chain saws with diaphragm carburetor are frequently used in
the upside-down position. This feature is also important with portable pumps, blowers
and generators, as it eliminates the need to level these units to assure proper lubrication.
The better two-cycle engines designed for heavy-duty service carry heavy-duty ball-
bearing or roller-bearing mains at each side of the crankshaft. High-speed, two-cycle en-
gines are generally equipped with forged-steel crankshafts, and forged-steel connecting
rods, with heavy-duty needle bearings at both wrist-pin and crank-pin ends.
Two-Cycle, Water-Cooled Engines
Generally speaking, two-cycle, water-cooled engines develop maximum torque at low
speeds, in most cases at less than 1000 rpm, and can run in either direction of rotation,
thus in specific applications, such as motor cars, eliminating reverse gearing when power
applications call for a change of direction.
One of the major advantages claimed for two-cycle, water-cooled engines with bat-
tery and coil ignition as used in motor cars, is the fact that anyone with but a small
amount of mechanical ability can keep them in good operating condition.
Water-cooled, two-cycle engines are rarely, if ever, used for stationary service. This
is because they do not have a system for cooling the water, and the water boils in the
cooling system. Most motor-car engines have steam condensers that conserve the water.
In stationary service, these engines would require an auxiliary water supply to replace
that which would boil away.
The 10- to 14-hp engine weighs less than the 8- to 13 -hp engine. This is because the
former is built largely of aluminum.
Comparing water-cooled, two-cycle engines against air-cooled, four-cycle engines
with reverse gears for motor car use, they weigh about the same. That is, the air-cooled,
four-cycle engine and companion reverse gear weigh approximately the same as a water-
cooled, two-cycle, motor-car engine. The two-cycle engines, of course, do not need a re-
verse gear since they are able to run in either direction.
As for a cost comparison of the same two engines, that is, the water-cooled, two-
cycle, and air-cooled, four-cycle with a reverse gear, it appears that the latter costs
about 10 percent more than the water-cooled two-cycle.
The question often arises about the number of hours of operation of a two-cycle,
water-cooled engine before port cleaning is necessary. Naturally, the frequency of port
cleaning is subject to many variations, dependent upon the quality of gasoline and oil,
the type of service and the distances traveled per day. Port cleaning at 350-hr intervals
is considered average.
Mixing of gasoline and oil for two-cycle engines is not difficult, but it must be done
with care and accuracy for best results.
i
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 457
When oil and gasoline aiv mixjd at a central location and shipped as "mixed
gasoline-oil" it will not meet all the manufacturer's recommendations. Satisfactory results
cannot be obtained by putting the two ingredients into the fuel tank separately. The
gasoline and oil should be accurately measured and thoroughly mixed before being put
into the fuel tank to insure a satisfactory fuel for good operation and minimum carbon
build-up.
Four-Cycle Engines
In the four-cycle engine there are four piston strokes and two crankshaft revolutions
for each power stroke. These are: the intake, compression, power and exhaust strokes.
The passage of the gases into and out of the combustion chamber is controlled by valves
actuated by a camshaft that is driven from the crankshaft.
Four-cycle engines have more moving parts than a two-cycle engine but are capable
of higher speeds if required. The maximum torque of industrial engines is usually ob-
tained between 1400 and 2000 rpm. They idle well and can be throttled adequately to
meet part-load conditions. The oil system is separate from the fuel system, providing
ideal lubrication and/or fuel to meet actual operation conditions. Between oil changes
it is essential to maintain the proper oil level, if trouble-free operation is to be expected.
While oil changes at regular intervals are highly recommended, the number of hours be-
tween changes will vary with operational conditions. Excessive heat, dilution and foreign
matter such as dirt, which frequently accompanies the operation, will actually determine
the oil change frequency. Oil should be changed before it becomes so full of contaminants
that its lubrication properties are seriously impaired. The addition of new oil daily or as
needed prolongs the lubricating characteristics, but does not ever restore it completely.
Major advantages claimed for four cycle engines are:
1. Ease of starting. Four-cycle engines have a better reputation for easy starting,
due in part to positive breathing and scavenging which is inherent in all four-cycle
engines, and also due to the freedom of spark plug fouling. The low vaporization of the
fuel makes it easier to ignite.
2. Quiet operation. Four-cycle engines are ordinarily more quiet in operation than
the two-cycle models. There are twice as many explosions per minute on the two-cycle
models at any given speed, so the average observer will say that the four-cycle engine is
running much slower than the two cycle engine, while in reahty they are operating at
exactly the same speed. Four-cycle engines are less sensitive to back pressure, so it is
easier to design a quiet, four-cycle muffler.
J. Rated poiver periods longer. Four-cycle engines can be expected to maintain their
rated power for longer periods than two-cycle engines. Service frequencies for cleaning
the exhaust ports of carbon deposits on two-cycle air cooled engines of less than 10 hp
average approximately 40 hr. Service frequencies for cleaning combustion chamber carbon
deposits on the four-cycle engines of less than IS hp average approximately 100 hr, and
valve servicing periods of 500 hr frequencies are considered av^erage.
4. Oil system separate from fuel system. Four-cycle engines use clear gasoline. One
of the prime reasons for ignition trouble is fouled spark plugs. Fuels containing lubricat-
ing oils not only form more tenacious deposits, which gradually foul spark plugs, but
also the gasoline — oil mixture is a little harder to ignite because of its .somewhat higher
vaporization point.
458
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
PIASHA!.! OF TOGINT OPmATIOH
TWO CYCIT'- TWGIKT
Operating Sequence
CCMPRKSION
povrjR
P4
CaiPRT^SION
povm)
g
g
■v^
V
V
■^^7-
One Revolution One Rerolutlon
FOUR CTCIT FNGINI
Opernting Seoucnce
IHTAKE
caiHiresiON
povmi
EXHAUST
v_
^ —
One Revolution
J V
V
One Rpvo''ution
Oil CONSUMPTIOII OF TWO CTClE AlTD FODB CTCIT ETGIITTS
f) to g HQRSSPOimi ClASS
5t-
rtfei
-^ao
3 "^ 5 6
Time In Hundreds of Hours.
OPmATIKG COliDITIOlTS
1. Speed - 3/1+ Throttle
Two Cycle = 1200 HJW .72 Gale fuel per hr.
Pour Cycle - 2S00 HFM .66 " h « ii
2. load - 3/1+ Ratfd Output
3. lulsrication
10
Two Cycle - GasoMne-Oil Mlrture - l6 : 1 Rptio
Four Cycle - Separate Oil System with Crankcpse Caoaclty of !> Pints
OlT changed every 50 hours of operation.
M aintenance of Way Work Equipment 459
Fuik-Cyclk Enginks
The Advantages Are:
1. Easier starting.
2. Quiet operation.
3. Better spark plug life.
4. Fuel does not need mixing.
The Disadvantages Are:
1. Valve trouble.
2. Combustion chamber build-up.
.^. More wearing parts.
4. Oil levels must be maintained.
5. Crankcase oil must be changed.
6. Higher maintenance costs.
Two-Cycle Engines — Air Cooled
The Advantages Are:
1. Light weight.
2. Simplicity.
3. Constant lubrication.
4. All angle operation.
5. Lower maintenance costs.
The Disadvantages Are:
1. Spark plug fouling.
2. Carbon build-up in ports.
3. Fuel must be mixed properly.
4. Oil consumption is considerably higher.
Summary
Four-cycle, air-cooled engines of less than 10 hp are usually of single-cylinder de-
sign. Four-cycle, air-cooled, two-cylinder engines from 10 to 18 hp may be in-line or of
opposed-cylinder design.
Single-cylinder, two-cycle, air-cooled engines are available up to 5 hp.
Two-cycle, water-cooled engines up to 8 hp are of single-cylinder design.
The two-cycle, water-cooled engine from 10 to 14 hp is of the opposed-cylinder
design. In most cases, water-cooled engines in this group are not a complete power
package, i.e., the gasoline tank, air cleaner and battery box are not part of the engine
assembly.
Generally, air-cooled engines in this group are suppUed as a complete power pack-
age ready to be run. Various items such as air cleaners, mufflers, gasoline tank, starting
means, fuel filter, a complete magneto ignition system, and the blower or fan for cooling,
are all part of the engine assembly.
Starting methods include hand cranks, ropes, rewind and recoil starters, as well as
electric starters. Rope, rewind and recoil types are most widely u?e(l on the smaller
engines.
Cranks arc Kencrally used on the larger engines.
Electric starting is an optional feature on a few of thi- larger engines. The addition
of a storage battery, starting motor, and battery charging generator, could more Ihan
460
Maintenance
of Way
Wor
k E
q uipm en t
ATj;aA3
CUiPLSIB .'ITH
S FUZT,
COOLI
COlISUriPTIOH
;;> FAii, AIR
4 ^YCia aIh coolsd i::3r..T:3
JLEASa &■ I^OFFLBR - FU'JL GAS0LI13
Approx
LOAD
1
APPHOXIMAT^ iAT.LOlIS
P3H EOUH AT
—
r.p.m.
,;eight of
H.P.
1600 1300
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200 I 2400
3500
Bare Eng.
2.5
to
6.
FUIL
3/4
1/2
.29 .32
.24 .26
.18 .20
.39
.29
.23
.46
.31
.26
.49
.36
.29
.51
.39
.32
.54
.44
.35
.59
.49
.37
.63 .65
.52 .57
.41 .44
.67
.59
.45
70 - 30
3.5
to
7
ruii
3/4
1/2
.37 .41
.31 .35
.25 .27
.45
.38
.30
.50
.43
.33
.55
.48
.36
.59
.50
.39
.63
.54
.41
.57
.44
.71 .73
.60 .52
.46 .48
.75
.54
.50
80 - 93
4.7
to
' 9.2
FUIL
3/4
1/2
.45 .51
.38 .44
.30 .34
.53
.49
.38
.53
.53
.42
.69
.58
.46
.73
.62
.49
.77
.55
.52
. .81
.69
.54
.35 .97
.72 .74
,56 .58
.89
.75
.60
105 - 115
7.7
to
12.5
FULL
3/4
1/2
.90 1.00
.78 .83
.63 .68
1.12
.89
.78
1.22
.95
.82
1.33
1.08
.87
1 .3S
1.08
.92
1.38
1.13
.99
1.42
1.19
1.00
165 - 185
,10
to
18
FULL
3/4
1/2
1.10 1.23
.83 .96
.70 .75
1.41
1.16
.79
1.67
1.27
.88
1.70
1.33
.94
1.74
1.38
1.02
1.85
1.51
1.10
1.9C
1.57
1.19
?.02 :-M0
■•.63 1.54
1.C5 1.34
2.15
•'.70
1 .39
170 - 200
1
yuet
prem
fuel
consuaiption chart f
Lxed with the fuel,
and lubrlcatioa cos
or Two
This
ts of
Cycle
sho-Jd
operat
Air C
":? ta
ion.
ooled En:in^n ipc ■'aces the luoricant
•cen into considerr'.tion in conparing
AVERAGE
FUEL
:OHSUMPTIOU T'VO CYCLE AIR
COOLED
EUOIIES FUEL 0lL-GArfOLIS3 KIXTUH3
1 H.P.
LOAD
APPROXIMATE GALLONS
P2H HOUR AT
r.B.m.
Iveight of
1 Approx
1600
1800 ' 2000 ' 2
200 Z
400 ' 2600 '2300 ' 3
000 ' z
2C0 "300 3800 4C00 'Bare 2n<r.-
2.5
1 to
j 5.0.
FULL
13/4
11/2
.37
.31
.23
.40 !
.33 i
.25 i
.45 ■
.34 !
.27
.51
.35
.29
.54 j
.40 1
.32 '
.57
.44 :
.35
.59
.43
.38
.64
.53
.40
.68 .72
.56 .52
.44 .47
.75
.68 .
.50
79 1
74 25 L"3s.
53
Fuel consumption chart for Tv/o Cycle v/ater Cooled Engines incluflcsthe lutricant
premixed with the fuel. This should be taken into consideration in comparing
fuel and lubrication costs of operation.
AViRAOE FUEL COMSUlvlPTION - TWO CYCLE WATE3 COOLED ii.'illl^S FUEL 0IL-&A30Lli>"E MIXTUii
Approx.
H.F.
apphoxiuaTE 3allo:is per hour at
r.io.m.
8
FULL
: 1.35
1.77
2.02
2.34
■:.60
to
■ 3/4
1.27
1.45
1.S7
1.93
2.10
13
1/2
1.00
1.21
1.32
1.53
1.62
10
! FULL
.83
1.10
1 .40
1.75
2.00
2,23
to
i 3/4
.78
1.03
1.16
1.45
1.62
••.79
14
1/2
.51
.31
.92
1.15
1.25
••.37
Weiriit of
Bare Engine
1
5
1 FULL
i •4'!'
.50
.75
.87
.97
1.03
to
1 3/4
■ .44
.56
.65
.72
.79
.84
155 Lts.
8
1 1/2
i .35
.45
.50
.57
.61
.64
i3 Lbs.
160 Lbs.
double the weight of many small engine installations. The weight of an electrical starting
system also dictates the use of a magneto.
One of the advantages of air-cooled engines is the fact that there is no danger of
boiling or freezing. This design eliminates water hoppers or water jackets, radiators or
condensers, checking of water levels at regular intervals, and the need to buy anti-freeze.
All engines should be equipped with an efficient air cleaner. Either the dry-element
type or the oil-bath type of air cleaner will perform their functions adequately, if serv-
iced according to the manufacturer's recommendations, and will help to prolong the life
of the engine.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 461
Report on Assignment 12
Shop Machinery and Equipment Needed for Work
Equipment Shops
J. W. Cummings (chairman subcommittee), W. T. Hammond, Jack Largent, C. F.
Montague, P. G. Petri, H. C. Pottsmith, J. W. Risk, R. J. Smith, G. L. Zipperian.
This is a final report submitted as information. A previous report on this subject
was submitted by this committee in 1Q46 and may be found in the Proceedings, \'ol. 47,
pages 182 to 192.
From experience gained since publication of the previous report and the acquisition
of many more complex and different types of machines, it is the opinion of the com-
mittee that the shop machinery and equipment recommended for use in 1946 should be
reviewed and studied with a view to revising the requirements to meet current demand
and include additional and different types of tools and equipment needed to efficiently
carry out the repair work on machines of both the older and the most recent types.
It is the opinion of the committee that the amount of equipment needed in a main-
tenance of way shop should be in direct proportion to the number of machines main-
tained by a particular railroad. This also applies to the number of machine tools which
could be used in a medium or large shop.
The regional or system shop should be set up to perform heavy specialized repairs
to all classes of machines, new or old. and should be equipped accordingly.
The district or division shop or small maintenance of way repair shop can perform
other classes of w^ork, which consist largely of replacing small parts, etc., where special
machines are not required to make repairs.
With this arrangement, it is felt that roadway machines can be maintained in the
best condition and in the most economical manner.
The following fists the shop machinery and equipment recommended for use in:
(1) regional or system shop, and (2) district or division shop.
Regional or System Shop
Torque wrenches.
Impact wrenches.
Socket wrench sets, % in, Yi in and 1 in drive.
Combination box and open end wrenches.
Ignition point wrenches.
Pipe wrenches — 6 in to 36 in.
Set of thickness gages 10 in long — 0.002 to 0.050
Set of thickness gages 4 in long — 0.002 to 0.050
Heavy-duty wheel, sprocket and gear pullers.
Heavy-duty spanner and ring wrenches.
Taps and dies, national coarse and national fine.
Drills of all sizes.
Screw extractors all sizes.
Screw clamps — 1 in to 12 in.
Taper pin reamers.
Taper motor car wheel reamers.
Expansion reamers for bushings — ^ in to 2 in, with line reaming extensions.
Set of gasket punches.
462 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Flanging tool- — yi in to ^'4 in for copper tubing.
Hand tachometer.
Electric tachometer.
Circular hole saws — ^-s in to -^ in.
Gasoline blow torch.
J4-in electric drills.
^-in electric drills with bench stand.
^-in electric drills with bench stand.
Work benches equipped with vise and tool drawers.
Air compressor (portable).
Garage-type dolly jacks.
Anti-freeze tester.
Soldering irons.
Soldering iron furnace.
Soldering torch for radiator repairs.
Soldering acid gun for radiator repairs.
Radiator test tank and rubber ball test plugs.
Air reduction valve for testing radiators.
Hand bolt cutters and nippers.
Bevel protractor and combination square set.
Device for testing air compressors and air tools.
Automotive floor jacks.
Transmission jacks.
Portable hoists.
Bench grinders — 8 in to 10 in.
Starter repair tools.
Safety cleaning vat.
Cylinder ridge reamers.
Cylinder hone.
Cylinder boring bar.
Cylinder sleeve pullers.
Piston vise.
Piston ring measuring tool.
Piston rirg compressors.
Piston ring groove cleaner.
Piston pin honing machine.
Piston lathe and grinder.
Connecting rod aliner.
Connecting rod bearing boring tool.
Cyhnder head surface grinder.
Crank shaft grinder.
Main bearing line boring bar.
Motor repair stands.
Dynamometer engine test equipment (30-300 hp)
Dynamometer engine test equipment (0-50 hp)
Spark plug cleaner and tester.
Spark plug gap gage.
Complete set of spark plug taps.
Valve seat grinder.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 46^
\alve seat inserter.
Valve refacer.
Valve guide removers and installers.
Valve guide reamers.
Valve spring lifters.
Valve spring tension tester.
Electric valve grinder.
Hand valve grinders.
Set of carburetor repair tools. '
Compression tester.
Fuel pump tester.
Wheel balancer.
Front end alinement equipment.
Headlight tester and adjuster.
Pressure lubricating unit.
Braker bleeder.
Brake cylinder hone.
Brake drum lathe.
Timing light.
.\mpere. volt and resistance tester.
Cam angle meter.
Electric laboratory testing set for generators, regulators, starters, distributers, con-
densers, coils and magnetos.
Armature growler.
Mica undercutter.
Armature winding equipment
Armature dipping vat.
Armature baking oven.
Armature bearing pullers.
Magnet meter.
Circuit analyzer set.
DC ammeters (0 to 6 amp and 6 to 30 amp).
DC voltmeter (0 to 150 amp and 0 to .^00 amp).
AC and DC tong tester (0 to .^0 amp and 0 to 600 amp).
Brush spring ten.sion gage.
Storage battery analyzer.
Battery terminal cleaner.
Battery cell tester.
Hydrometer for battery acid tist.
Battery carrying straps.
Battery wax melting pot.
Generator and starter pole shoe spreader.
Generator and starter pole shoe .screw remover.
.Armature dressing stones.
Starter current indicator.
Exhaust analyzer.
Tube vulcanizing kits.
Tubeless tire repair kit.
Hiy;h-prfssurc pumji for making h\(lrostatic test of tanks and air reservoirs.
464 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Radiator test tank and repair kit.
Set of body and fender tools.
Motor car wheel mounting gage.
Set of motor car wheel gages.
24-in band saw.
Electric hand saws.
Electric hand sanders.
Standard set of carpenter tools.
Glass cutters.
Milling machine.
Pony planer — 24 in.
Rip and cut off saw — size 16 in with dado heads.
Jointer — 12 in.
Open lire furnace.
Anvil and blacksmith tools.
Sheet metal shears — 60 in.
Horizontal wheel press — 200 ton.
Vertical turret lathe.
Key seating machine.
Connecting rod and main bearing babbiting-equipmenl, inclufling melting pots,
jigs, etc.
Spot welding machine.'
Power sheet metal shear.
Power sheet metal break. ^
Power sheet metal rollers.
Power boiler plate and angle iron shear.
Hydraulic hose connecting, installing equipment.
Bridge cranes — one 30 ton, two 10 ton.
Electric or gas-electric mobile shop crane.
2000 lb capacity trolley-type electric hoist.
Portable electric welder — 300-400 amp.
Heavy-duty extension bed gap lathe 20-in swing, with 40 in by 40 in swing exten-
sion bed opened, complete with accessories.
Horizontal shaper with 30-in travel.
6-ft radial drill, heavy duty with box table.
Universal milHng machine No. 4.
Stationary electric powered hydraulic press — 150 ton capacity.
Furnace for annealing and hardening.
Hand-powered portable hydraulic press — 50-100 ton.
Heavy duty double-end pedestal grinders — 14-in wheels
Double-end pedestal grinders — 10-in wheels for tools.
Power hack saw.
Lathe tool grinder.
High-speed friction saw for cutting hydraulic hose.
Semi-automatic welding machine.
Metal spray equipment for reclamation of shafts, hydraulic rams, etc.
Manual and hydraulic jacks — 25-75 ton capacity.
Monograph shape cutting machine.
Steam cleaning machine.
Maintenance of Wa> Work Equipment 465
Hot dip cleaning tanks.-
Hydraulic test rack.
Unit injector rebuilding kit.
Magnet charger.
Distributor tester.
Coil condenser tester.
Brake and clutch relining and riveting machine.
Flow testing meter for hydraulics.
Resonant reed tachometer.
Injector testing kit.
Battery charger.
Portable chain blocks — Yz ton, 2 tun capacil> .
Motor analyzer instrument kit (automotive).
Paint shop equipped with blower, dryer and spra> er.
Oxyacetylene welding and cutting equipment.
Test track, preferably outside but close to shoj).
Inspection pits.
300-amp electric welding unit (portable).
Pneumatic off hand grinder — 6-in wheel.
Vertical drill press — 2 in capacity.
Combination pipe and bolt threading machine.
5-ton arbor press.
Lathe — 10-in swing, 4-ft centers.
Tool room equipped with small grinders, electric drills, slings, chains, punches,
straight edges, gages, inside and outside micrometers, etc.
Stud removers.
Bearing scrapers. ^
Snap ring removers.
Dial indicators.
Pipe taps and ratchet dies — Js i'l lo 1 in.
Straight edge — 36 in.
Steel measuring tape — 50 ft.
Carpenters level.
Electric hand grinder 8-in wheel.
Electric light extensions.
Brake drum checking gage.
Pipe vises.
Welding table and face plate.
Body and fender straightening tools.
Paint spray booth and equipment.
Welding booth with exhaust fans.
Lifting cables, chairs and slings (variou.- sizes and lengths).
District or Division Shop
Torque wrenches.
Impact wrenches.
Socket wrench sets, ^ in, J^ in and 1 in drive.
Combination box and open end wrenches.
Ignition point wrenches.
466 Maintenance of Way Wo rk Equipment
Pipe wrenches- b in to ib in.
Set of thickness gases 10 in long — 0.002 to O.OSO.
Set of thickness gages 4 in long — 0.002 to 0.050.
Heavy-duty wheel, sprocket and gear pullers.
Heavy duty spanner and ring wrenches — T.
Taps and dies, national coarse and national fine.
Drills of all sizes.
Screw e.xtractors, all sizrs.
Stud removers, all sizes.
Screw clamp.s — 1 in to 12 in.
Taper pin reamers.
Taper motor car wheel reamers.
Expansion reamers for bushing ^ in to 2 in, with iini' reaming extensions.
Gasket punch set.
Flanging tool, Vs in to ^ in, for copper tubing.
Hand tachometer.
Electric tachometer.
Circular hole saws — ^ in to 3 in.
Gasoline blow torch.
J4-in electric drill.
^-in electric drill with bench stand.
Work benches with 4-in and 6-in vises.
Air compressor, portable.
Snap ring removers.
Garage type dolly jacks.
Anti-freeze tester.
Soldering irons. *
Soldering torch for radiator repairs.
Soldering acid gun.
Radiator test tank and rubber ball test plugs.
Air reduction valve for testing radiators.
Hand bolt cutters and nippers.
Bevel protractor and combination square set.
Device for testing air compressors and air tools.
Automotive floor jacks.
Transmission jacks.
Portable hoists.
Bench grinder — 8 in.
Starter repair tools.
Safety cleaning vat.
Cylinder ridge reamer.
Cylinder hone
Cylinder sleeves pullers.
Piston vise.
Piston ring measuring tool.
Piston ring compressors.
Piston ring groove cleaners.
Piston pin bushing reamers.
Connecting rod aliner.
^ Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 467
Motor repair stand.
Spark plug cleaner and tester.
Spark plug gap gage.
Complete set of spark plug taps.
Valve seat grinder.
Valve seat inserter.
Valve refacer.
Valve guide removers and installers.
\'alve guide reamers.
Valve .spring lifters.
Hand valve grinder.
Electric valve grinder.
Valve spring tension tester.
Set of carburetor repair tools.
Compression tester.
Fuel pump tester.
Vacuum gage.
Headlight tester and adjuster.
Pressure lubricating unit.
Brake bleeder and tiller.
Brake cylinder hone.
Timing light.
Ampere, volt and resistance tester.
Cam angle meter.
Armature growler.
Armature turning and undercutter.
Armature bearing pullers.
DC ammeters (0 to 6 amp and 6 to 30 amp).
DC voltmeter (0 to ISO and 0 to 300).
AC and DC tong tester (0 to 30 amp and 0 to 600 amp).
Brush spring tension scale.
Storage battery analyzer.
Battery terminal cleaner.
Battery cell tester.
Hydrometer for battery acid test.
Battery carrying straps.
Armature dressing stones.
Starter current indicator.
Tube vulcanizing kit.
Tubeless tire repair kit.
Motor car wheel mounting gage.
Motor car wheel thickne.ss gage.
Electric hand saw.
Hydraulic hose connecting and installing cciuipmcnl.
Portable electric welder — 300 amp.
Hydraulic press — 50 ton.
Heavy duty pedestal grinder — 14 in.
Hydraulic hose cutter.
Manual and hydraulic jack.s — 10 to .SO ton.
468
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Steam cleaner.
Distributor tester.
Coil and condenser tester.
Test gages for hydraulic pumps and motors.
Battery charger.
Portable chain blocks— J^ to 2 ton capacity.
Motor analyzer kit (automotive).
Oxyacetylene welding and cutting equipment.
Vertical drill press— 2-in capacity.
Lathe— 10 in, 4-ft centers.
Set of bearing scrapers.
Riveting machine for brake and clutch lining.
Inside and outside micrometers— 0 to 6 in.
Inside and outside calipers — 0 to 12 in.
Straight edge — 36 in.
Steel measuring tape — 50 ft.
Electric light extensions.
Brake drum checking gage.
Pipe vises.
Bushing removers and installers.
Overhead or jib cranes.
Lifting cables, chains and slings (various sizes and lengths).
Resonant reed tachometer.
Wheel balancing machine.
Open fire forge, anvil and tools.
I
Report of Committee 29 — Waterproofing
W. H. Acker, Jr.
A. L. Becker
D. E. Bray
Lyle Bristow
M. W. Bruns
W. H. BUNGE
A. E. Cawood
G. W. Clarvoe
E. T. Franzex
J. M. GiLMORi;
Nelson Haxdsaker
W. G. Harding
W. P. Hendrix
E. K. Herling
R. L. Mays
L. H. Needham
B. J. Ornburn
H. A. P ASM AN
R. A. Peteritas
Milton Pikarsky
R. D. POWRIE
C. W. Preston
W. E. Robey
Jack Schmidt
F. S. Schubert
Henry Seitz
T. M. VON Sprecken
J. W. Weber
C. A. Whipple (E)
H. J. WiLKINS
K. B. Woods
Com mil Ice
E. A. Johnson. Chairman,
R. J. Brueske,
Vice Chairman,
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Raikcay Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, submitted as information page 469
2. Waterproofing materials and their application to railway structures, collab-
orating with Committees 6, 8 and 15.
Progress report, submitted as information page 470
3. Coatings for dampproofing railway structures, collaborating with Commit-
tees 6 and 8.
Progre.ss report, .■^ulimittcd as information page 471
The Committee on Waterprooflng,
E. A. Johnson, Chairman.
.\RKA Hiilletin 547, Deceiilier 1958.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
R. J. Brueske (chairman, subcommittee), M. W. Bruns, E. T. Franzen, E. A. Johnson,
R. L. Mays, C. W. Preston, H. Seitz, T. M. von Sprecken.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
Your committee is now reviewing the specifications for the purpose of correcting
inconsistencies and grammatical errors. The corrections will be submitted for adoption
next year, at which time your committee will also recommend for adoption the fol-
lowing revisions in the Specifications for Membrane Waterproofing, Manual pages 29-
2-1 to 29-2-].^, incl.
4bV
470 Waterproofing
On page 29-2-1, Sec. A, Art. 2, add at end of first paragraph: Right-angle bends
should be avoided by using rounded or chamfered edges on outside corners and a
suitable fillet on inside corners. An underlayment consisting of a bituminous mastic or
other suitable material may be placed under the membrane waterproofing on steel deck
bridges to protect the membrane against uneven burrs or projections and/or to provide
slope for drainage.
On page 29-2-13, Sec. C, Art. 2, Par. f, delete the word "generally" in the ninth
line; add a period at the end of this line after the words "375 deg F"; and delete the
last two lines.
Report on Assignment 2
Waterproofing Materials and Their Application
to Railway Structures
Collaborating with Committees 6, 8 and 15
E. T. Franzen (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Acker, Jr., R. J. Brueske, A. L.
Becker, D. E. Bray, A. E. Cawood, G. W. Clarvoe, N. Handsaker, B. J. Ornburn,
H. A. Pasman, R. A. Peteritas, M. Pikarsky, R. D. Powrie, J. Schmidt.
Your committee submits the following progress report as information.
The work on this assignment is progressing on several fronts. For one thing
investigation has been completed on a ballast-deck bridge on the Chicago & Western
Indiana Railroad to correlate the temperature of the waterproofing membrane to air
temperature.
Also, tests of waterproofing membranes continue to be carried on by the AAR
research staff in Chicago. Tests have now been completed to determine the qualities
and the relation to temperature of various bituminous materials supplied by manufac-
turers to meet the requirements of AREA specifications for asphalts and tars for above-
and below-ground use. Further tests are being made to determine the effect of the
number of plies on the quality of the waterproofing membrane. It is anticipated that
a report will be made next year on these tests of membranes.
In order to clarify the specifications for membrane waterproofing, your committee
is considering changing the words: "insulating paper" to "anti-bonding paper", with
the following definitions: "Paper used to prevent bond of membrane. It shall weigh
not less than 5 lb per 100 sq ft and be impervious to the bituminous material applied
to the membrane."
Consideration is also being given to revising the specifications for asphalt plank
and mastic in order to bring these specifications up to date. The basic research on
mastic is to be undertaken by Purdue University.
Waterpro o 1" i n g 471_
Report on Assignment 3
Coatings for Dampproofing Railway Structures
Collaborating with Committees 6 and 8
C. W. Preston (chairman, subcommittee), L. Bristovv, W. H. Burge, J. M. Gilmore,
W. G. Harding, VV. P. Hendrix, E. K. Heiling, L. H. \eedham, W. E. Robey,
F. S. Schubert, H. Seitz, T. M. von Sprecken, J. W. Weber, H. J. Wilkins, K. B.
Woods.
The testing of various properties of dampproofing coatings was continued at Purdue
University. The degree to which dampproofing coatings are wet by water is being
measured, and the influence of weathering on wetability is being determined.
Film samples made from 14 bituminous emulsions of various types were tested to
determine the degree of their wetting by water applied to them. It was found that
in a dry state such materials are resistant to the entrance of water into cracks and
pinholes, but immersion in water lowers the ability of the material to resist such pene-
tration. Some materials are better than others in this respect. A progress report on this
aspect of the work was submitted to the committee.
These emulsion films are also being weathered in an accelerated weathering machine
to determine the degree to which their wetting by water is changed by such exposure.
Preliminary results indicate that the ability of these materials to withstand penetration
of water into imperfections as increased by the weathering process unless the film itself
is destroyed.
Silicone films are also being weathered and their wetting characteristics determined.
First results show that the ability of these materials to withstand wetting is gradually
destroyed by the weathering process until a point is reached where they are probably
no longer useful.
The diffusion and permeation of water through intact films of the bituminous
emulsion materials are also being determined. These tests show that intact bituminous
films are excellent waterproofing materials. It is hoped to be able to characterize the
penetration of these film? by means of certain thermodynamic properties of the process.
Report of Committee 8 — Masonry
E. A. McLeod, Chairman,
D. H. DowE,
Vice Chairman,
J. W. Briscoe
Lyle Bristow
M. W. Bruns
A. E. Cawood
Maurice Coburn (E)
G. W. Cooke
E. J. Daily
H. M. Dalziel
G. H. Dayett
G. H. Dayett, Jr.
j. w. dolson
B. M. Dornblatt
G. F. Eberly (E)
W. J. Eney
H. J. Engel
J. A. Erskine
J. U. ESTES
A. B. Fowler
W. J. Galloway
R. W. Gilmore
J. S. Hancock
G. P. Hwes, Jr.
W. P. Hendrix
A. E. HOTARD
A. C. Johnson
E. W. Kieckers
R. J. Klueh
A. P. KOUBA
A. N. Laird
E. F. Manley
W. Lyle McDaniel
L. M. Morris
L. H. Needham
L. P. Nicholson
R. F. Noll
m. s. norris
Roscoe Owen
Donald Patterson
R. E. Paulson
R. B. Peck
J. E. Peterson
C. B. Porter
W. H. Robertson
R. L Rollings
J. H. Sawyer, Jr.
C. P. Schantz
J. H. Shieber
D. H. Shoemaker
C. H. Splitstone (E)
J. G. Sutherland
Anton Tedesko
R. A. Ullery
L. E. Vandegrift
Neil Van Eenam
K. J. Wagoner
J. W. Weber
C. A. Whipple (E)
J. R. Williams
W. R. Wilson
E. P. Wright
Committee
( K) Member Emeritus.
To tlir American Railway Eni^ineerin^ Association :
Vour committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 474
2. Design of masonry structures, collaborating with Committees 1, 5, 6, 7,
IS, 28, 20 and 30.
Progress report, including recommended revisions of, and additions to,
material now in the Manual . . .'. -. page 474
,S. Foundations and earth pressures, collaborating with Committees 1, 6, 7,
LS and .^0.
Progress in study, but no report.
,=;. Tunnel linings; Design, construction and maintenance, collaborating with
Committees 1, 5, 17, 28 and 2Q.
Progress report presented as information and recommended revisions to
Manual submitted for adoption page 48Q
6. Prestressed concrete for railway structures, collaborating with Committee 6.
Progress in study, but no report.
7. Quality of concrete and mortars, collaborating with Committee 6.
Progress report, presented as information page 494
473
474 Masonry
10. Methods of construction with precast concrete structural members, col-
laborating with Committee 6.
Progress in study, but no report.
The Committee on Masonry,
E. A. McLeod, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 547, December 1958.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
E. P. Wright (chairman, subcommittee), G. H. Dayett, Jr., D. H. Dowe, J. U. Estes,
A. C. Johnson, A. P. Kouba, R. B. Peck, R. A. Ullery.
Your committee recommends the adoption of the revisions to the Manual as set
forth in the reports on Assignments 2 and 5.
Report on Assignment 2
Design of Masonry Structures
Collaborating with Committees 1, 5, 6, 7, 15, 28, 29 and 30
J. U. Estes (chairman subcommittee), E. J. Daily, H. M. DaMel, J. S. Hancock, A. N.
Laird, D. Patterson, R. E. Paulson, J. H. Shieber, A. Tedesko, L. E. Vandegrift.
Your committee submits the following report recommending the adoption of revi-
sions and additions to certain material now in the Manual.
Pages 8-1-1 to 8-1-26, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE AND REINFORCED
CONCRETE RAILROAD BRIDGES AND OTHER
STRUCTURES
Page 8-1-6. Change Sec. E, Art. 2. Quality, to read as follows:
2. Quality
All steel reinforcing bars shall be of structural or intermediate grade billet, rail or
axle steel, as specified on the drawings.
The material shall conform in quality to the following ASTM Specifications:
Bars: A 15, A 16, A 160
Deformations: A 305
Wire: A 82
Fabricated Materials: A 184, A 185.
When cast iron or srtuctural steel sections are used, as in composite or combination
columns, these materials shall conform in quality to the standard ASTM Specifications
of the following apphcable serial designations: A 7, A 377.
Page 8-1-8. Add to Sec. H, Art. 2. Bending, the following:
Field bending of rail or a.xle steel .shall not be permitted except as approved by
the engineer.
Masonry 475
Your committee also presents as information a tentative draft of Specifications for
Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Trestles for Railway Loading, and
requests comments and criticisms thereon, with the thought of presenting them next
year for adoption and pubhcation in the Manual.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE TRESTLES FOR
RAILWAY LOADING
A. GENERAL
L Definition
A concrete trestle is a bridge structure composed of a series of short concrete spans
supported on pile bents.
2. Scope
Trestles constructed under this specification shall be built complete, ready for the
laying of track, in strict accordance with the plan and intent of these specifications.
Nothing contained herein shall be construed as superseding details shown on the
drawings. Where the specifications conflict with the drawings, the drawings shall govern.
3. Bents
The bents shall consist of three or more piles with a cast-in-pjace reinforced con-
crete cap. The piles may be either precast reinforced concrete, concrete-filled tubular
steel, or other acceptable types, such as H-piles.
4. Spans
These spans shall be precast reinforced concrete slabs carrying the track on a bal-
lasted deck. Each span shall consist of two parallel slabs abutting each other at the
center line of track.
B. DESIGN
1. General
The Specifications for Design of Plain and Reinforced Concrete Members as pre-
scribed in Part 2, this Chapter, shall govern except as otherwise provided herein.
2. Assumptions
The slabs shall be designed as simple spans with each slab carrying the live load
from one rail. Direct vertical loads shall be uniformly distributed transversely to the
slabs and piles.
The piles shall be assumed fixed at the caps. The bearing of the slabs on the bents
shall be assumed not to restrain the rotation or translation of the caps.
The piles shall be designed as columns in accordance with Part 2, but in addition
they shall be designed for handling as shown on Fig. 8.
3. Design Loads
The following loads shall i)e used in the (lesign of concrete tre,<tles:
a. Dead load
b. Live load
c. Impact
d. Centrifugal force
e. Lateral forces
f. Longitudinal forces
476 Masonry
4. Dead Load
The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the track, ballast and the
structural member. Dead-load moments and shears are shown on Fig. 6 for slab spans
14 ft to 22 ft, incl.
5. Live Load
The recommended live load shall be Cooper E 72. Live-load moments and shears
are shown on Fig. 6 for slab spans 14 ft to 22 ft, incl.
6. Impact
Impact forces shall be distributed to the slabs as for the live load. Impact moments
and shears are shown on Fig. 6 for slab spans 14 ft to 22 ft, incl.
Impact forces shall be distributed to the bents in accordance with the formula
lOOZ-
^ ^ L + D '
where / is the percentage of the live load for impact, L is the live-load bent reaction
and D is the dead-load bent reaction.
Impact shall be neglected in determining the bearing capacity of the pile (see
Part 4, Pile Foundations this Chapter).
7. Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force as a percentage of the live load shall be determined as indicated
in Part 2, this Chapter.
8. Lateral Forces
Lateral forces shall be determined as indicated in Part 2.
9. Longitudinal Forces
The magnitude of the longitudinal forces shall be in accordance with Part 2.
For trestles not exceeding 200 ft in length, having longitudinal continuity by fric-
tional resistance and having no open rail joints, the entire longitudinal force may be
considered carried to the embankments at the end of the trestle. For trestles exceeding
200 ft having continuity of members, no open rail joints and double bents, as shown
on Fig. 1, one-half the specified longitudinal force shall be distributed to the bents in
proportion to their relative stiffnesses.
If longitudinal continuity is broken, as by a movable span or a span having expan-
sion bearings, the entire longitudinal force shall be distributed to the bents (or piers)
in proportion to their relative stiffnesses.
C. CONSTRUCTION
1. General
The general construction is shown on Fig. 1. Selection of span lengths will
generally be influenced by the location of existing timber bents and other local conditions.
2. Precast Concrete Piles
Details of 24-in precast octagonal piles are shown on Fig. 8 for lengths up to
60 ft. Pick-up points for handling shall be clearly marked as shown. The pile may be
picked up at either or both points, as indicated.
The piles shall be manufactured, handled and driven in compliance with Part 4,
this Chapter. They shall be driven to a working load of 75 tons per pile. Loading
tests, when required, shall comply with Part 4.
Masonry 477
3. Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles
Details of 21-in prestressed square piles are shown on Fig. 11 for lengths up to
04 ft. Pick-up points for handling shall be clearly marked as shown. The pile may be
picked up at either or both points (see note on Fig. 11).
The piles shall be manufactured, handled and driven in compliance with Part 4.
They shall be driven to a working load of 75 tons per pile. The stress in the concrete
due to prestress is 800 psi to reduce the rebound effect during driving. Loading tests,
when required, shall comply with Part 4.
4. Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles
Tubular-steel, concrete-filled piles ma\' be used in lieu of precast concrete piles.
Details of typical bent construction using these piles are shown on Fig. 9. The piles
shown may be of either fluted or plain section. The plain round piles shall be seamless
or butt seam welded tubes. Piles shall be driven in compliance with Part 4. They shall
be driven to a working load of 75 tons per pile. Loading tests, when required, shall
comply with Part 4.
5. Steel H-Piles
Steel H-piles may be used in lieu of precast concrete piles. Details of typical bent
construction using these piles are shown on Fig. 10.
Piles shall be driven in compliance with Part 4. They shall be driven to a working
load of 75 tons per pile. Loading tests, when required, shall comply with Part 4.
6. Bents
The piles in each bent may be driven by shifting the bridge ties with little or no
disturbance to the existing structure. The center pile may be driven between the
stringers and the other piles driven outside the stringers.
The caps and collars for the single and double bents shall be cast in place. The
portion of the double bents between slabs above the bridge seat, as shown on Fig. 5,
shall be cast in place after the stringers have been removed and the slab erected. Details
of single and double intermediate bents are shown on Fig. 3, and details of end bents
are shown on Fig. 4.
7. Spans
Fig. 6 shows typical details of precast slabs for spans of 14 to 21 ft, incl. The depth
of slabs for these spans may be held constant at 2 ft, or varied as shown in the tables.
Fig. 7 shows details of drainage. The joint between the slabs at the center line of
track ard over the bents is covered with 1 by 8-in asphalt planks to permit relative
movements of the slabs and retain the ballast.
If it is objectionable to discharge deck drainage through the slab as shown, the deck
drains may be eliminated, the entire ballast trough waterproofed with a membrane as
described in Art. 8, following, and the drainage carried to intermediate points for dis-
posal through downspouts. If drainage is carried to the end of the trestle, perforated
pipe may be laid behind the end bent back wall and wingwalls for disposal down the
embankment slope.
8. Waterproofing
When required, the ballast trough shall be waterproofed by applying a three-ply
membrane and a protective cover to the surfaces as specified in Part 2, Chapter 20.
This membrane shall be type C, consisting of two layers of bitumen-treated felt, one
middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and four moppings of bitumen. The
l)r<)tective covi-r shall be asphalt plank.
478
Masonry
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
GENERAL PLAN
aTBASE of RAIL
24 INCH
CONCRETE PILES
TRACK a TRESTLE
LENGTH AND DEPTH OF SLABS MAY
VARY, SEE FIG. 5. SLAB SHOWN IS
I7'-II. DEPTH IS 2'-0
FOR GENERAL NOTES SEE FIG. 2.
FOR HEIGHTS OVER 35 FT BENTS
SHALL BE DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE
WITH PART 2 OF CHAPTER 8.
BENTS WITH THREE 24" CONCRETE
RLES CAPABLE OF RESISTING 10 7. OF
THE SPECIFIED LONGITUDINAL FORCE
FOR THE TWO ADJACENT SPANS AS
REQUIRED IN PART 2-C OF CHAPTERS.
CONCRETE CaLAR
m.
HALF ELEVATION
INTERIOR BENT
USE ONE DOUBLE BENT FOR EACH 200 FT OF TRESTLE
"RrLiTTi
" 11 il w -^^
CONCRETE COLLARS
Jrf—^'--^
W
DOUBLE BENT
Masonry 479
FIG. 2. AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION CONCRETE
RAILWAY TRESTLE GENERAL NOTES
All concrete and concrete work shall conform to the appropriate specifications in
Chapter 8, AREA Manual, and AREA Instructions for Mixing and Placing Concrete,
1952.
Ultimate compressive strength of concrete shall be not less than 4000 p.si in 28
days with the maximum water-cement ratio specified in Chapter 8, Part 1, Sec. J,
Table 1. for the condition of exposure to which it will be subjected.
Reinforcement shall conform to specifications in Part 1. Reinforcement areas shown
are based on 20,000 psi.
Where bars are shown on the drawings to be spliced, they shall be lapped a minimum
of 24 diameters.
The reinforcement shall have a minimum cover of 2 in of concrete, unless otherwise
indicated on the drawings.
All reinforcement shall conform with the detail drawings.
Construction joints shall be wire-brushed before the concrete has hardened, or have
all laitance completely removed by picks, chisels or other means. Dirt and other foreign
material must be thoroughly cleaned off and surfaces dampened before additional concrete
is placed.
Concrete above and below construction joints shall be cast monolithically.
Construction joints shall be located only as shown on the drawings.
Concrete piles shall be precast to the dimensions shown on the drawings. They shall
be driven to refusal or 75 tons capacity as determined from load tests described in
Part 4, Chapter 8. The pile capacity shall include dead load plus live load without
impact.
480
Masonry
FIG 3
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
INTERIOR BENTS
.— BASE OF RAIL
CD CL
< kJ
u>
SYM. ABT (t
?i^ 6.-.6i._
_^J-oj-q^J-oJ-a
-t-T
1-4-
nizi
i-e 1-3
1^ ruTFr!!
l2-»»4 I — 1
HALF ELEVATION i HALF ELEVATION
FOR SLABS : FOR BEAM SPANS
-i-i-i-
CAP FOR THREE PILE BENT
HALF PLAN
FOR SLABS
HALF PLAN
FOR BEAM SPANS
SYM, ABT (t.
2-0 I'-Oj 3-0
SYM. ABT t
-BASE OF RAIL
8 |j-6jl-3|y-3
2-6 i 5-0
^9 1-0 1-0^9 , l-Q 1-0 „Z- J -
• t *■ -f " "- -
hlT-lfJHli-ilf-UfH-ti-H
^
t
HALF ELEVATION , HALF ELEVATION
FOR SLABS I FOR BEAM SPANS
HALF $. SECTION HALF (t. SECTION
FOR SLABS FOR BEAM SPANS
1
K,
""■-
o
r'^
"i
} ^
~1
('
'l
_3_
■
1
^J^
1
1
1
1.^
J
1,^
— t ^
J
1,^
J
H
ALF
4
PLAN
HALF PL
AN
CAP FOR SIX PILE BENT
FOR GENERAL NOTES SEE FIG 2
FOR SLABS FOR BEAM SPANS
Masonry
481
FIG. 4
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
END BENTS
SYM ABT t
„ 3'-0_
li'-6|l,'-6j
' 1^:6
cBASE OF RAIL
FRONT ELEVATION
3
f^
''^
,-!-. 1 1 1
">
1 '-r'
— 1-
'-^1
l4'-0
4
' i4'-o J
THREE PILE END BENT
FOR SLABS
l4'-0
5-0 J_ 5-0 _[2-q
____ 7^0 _ I '" 7^0 J^"_ 7-0^ _|_ Y-0
HALF FRONT ELEVATION HALF FRONT ELEVATION
OPEN DECK BEAM SPANS BALLAST DECK BEAM SPANS
SECTION DO
2-0 l'-6l'6l'0
4-0
10-0
4}
SECTION EE
FRONT ELEVATION FOR SLABS
(DETAILS NOT SHOWN SAME AS BEAM SPANS)
BASE OF RAIL
SECTION FF
FIVE PILE END BENT
FOR SLABS AND BEAM SPANS
FOR GENERAL NOTES SEE FIG 2
482
Masonry
FIG. 5
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
MISCELLANEOUS BENT DETAILS
xS ASPHALT PLANK
PREMOLDED
EXPANSION JOINT
MATERIAL, 12 IN. WIDE
AND i IN. THICK
SLAB JOINT DETAIL
SIX PILE BENT
SLAB JOINT DETAIL
THREE PILE BENT
FILL WITH MORTAR
AFTER SLAB IS PLACED
PREMOLDED
EXPANSION JOINT
MATERIAL, 12 IN. WIDE
AND i IN. THICK
;ll-^J-U
BARS TO PROJECT
^ I '-6 ABOVE
CUT-OFF
mE
CONCRETE PILE
END BENT BEARING DETAIL
DETAIL AT TOP OF PILE
^~T_ TJn: _T^/
SLOPE FOR DRAINAGE
-ALL AROUND-
:m,
^
#
Li-i nfH Jj-i
1 3-6
c
in i:p rp:
ELEVATION
5-0 l'-9
PLAN
COLLAR FOR SIX PILE BENT
13^:6
PLAN
COLLAR FOR THREE PILE BENT
FOR GENERAL NOTES SEE FIG. 2
Masonry
4S.'(
FIG. 6
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
SLAB DESIGN AND DETAILS
r-3 5'- 6
. BRIDGE (
l'-3 5'-6 ,
_ BRIDG
r
I t BRIDGE
'-3 5'-6
r T «4 """""" """
r "
■ r
-*4
T «4 "
\ 1
1
1_
3
■* ■ CONST JOINT
-, #4 © 12
12 1
3
rr.-<. .B4PI2
H-^ • CONST JOINT
1 1
/I \ / \ / \ / V /
CONST
JOINT
l3 3
^. ..vy.\. .V. ..vy.>.
F '{r^ • /*v ,* -zt
18 <9 4 = 6'-0 i
1 14 9 ABOUT 5=6'-0 J
J
3
1 10 3 ABOUT 7i =6'-0 J
i
' ALTERNATE » 4
6'- 6
6' -6
6'-6 3
STIRRUPS
SEC. A
SEC B
SLAB
SEC C
-ENGTH
"mom.; I
IMPACT
Mll
I V '^■'•
1 1
FOR GENERAL
NOTES SEE FIG. 2
1 5i
SHEAR : 1
i "L" C-C. BEARINGS ,
1 ?8
vll ^ol
_ _
SPAN L FEET
22
21
20
19
IS
17
16
15
14
MOMENTS- FT. KIPS
FOR ONE RAIL
DL 3.05 */,T
184 5
168-2
152 5
137 8
123.5
110 2
976
85 8
74 7
LL E 72
442 2
406 7
371 2
335 8
306 0
279 0
252.0
2250
198.0
1
312 0
288.0
263 0
238.0
218-0
2000
181 8
162.9
143 6
TOTAL
938 7
862 9
786 7
711.6
647 5
5892
531 4
473 7
416 3
SHEAR -KIPS
FOR ONE RAIL
DL 505 "/,T
33 6
32 0
30 5
29 0
27 4
25.9
244
22 9
21.4
LL E 72
94 9
92 6
900
87 2
84 0
80 5
765
72 0
69 4
1
70 1
68.9
67 2
65 5
63,3
60.9
581
54 6
53 0
TOTAL
198 6
193 5
187 7
181.7
174 7
167 3
1590
149 5
143 8
"L"
FEET
TABLE 1 - DEPTH VARIES ( IDEAL SECTION ) |
SEC
D
INCHES
d
INCHES
TENS STEEL
As REQD
TENS ST FURN,
fs IN KSI
COMP STEEL
As REQD
LONG ST FURN
f's IN KSI
CONCRETE
fc IN PSI
STIRRUP SPACING
FROM EACH END
22
A
24
2li
30.3 SQ.IN
I9-#II , 20.3
0
IO-*5, 16.2
1670
7 9 10
21
A
23
20^
29.3 ■■
I9-#II
19 8
0
IO-*5, 159
1670
7 e 10
20
A
22
I9t
28 0 "
I9-#II
18 9
0
IO-#5, 15.4
1640
7 9 10
19
A
21
I8f
26.7 ■■
I9-#II
18 1
0
IO-#5, 149
1630
8 8 8
18
A
20
I7i
25.7 "
I9-#II
17 4
0
IO-#5, 145
1620
8 0 8
17
A
19 f
17
24 0 ■'
I9-#I0
19 9
0
10-#5, 139
1660
7 0 8
16
A
18^
16
23 1 ■■
I9-#I0
19 2
0
IO-#5, 13.6
1670
7 0 8
15
B
17^
15
21.9 "
I5-*II
19 0
0
8-#5, 13 2
1680
9 0 6
14
B
I6i
14
20 6 »
I5-#II
17.8
0
8-#5, 125
1670
9 0 6
"l"
FEET
TABLE II - CONSTANT DEPTH j
SEC.
D
INCHES
d
INCHES
TENS STEEL
As REQD
TENS, ST FURN
fs IN KSI
COMP STEEL
A's REQD
LONG. ST FURN
f's IN KSI
CONCRETE
fc IN PSI
STIRRUP SPACING
FROM EACH END
22
A
24
2I7
30 3 SO. IN.
I9-#I1 , 203
0
IO-#5, 16.2
1670
7 0 10
21
A
24
2I7
279 '■
I9-#II , 18 8
0
IO-#5, 151
1550
6 0 10
20
A
24
2I|
253 "
I9-#I0, 20 6
0
IO-#5, 138
1490
5 0 10
19
B
24
2li
23 0 "
I5-#I0, 19 4
0
8-#5, 12 7
1380
5 0 10
18
B
24
2lj
20 9 "
l5-#n , 17 7
0
8-#5, 11 6
1250
4 0 10
17
B
24
2li
19.0 "
I5-*I0, 19 4
0
8-#5, 107
1220
4 0 10
16
C
24
21?
17.1 "
ll-#ll , 19 6
0
6-#5, 9 5
1130
3 0 10
15
B
24
21^
15 3 "
l5-#9 , 19 6
0
8- #5, 8 7
1070
2 0 10
14
C
24
2li
13 4 "
ll-#IO, 18 5
0
6-#5, 79
980
1 0 10
484
Masonry
FIG. 7
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
MISCELLANEOUS SLAB DETAILS
1^ « ANNEALED
AFTER BENDING
BASE OF RAIL-
-V-
SIDE ELEVATION
1^4 DRAIN
1-3 3'3
SLOPE FOR DRAINAGE
3 IN STD. SOIL PIPE WITH
BEE HIVE TYPE
STRAINER
DRIP SLOT
(I HALF ROUND)-
2 ALL AROUND
DETAIL OF DRAIN
4 TRACK
-1x8 ASPHALT PLANK
4U
DETAIL OF SLAB JOINT AT ^ TRACK
NOTES:
LENGTH AND DEPTH OF SLABS
MAY VARY, SEE FIG. 6 SLAB
SHOWN IS 17-11, DEPTH IS 2'-G
FOR GENERAL NOTES SEE FIG 2
BALLASTED DECK
INTERIOR BENTS
3 PILE COLLAR
6 PILE CAP
6 PILE COLLAR
3 PILE CAP
3 PILE COLLAR
6 PILE CAP
6 PILE COLLAR
14 -0 SLABS
21'- 0
17'- 0
2C(- 0
22'- 0
CONCRETE
CU. YDS.
REINF STEEL
LBS.
Masonry
485
FIG 8
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
24 INCH CONCRETE PILE
4 GA SPIRALS, INSIDE DIAMETER =1-8
=^^
wji^
^-
HOOPC— HOOP D —
ii| l||i/ w \ I \ >/ W '< W I >/ 1/ i/ \t^" 1' i' \i \l 1' I' " • ■
ONE POINT PICKUP-
SECTION AA
'2 -POINT PICKUP-
END OF BARS a
0.207 L
ELEVATION
SECTION BB
LENGTH
OF
PILE
LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT |
BAR
SIZE
BAR "o"
BAR "b" 1
NO
LENGTH
NO
LENGTH
O'-O TO 29'- 0 INCL.
»5
4
L-0'-5
4
L-4'-3
30'- 0 TO 33'- 0 INCL
a 6
4
L-0'-5
4
L-4'-3
34'- 0 TO 39'- 0 INCL
« 7
4
L-0'-5
4
L-4'-3
40'- 0 TO 44'- 0 INCL,
« 8
4
L-0'-5
4
L-4'-3
45'- 0 TO 49'- 0 INCL
a 9
4
L-0'-5
4
L-4'-3
50'- 0 TO 55'-0 INCL
«I0
4
L-0'-5
4
L-4'-3
56'- 0 TO 60'- 0 INCL.
«ll
4
L-0'-5
4
L-4'-3
USE 4 GA FOR HOOPS
HOOP C, ID. = I'-l
HOOP D, ID. = 6
DESIGN OF PILE FOR HANDLING
TWO-POINT PICKUP
CONCRETE STRESS, fc= 1080 PSI
STEEL STRESS, f, = 12,000 PSI
IMPACT, 100%
NOTE;
WHEN PILE IS PICKED UP AT ONE
POINT AS MARKED,
MAX fs= 24,000 PSI
MAX fc= 2160 PSI
IMPACT, 25%
FOR GENERAL NOTES SEE FIG. 2
486
M as 0 n r V
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
18 INCH TUBULAR STEEL CONCRETE FILLED PILES
BASE OF RAIL
DIAPHRAGMS ON
ALL THREE PILES
TAPERED OR
CYLINDRICAL
3 PILE BENT
ANGLES 4.t4xi
f~
r\
iT\
REINFORCEMENT
MAY BE USED AT
OPTION OF
ENGINEER
SECTION AA
SECTION BB
NOTES
MINIMUM WALL THICKNESS FOR PILES -3 GAGE.
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE IN PILES, t'^= 6,000 PSI.
FOR BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND LINE LESS THAN l6'-0,
OMIT TRANSVERSE BRACING AND COLLAR
CAP AND COLLAR DETAILS SIMILAR TO FIGS, 3 AND 5
THREE PILE BENTS DESIGNED FOR 10% OF THE
SPECIFIED LONGITUDINAL FORCE FOR THE TWO
ADJACENT SPANS AS REQUIRED IN PART 2-C OF
CHAPTER 8
M a s o n r V
48 7
FIG. 10
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
STEEL H-PILE BENT
BASE OF RAIL
DIAPHRAGMS ON
ALL THREE PILES
IE % W^iT^
3 PILE BENT
6 PILE BENT
-^PIECE OF PILE, SLOTTED TO
\fiT OVER WEB, OR PLATE
PILE CAP DETAIL
USE ONE DOUBLE BENT
FOR EACH 200 FT OF TRESTLE
-DOUBLE BENT
NOTES
IF BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND LINE IS l6'-0
OR LESS, USE I4BPII7 WITHOUT TRANSVERSE
BRACING AND COLLAR OR I4BPI02 WITH
BRACING AND COLLAR
FOR BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND LINE 35'-0,
USE I4BPII7 WITH BRACING AND COLLAR.
FOR BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND LINE LESS
THAN 21-0, USE ONE PANEL TRANSVERSE
BRACING. FOR BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND
LINE GREATER THAN 2r-0, USE TWO PANEL
TRANSVERSE BRACING.
USE li 5x3x| OR 8L-JI8 75 FOR TRANSVERSE
BRACING.
USE f HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS WITH HEAVY
NUTS CONFIRMING TO ASTM DESIGNATION
A325 OR i' FILLET WELDS FOR ALL
. BRACING CONNECTIONS
CONCRETE CAP AND COLLAR DETAILS
SIMILAR TO FIGS 3 AND 5
THREE PILE BENTS DESIGNED FOR 10% OF THE
SPECIFIED LONGITUDINAL FORCE FOR THE TWO
ADJACENT SPANS AS REQUIRED IN PART 2-C,
CHAPTER 6.
488
Masonry
FIG II
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CONCRETE RAILWAY TRESTLE
21 INCH PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PILE
1 POINT PICKUP
2 POINT PICKUP-
mi
1-
Hi
- le-^axs'-o DOWELS
l6-i'iti PRESTRESSING STRANDS -
»2 TIES e 8" CENTERS
"Z TIES @ 2" CENTERS
ELEVATION
• 8x5-0 DOWELS
l'^
494=l'-4
2?
1" "1
—
n
a>
'1
r-9
SECTION AA
SECTION BB
NOTES
ALL PRESTRESSING STRANDS SHALL BE {^,7 WIRE UNCOATED, STRESS-RELIEVED,
MEETING THE REQUIREMENTS OF ASTM DESIGNATION A4I6, WITH A MINIMUM
BREAKING STRENGTH OF 36,000 LB PER STRAND.
INITIAL PRESTRESS SHALL BE 27,000 LB PER STRAND.
DOWELS SHALL BE INTERMEDIATE GRADE DEFORMED BARS MEETING THE
REQUIREMENTS OF ASTM DESIGNATIONS AI5 AND A305.
TIES SHALL BE INTERMEDIATE GRADE BARS MEETING THE REQUIREMENTS
OF ASTM DESIGNATION AI5.
ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE SHALL BE NOT LESS THAN
6,000 PSI IN 28 DAYS.
CHAMFER ALL EDGES l"
MAXIMUM LENGTH OF PILE = 50' FOR NO TENSION IN CONCRETE DUE TO HANDLING
OR 66' FOR CRACKING MOMENT DUE TO HANDLING (CRITICAL HANDLING LOAD IS ONE
POINT PICKUP WITH 25% IMPACT)
DOWELS PROVIDED IN TOP OF PILE MAY BE USED FOR ANCHORAGE INTO CAPS
AS SHOWN ON FIGURE 5 FOR SPLICING ON ADDITIONAL LENGTH.
Masonry 489
Report on Assignment 5
Tunnel Linings: Design, Construction and Maintenance
Collaborating with Committees 1, 5, 17, 28 and 29
G. H. Dayett, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee). R. J. Klueh, C. B. Porter, D. H. Shoe-
maker, L. H. Xeedham.
Your committee submits the following report in two parts. Part 1 is a bibliography
on tunnel repairs, submitted as information; Part 2 presents recommendations for
revisions in the Manual for adoption.
Part 1 — Bibliography on Tunnel Repairs
Roof Bolting
1. '-Roof Bolts Extend Life of Illinois Central R. R. Tunnel", Engineering News
Record, April 22, 1Q54.
2. "Tunneling Costs Drop Way Down when Bolts Hold up Tunnel Roof", Con-
struction Methods & Equipment, March 1052.
Water Leaks
1. "Chemical Sealing Stops Leakage in Tunnel of Pennsylvania Turnpike", by C. W.
Stickler, Jr. and A. Allen, Jr., Civil Engineering, Nov. 1954, p. 47.
2. "Umbrella Cures Severe Wet Condition in Erie R. R. Tunnel" (False Arch and
Shotcrete) Railway Eng. & Maint., April 1941, Vol. 37, p. 272-275.
General Repairs
1. "Economic Repairs of Railroad Tunnels" by W. P. Geiser, Railway Eng. &
Maint., July 1950, p. 653.
2. "It's a Brand New Construction Job Every Night in the Holland Tunnel" (Repair
after fire). Engineering News Record, July 21, 1949, p. 2>1.
3. "Tunnel Trouble & How to Correct It", by W. W. Morrison and Elwin E. Seelye,
Railway Age, Feb. 22, 1947, Vol. 122, p. 412.
4. "B&O Repairs Kingwood Bore by Novel Method" (Drift over old arch and
repaired from above), Railway Age, June 29, 1946, Vol. 120, p. 1258.
5. "Recent Tunnel Construction and Maintenance Problems", Report of Committee
1— Roadway and Ballast, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 45, 1044, p. .^05.
Bomb Damage
1. "Railways of Britain Carry On", The Sphere, London, England, Juyl 20, 1041,
p. 110.
Pressure Grouting
1. "C&O Pressure Grouts Slabs Under Track in Tunnels", by H. M. Church, Con-
crete for Railways, Sept. 16, 1941, Vol. 5, No. 3, p. 9.
2. Grouting of Railroad Structures, Committee 8— Masonry, Appendix l~"Pressure
Groutipg (Tunnels)", AREA Proceedings, Vol. 41, 1940, p. 399.
3. "Tunnel Lining Surgery, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry.", Compressed Air
(Trade Journal), March 1938, Vol. 43. p. 5561-5564.
490 Masonry
3 (a). Amplification of above, by M. C. Blanchard (A Report to AREA Commit-
tee 8 — Masonry), Proceedings, Vol. 41, 1940, p. 399.
4. "Restore Concrete Tunnel Lining by Intrusion Process", by F. D. Kinnie, Rail-
way Age, March 4, 1939, Vol. 106, p. 373.
Reinforced Concrete Lining
1. "Reinforced Concrete Lining Used to Advantage in Old Tunnel" (Timber re-
placed with concrete and H Bms. — Original lagging left in place.) Central Reg. of
P.R.R.— Stone Creek Tunnel, Cleveland Div., Railway Age, Aug. 15, 1936, Vol. 101,
p. 243-245.
2. "Inside Looking Out", Western Pacific Niles Tunnel, Relining, Mile Posts, West-
ern Pacific Magazine, Jan. 19SS, p. 3.
3. "W. P. Upgrades Tunnels, Replaces Wood Lining with Concrete", Modern Rail-
roads, March 1955, p. 115.
4. "Precast Rings Eliminate Shoring" (Mt. Rainer National Park Highway Tunnel),
Engineering News Record, Dec. 22, 1955, p. 30.
5. "Chilcoot Tunnel Gets a New Look", Mile Posts, Western Pacific Magazine,
Aug. 1954, p. 3.
6. "Tunnel Linings with Special Reference to a New Form of Reinforced Concrete
Lining," (Abstract of a paper read before the Institution of Civil Engrs. Feb. 9, 1943 —
Precast & Reinforced Tunnel Lining Segments), The Railway Gazette (London), March
19, 1943, Vol. 78, p. 303.
7. "Denver and Salt Lake Seeks Greatest Security Through Long- Time Tunnel
Lining Program", Railway Engineering & Maintenance, Oct. 1942, p. 692.
8. "Excellent Plant Expedites Tunnel Lining" (Replaced Failed Timber Lining With
Concrete), Railway Age, Feb. 23, 1935, Vol. 98, p. 290.
9. "Denver & Salt Lake Lines Moffat Tunnel with Concrete", Railway Age, Nov.
16, 1935, p. 626.
10. "Railway Tunnel-Lining Methods Reviewed", Engineering News Record, May
5, 1932, Vol. 108, p. 657.
Fire and Repairs
1. "Fire Gutted Bore Rebuilt in 9 Days" (Western Pacific), Railway Engineering
& Maintenance, Feb. 1953, p. 156.
. 2. Tunnel No. 10 — Denver & Salt Lake Railway, address A. E. Perlman, AAR
Library Reference: HE 2791, D 46—1944, Feb. 3, 1944.
3. "D & S L Tunnel No. 10, Rebuilding After Fire", Railway Age, March 4, 1944,
Vol. 116, p. 450.
Daylighting
1. "D & ROW R.R. Daylights 42-Yr. Old Tunnel" (One Shot of 5 Tons of Ex-
plosive), Railway Track and Structures, Aug. 1953, Vol. 49, p. 744. .
2. "Eliminates Eight Restrictive Tunnels, Southern Pacific-San Joaquin Valley
Route", Railway Age, March 10, 1945, vol. 118, p. 452.
Masonry 491
3. "Daylighting a 1400 Ft Tunnel, C&O Ry. at Ona, W. Va.", Railway Age & Engi-
neering News Record, Feb. 27, 1930; Vol. 104, p. 359.
Washing
1. Tunnel Scrubber (Highway Tunnel), Engineering News Record, April 18, 1957,
p. 94.
2. "Washed Tunnel Linings for Cleaner Diesel Operation", Railway Age, Nov. 23,
1953, Vol. 135, p. 32.
Failure
1. "Collapse of a Tunnel" — Jara Mts,, Swiss Federal Railways, Sunday, Feb. 7,
1943, Railway Research Service Bulletin (London), May 1944, p. 65.
Enlarging Tunnels
1. "Tunnel Enlargement Takes 12 Years" (SPCo.), Engineering News Record, Sept.
21, 1950, p. 43.
2. "Enlarging & Relining, also Rib Design" (SP Co.) Railway Age, 1948, p. 678.
3. "Effective Methods are Employed In Enlarging Tunnels on C&O", Railway Age,
Nov. 12, 1932, Vol. 93, p. 665.
Lowering Track
1. "To Get More Clearance, Undercuts Track in Tunnel, N & W — Stone coal to
Welch W. Va.", Railway Track & Structures, March 1955, Vol. 51, p. 66.
2. "Lowering a Rock Tunnel Floor — Del. & Hudson R. R. Lowered Floor Av. of
2 Ft to Get Clearance", Railway Gazette (London), & Railway Engineering and Main-
tenance, Oct. 8, 1943, Vol. 79, p. 360; June 1943, p. 440.
3. "Care & Precision Feature Rebuilding of Tunnel Floor" (C&O Increases Ver-
tical Clearance by Constructing Concrete Slab at Lower Level), Railway Age, Jan. 9,
1937, Vol. 103, p. 116.
Part 2 — Revision of Specifications for Lining Tunnels with Timber
Your committee offers the following recommendations with respect to the Manual:
Pages 8-11-13 to 8-11-17, inch
SPECIFICATIONS FOR LINING RAILWAY TUNNELS
WITH TIMBER
Reapprove with the following revisions:
Page 8-11-13. Delete Art. 4 and replace with the following:
4. Timber — Treatment
The preservative and treatment shall be in accordance with current specifications
in Chapter 17.
Page 8-11-15. Delete the first paragraph under Art. 20. Allowance for Settlement.
Page 8-11-16. Delete Fig. 1 and replace with new Fig. 1 presented herewith.
Page 8-11-17. Delete Fig. 2 and replace with new Fig. 2 presented herewith.
492
Masonry
Masonry
493
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494 Masonry
Report on Assignment 7
Methods for Improving the Quality of Concrete and Mortars
Collaborating with Committee 6
R. A. Ullery (chairman, subcommittee), Lyle Bristow, M. W. Bruns, W. J. Galloway,
L. M. Morris, L. P. Nicholson, M. S. Norris, J. G. Sutherland.
Your committee submits as information the following report on the use of fly ash
in concrete.
Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
Since 1930 the use of fly ash either as an admixture or as a replacement for cement
has become more extensive each year. Research and tests have been conducted by
universities, government agencies and by industrial organizations, with various results.
What is Fly Ash
Wherever pulverized coal is used for fuel, a considerable percentage of the ash rises
hito the stack with the gases of combustion. This substance, in the form of a very fine
powder, is called fly ash. Fly ash is a waste product of combustion and is comprised
largely of spherically shaped, smooth, glassy particles having a fineness about equal to
or finer than portland cement. In modern plants it is collected at the entrance to the
stack by electric precipitators. Originally removed to avoid pollution of the outside air,
fly ash was later found to be useful as a building material.
Chemical Analysis (Chicago Area)
Percent Percent
Silica 40 to SO Titanium 0 to 1
Alumina IS to 24 Total Alkalies 3 to 6
Iron Oxides 12 to 19 Sulfuric Anhydride 1 to 4
Lime 4 to 8 Loss on Ignition O.S to S
Magnesia O.S to 2 Carbon O.S to 3
Color — light gray to tan (much the same as portland cement)
Weight per cu ft — 75 lb
Passing 325 mesh sieve — 88 to 95 percent
Specific surface (Blaine) — 2800 to 4500 sq cm per gram
Note: Chemical analysis varies widely with the parent material burned and
condition under which it is burned, necessitating a close check on carbon content
which has a direct bearing on the finished concrete product.
Pozzolanic Action of Fly Ash
The history of pozzolans is old in the art of masonry and concrete construction,
dating back to the days of ancient Rome. The modern term "pozzolan" is in fact de-
rived from the ancient term "pozzuolana" which referred to a volcanic ash found near
Pozzuoli, Italy, which, when mixed with a quick lime, produced a hydraulic cement.
Most of the natural pozzolans in this country are found in the west and have been
used there. Some outstanding examples are the use of a pumice in Friant Dam, a calcined
opaline shale in Davis Dam, and a calcined diatomaceous earth in Bonneville Dam and
in one of California Edison Company's dams on the St. Joaquin River.
Most fly ash is pozzolanic, high in siHca, low in lime. When mixed with portland
cement, it combines with excess lime liberated by the cement in hydration, forming addi-
Masonry 495
tional insoluble "cementitious" compounds. In the middle west and east, if pozzolans are
desired, artificial pozzolans, such as fly ash, are generally more economical.
Use of Fly Ash
Fly ash is used as a pozzoJanic material and as an admixture in portland cement
concrete.
The most notable instance of its use was in Hungry Horse Dam in Montana, which
was completed in 19S3. By using 90 lb of fly ash per cu yd of concrete, it was possible
to use two and three sacks of cement per cu yd for interior and exterior, respectively.
In comparison, four sacks of cement were used per cu yd of concrete during the con-
struction of the Hoover Dam in which no fly ash was employed. However, there have
been many other structures placed using fly ash: in 1938, the Chicago Sanitary District
placed about Yz mile of paving around its North Side Disposal Plant; in 1936, a Chicago
district electric corporation placed several thousand feet of retaining wall along Lake
Michigan, using a blend consisting of 75 percent portland cement and 25 percent fly ash
in a 1-2^ mix; in 1947, the Wisconsin Highway Commission placed two test sections
of pavement. In the Chicago area, fly ash has also been used in the construction of
schools, city garages, office buildings, subways, concrete pipe, concrete blocks, and many
precast concrete items.
The American Society for Testing Materials has prepared a Tentative Specification
for Fly Ash for use as an Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete (C 350 54T) where
the increased quantities of suitable fine materials may be indicated to promote work-
ability and plasticity.
Producers Claims for Fly Ash and Observations
Producers claim that fly ash used in concrete structures improves placeability and
finishing characteristics, reduces permeability, improves resistance to sulphate-bearing
soils or water, lowers heat of hydration, reduces expansion caused by the cement-
aggregate reaction and provides some saving in cost due to substituting fly ash for
cement.
They also claim that when fly ash is used in concrete products, the result is better
plasticity and cohesiveness, more uniform surface texture of units and sharper edges and
corners, less sticking to molds and pallets and reduction of abrasion on wearing parts.
However, the following observations are pertinent in the use of fly ash: the improve-
ment in placement, finishing and reduction in permeabiUty are most noticeable in in-
stances where the sand is deficient in fine material ; the resistance to sulphate-bearing
soils and water will not be improved as much as by the use of sulphate-resisting cement;
heat of hydration is reduced because of the lower cement content; reduced expansion
caused by cement-aggregate reaction is dependent upon the fly ash having pozzolanic
properties; the added cost of handling and measurement of fly ash on an ordinary job
may be greater than the saving made by the substitution of fly ash for cement. In con-
crete products the most advantage is gained when high-pressure steam curing is used.
Precautions
The fineness and carbon content of fly ash from plant to plant may vary greatly,
and it has been found that very fine fly ash of low carbon content is superior when
used as a pozzolan.
The carbon content of fly ash reduces both the strength of the concrete and the
air content entrained in the concrete with a given quantity of air-entraining agent;
hence the amount of air-entraining agent should be increased in fly-ash concrete in order
496 Masonry
that the proper air content is maintained. The higher the carbon content, the greater
the reduction of strength and air entrainment.
Lower strength at 7 to 28 days will result for concrete containing not more than
30 percent of fly ash, by weight, of the total cementitious materials; but, at one year of
age, the strength of this concrete approximately equals the strength of concrete made
from Portland cement alone, providing favorable temperature and moisture conditions
are maintained. More than 30 percent of fly ash will result in reduced strength of con-
crete at any age.
Bibliography
1. "Symposium on Use of Pozzolanic Materials in Mortars and Concrete", Special
Technical Publication No. 99, ASTM, Oct. 1949.
2. "Fly Ash as a Pozzolan", Robert F. Blanks, Journal, ACI, Vol. 21, No. 9, May
1950, pp. 701-707.
3. "What You Should Know About Pozzolans", Raymond E. Davis, Engineering
News Record, April 5, 1951.
4. "Use of Chicago Fly Ash in Reducing Cement-Aggregate Reaction", C. H. Scholer
and C. M. Smith, Journal, ACI, Feb. 1952.
5. "Experience with Fly Ash Blends in a Test Pavement Built in 1938", W. T.
McClenahan, Engineering News Record, March 12, 1953.
6. "Strength and Durability of Concrete Containing Chicago Fly Ash", G. W.
Washa, N. H. Withey, Journal, ACI, Vol. 24, No. 8, April 1953.
7. "Effect of Substitutions of Fly Ash for Portions of Cement in Air-Entrained
Concrete", Guy H. Larson, Highway Research Board Proceedings, Vol. 29, 1949;
Vol. 32, 1953 ; and Vol. 33, 1954.
8. "Fly Ash Improves Concrete and Lowers Its Cost", A. S. Pearson, T. R. Gallo-
way, Civil Engineering, Sept. 1953.
9. "Pozzolanic Materials — With Special Reference to Their Use in Concrete Pipe",
Raymond E. Davis, Technical Memorandum, American Concrete Pipe Association,
Sept. 1, 1954.
10. "Verify Quality of Fly Ash Before Using", Harry F. Thomson, Concrete Manu-
facture Section of Pit and Quarry, Jan. 1956.
11. "Role of Fly Ash in Precast Products", Harry F. Thomson, Concrete Manufac-
ture Section of Pit and Quarry, Feb. 1956.
12. "Studies Relating to the Testing of Fly Ash for Use in Concrete", by Russel H.
Brink, Highway Physical Research Engineer, and Woodrow J. Halstead, Chemist, Pub-
lic Roads, Vol. 29, No. 6, Feb. 1957.
13. "Use of Fly Ash in Concrete", by Albert G. Timms and WilHam E. Grieb,
Highway Research Engineers, Public Roads, Vol. 29, No. 6, Feb. 1957.
14. "Investigations Relating to the Use of Fly Ash as a Pozzolanic Material and as
an Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete", L. John Minnick, ASTM Proceedings,
1954.
15. "Tentative Specification for Fly Ash for Use as an Admixture in Portland Ce-
ment Concrete", ASTM Specifications C 350-54T.
Report of Committee 3 — Ties
F. J. Fudge, Chairman,
W. E. FUHR,
Vice Chairman,
R.
S.
Belcher (E)
A.
c.
Black
P.
D.
Brentllnger
R.
G.
Brohaugh
C.
S.
Burt
W
• J.
Burton (E)
G.
B.
Campbell
C.
J.
Code
E.
L.
Collette
L.
C.
COLLISTER
R.
W
. Cook
L.
P.
Drew-
H.
R.
Duncan
T.
H.
Friedlin (E)
A.
K.
Frost
H.
E.
Grier
F.
F.
HORNIG
B.
D.
Howe
M
■ J.
Hubbard
R.
P.
Hughes
C.
E.
Jackman
W
, R
. Jacobson
H. W. Jensen
W. L. Kahler
H. F. Kanute
L. W. Kistler
C. M. Long
J. W. Neikirk
H. B. Orr
R. W. Orr
C. A. Peebles
R. R. Poux
R. B. Radkey
W. C. Reichovv
N. B. Roberts
H. S. Ross
N. A. Salzano
C. V. SCHUTT
R. B. Smith
E. F. Snyder
L. S. Strohl
S. Thorvaldson
G. A. Williams
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Extent of adherence to specifications.
No report.
3. Substitutes for wood ties.
Progress in study, but no report.
4. Tie renewals and costs per mile of maintained track.
The report on this assignment, consisting of the annual statistics compiled
by the Bureau of Railway Economics, AAR, and providing information
about tie renewals and cost data for 1957, was published in Bulletin 544,
June-July 1958.
5. Methods of retarding the spUtting and mechanical wear of ties including
stabilization of wood, collaborating with Committee 5.
Oral report to be made at annual meeting.
6. Bituminous coating of ties for protection from the elements.
Progress in study, but no report.
8. End splitting of cross and switch ties.
Oral report to be made at annual meeting.
497
498 Ties
0. Means for effecting greater utilization of timberland growth available for
cross tie production.
Final report, presented as information page 498
The Committee on Ties,
F. J. Fudge, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 547, December 19S8.
Report on Assignment 9
Means for Effecting Greater Utilization of Timberland Growth
Available for Cross Tie Production
W. R. Jacobson (chairman, subcommittee), P. D. Brentlinger, C. S. Burt, L. P. Drew,
F. J. Fudge, M. J. Hubbard, L. W. Kistler, R. B. Smith, L. S. Strohl.
Your committee submits the following final report as information only.
Under its Specifications for Cross Ties, the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion recognizes a broad generic classification of woods suitable for cross ties. The latest
edition of the United States Department of Agriculture Check List of Trees in the
United States lists 162 species as commercially important; the AREA lists 135 of the
162 species as acceptable for cross ties. The statistics issued by the Division of Forest
Economics Research, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, in co-
operation with the American Wood Preserver's Association show, for the past five years,
the following figures: of the total number of ties treated, approximately 50 percent were
oak and 33 percent were mixed hardwoods and gum. The -latter are classed together be-
cause it has been found on field inspection visits by the committee that most gum in-
ventories include some mixed hardwoods and, in other than northern stocks, most mixed
hardwoods include some gum. Thus, it can be seen that there is now being used a con-
siderable amount of the mixed hardwood species.
Listed below are the statistics for the past five years, referred to above.
19S3 1954 1955
Percent No Ties Percent No Ties Percent No. Ties
Oak 48 18,698,942 50 16,646,709 55 14,431,610
Gum 10 3,734,095 10 3,180,068 8 1,947,411
Mixed hardwood 22 8,526,410 23 7,480,991 19 5,071,353
1956 1957
Percent No Ties Percent No Ties
Oak 46 11,960,262 51 15,551,624
Gum 10 2,660,014 13 3,909,563
Mixed hardwoods .... 23 5,988,063 20 6,199,638
Note: Balance of percentage not shown are softwood ties.
In any discussion of mixed hardwoods, it must be borne in mind that there is a
wide difference in performance by species in this category, which includes, for example,
hickory, with a specific gravity of 0.65, and yellow poplar, with a specific gravity of
0.40. The mixed hardwoods, generally classified in Group Td, are extremely heterogeneous,
having a wide variation in those characterisiics necessary for good tie timber.
Many objections to various species in this category have been raised, with consid-
erable merit. Probably the greatest problem, generally, is seasoning characteristics. Many
of these species, while having all the most desirable characteristics for ties, are prone to
serious checking during the seasoning process. High on this list are the hickories, white
Ties 499
ash, l>eech and elm. Recent research is beginning to show how this problem can be con-
trolled; e.g., by dowelling, vapor drying and controlled seasoning.
Further accentuating this problem are the growth characteristics of mi.xed stands,
and logging habits that preclude the separate stacking by species. Several of these species
can be and are logged and stacked separately. In this classification are hard maple, yellow
birch, beech and hickory. In some local areas, possibly elm, sycamore and cottonwood
could also be separated. Correlated with the problem, of course, is the marketing of
great quantities of lumber of these mixed hardwood species.
Modern wood preserving methods, along with incising of some of these species, have
just about eliminated this particular objection to the use of mixed hardwoods.
Over the years, many test tracks have been established, and the test results have
been published in past Proceedings of this Association. These should be reviewed and
the results evaluated in relation to any particular railroad. In a paper presented to the
Railway Tie Association and published in the November 1953 issue of the Cross Tie
Bulletin, C. B. Harveson, then chief engineer maintenance, Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
road, said:
"In conclusion we can say with a considerable feeling of certainty, that the mixed
hardwood species are a very valuable adjunct to our cross tie resources. We know we
have obtained very good results from them in tie life and we expect even better in the
future, although at some added cost. But it should be considered that the purchase and
use of these ties enable us to take advantage to the fullest extent of our available forest
growth with a consequent reduction in over-all cost of production, and, this being the
case, we are well satisfied with our experience with the mixed hardwood cross ties."
Further, the results of testing on various railroads have shown that maple, beech,
birch, cherry, gum and hickory have compared very favorably with the species of oak
tested. In fact, superior results were obtained with maple.
Again, it must be pointed out that there are many other species in the Td grouping
that have not given as good results as indicated above. In this category are such species
as black ash, cottonwood, aspen, etc.
Summary
As the result of careful consideration of all of the factors involved in this study, the
committee feels that Art. 1. Kinds of Wood, Sec. A, of the Specifications for Cross Ties,
should remain unchanged.
Furthermore, the committee proposes to give consideration to making the following
revisions in the Specifications for Cross Ties:
a. Under Sec. F. DELIVERY, Art. 3. Grouping, add the following: "Ties shall
be separated by species, or groups of species, in accordance with the purchase
order, or with the specifications of the individual railroad purchasing the ties."
b. Under Sec. F. DELIVERY, Art. 4. Class U— Ties Which May Be Used Un-
treated, eliminate the groupings, Ua, Ub, etc. List the species alphabetically by
hardwoods and softwoods instead.
c. Under Sec. F. DELIVERY, Art. 5. Class T— Ties Which Should Be Treated,
eliminate the groupings Ta, Tb, etc. List the species alphabetically by hard-
woods and softwoods instead, or list the species by hardwoods and softwoods,
based on composite strength and with direct reference to the Wood Handbook,
published by the United States Department of Agriculture.
500 Ties
The committee also recommends the following:
1. All railroads should have a complete knowledge of species native to their right-
of-way and their procurement territory.
2. The technical and economical aspects of each species should be determined.
3. Use to the fullest extent possible all species to assist in proper balance of grow-
ing stocks in the forests.
4. Investigate the newest methods for seasoning and treating.
5. That Committee 17- — Wood Preservation, accept an assignment on separation
of species for seasoning and treatment.
Report of Committee 28 — Clearances
c.
0. Bird
E.
E.
Mills
Iv
S. BiRKENWALD
A.
G.
Neighbour
H.
Bristow
R.
C.
NiSSEN
I)
H. Brown
C.
E.
Peterson
W
T. Davis
A.
D.
Quackenbush
1.
E. Fanning
W
S.
Ray
1.
E. Good
J.
F.
Smith
A.
R. Harris
J.
W.
Wallenius
W
F. Hart
A.
M
Weston
C.
F. Intlekofer
H.
G
Whittet, Jr.
VV
P. Kobat
R.
L.
Williams
J.
W. McMlLLEN
M
A
Wohlsciilaeger
Committee
S. M. Dahl, Chairman,
J. G. Greenlee,
Vice Chairman,
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No Report.
2. Clearances as affected by girders projecting above top of track rails, struc-
tures, third rail, signal and train control equipment, collaborating with
Sig.ial and Electrical Sections, and with Mechanical and Operating-
Transportation Divisions, AAR.
Progress report, including recommended third-rail clearance diagrams, pre-
sented as information page 502
3. Review clearance diagrams for recommended practice, collaborating with
AREA committees concerned and the AAR Joint Committee on Clearances.
Progress in study, but no report.
4. Compilation of the railroad clearance requirements of the various states.
Progress report bringing up to date the tabulation of the clearance require-
ments of the various states page 502
5. Clearance allowances to provide for vertical and horizontal movements of
equipment due to lateral play, wear and spring deflection, collaborating with
the Mechanical Division, AAR.
Progress report, including recommended method of determining clearance
allowances for horizontal movement of passenger cars, presented as
information page 503
7. Methods of measuring high and wide shipments.
Progress report, presented as information page 503
The Committee on Clearances,
S. M. Dahl, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 547, December 1958.
SOI
502 Clearances
Report on Assignment 2
Clearances as Affected by Girders Projecting Above Top
of Track Rails, Structures, Third-Rail, Signal
and Train Control Equipment
Collaborating with Signal and Electrical Sections, and with Mechanical
and Operating-Transportation Divisions, AAR
J. G. Greenlee (chairman, subcommittee), C. O. Bird, E. S. Birkenwald, D. H. Brown,.
S. M. Dahl, W. T. Davis, J. E. Good, A. G. Neighbour, W. S. Ray, A. M. Weston,
H. G. Whittet, Jr., R. L. Williams.
In the following report of progress in gathering information pertaining to clearance
in third-rail territory, your committee submits two diagrams — No. 1 for tangent track
and curves up to 7 deg 10 min (800 ft radius), and No. 2 for curves exceeding
7 deg 10 min.
These diagrams were submitted to the Signal and Electrical Sections, and Mechani-
cal and Operating-Transportation Divisions, AAR, which, after considerable dehbera-
tion, decided that they were generally acceptable. However, the Electrical Section sub-
sequently recommended that the two diagrams be combined into one, which will be
done later.
Report on Assignment 4
Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements
of the Various States
J. F. Smith (chairman, subcommittee), S. M. Dahl, J. G. Greenlee, C. F. Intlekofer,
W. P. Kobat, A. G. Neighbour, R. C. Nissen, A. D. Quackenbush, H. G. Whittet, Jr.,
M. A. Wohlschlaeger.
Your committee submits as information a tabulation of the clearance requirements
of the various states brought up to date as of November 17, 1958. In it, attention is
called to the fact that, as the result of recent orders, the clearance requirements of the
states of Connecticut, Kansas, Maine, Montana, New Hampshire, Oklahoma and Rhode
Island are shown for the first time; also that revisions in clearance requirements are
shown for the states of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, South Dakota and Washington.
Ul .°
o £ 0~jT.
//I third roil
warone* L in* $
hown on fh'ii
g T'-IO', Th* second
fSt* diagram No- 2),
A f^ v» iipmtnt disptactmenf
•*;, a \!n»t AE-B£-CE-D£-
* X A . yj*ct beyond F'E'&G'E*
■^ ^ c y verfical movement.
"C ^ 6 >jted far enough on the
^ c "o ^art of -the egaipment
o 5, o ^s , spring deflection
*es A£-BS-C£-D£-
F' and G'£:
at ion are variable
equipment,
rock with 7'
vllreadt
•-IS-Btt
Clearance. Lines for Third -Rail Territor
For Tooq.nt Trock and Cur»., oo» ..cdloq T'-tO' (800'
DIAGRAM NO.I
Radius )
EQUIPMENT CLEARANCE UN€
(Stt Noh ?,3 4 4 )
THIRD RAIL CLEARANCE LINE
(Sn Nofw I )
NOTEI-No part of th, IhSrd roll .fructurt or train coofrol ,n third roll
';'!■'■"«;/ '^o"P'-oj»cl beyond thr Tt^SrdRoll CUoronc, L !n, t
HT-GT-FT-AT-BT-CT-DT-ET-JT-KT and LT.
Th, Third Roll hoi two locoHom. Ont location as thown on thh
diagrom(No.l)for tangents and curvn not rxcttding r-IO'. Tht ttcond
loeofHon for ,w)tcht% and curves eieteding f- 10' ( See d'lagrom No.2).
NOTEi-No part of the equipment taking into account equipment displacement
shall project beyond the Equipment Clearance Lines AE -BE- CE-DE-
^^-H^-EE ,e*cept car whetis which shall not project beyond F'E' t o'E'.
W)TE 3- Equipment displacement covers all horiiontal and vertical movement.
Therefore, all parts of the equipment must be located far enough on the
inside of the Equipment Clearance Line so that no part of the equipment
due to equipment play, wear, construction variations , spring deflection
or offset due to curvature shall project beyond lines AE-BE-CE-DE-
EE-HC-FE,nar shallcar wheels laroject beyond FE' and G'E:
N0TE4-M The equipment ploy, wear and construction variation ore variable
and depend upon kind .type and construction of equipment,
(b) Tht tpripg deflection shall be based upon a track with T'
superelevation unless otherwise specified by Railroads
representation in the' Railway Line Clearances'.
(c) The offset for curvature shall be based upon a T'—IO' curve(800'
radius).
NOTES-No part of the Permanent Way Structures
Clearance Lines AS- BS-CS and OS.'
shall project beyond ttie
All figures represent dimensions in inches when placed after designating
letters they represent respec lively the elevation in inches above the
plane of fops of running rails when shown above the line ^ and the
distance in Inches along the plane of tops of running rails from the
nearest gage line of running rail when shown below the line.
\
HE
I5i
gH'E'15-4
FE
4f
nn
f
z\
isj
Location of Train Control
Inductor in Third Rail
Territory,
Space required
for Car Setorders
Top of tie-
* GACe
— OF -*
THACK
«A C -
to.
t/in tSi'rd rg'it
third rait ttrritory
HT-6T-FT-AT-BT-
10. rSw di
\iipmmnt di
\-BE'CE-i
.-» .
>s thown on th»
>9 T'-tO'. Th« ttcond
10'. (St* diagram Nb-l).
dhptocHf>€r>f thall
DE-EE-HL-FE.
id E'E' and G'E'.
tnd v»ritcal mo¥tmwnt.
tated for enough on tht
no port of ttw oguipm»nt
tton, tpring dofloct'ion
ioyondlintt AE-BE-CE-
yond F'E' and G'E'.
<■ tion aro variable and
) ^uipmonK
^a traeti with 7' tu^tr-
i» reprttontotion in tho
, 20' curve unfeis
in the *fhilway L ine
II
.til pi'oject beyond the
■"/tf
AT -^-^ .f offer designating
36 -^e* above the
^ ine ,ond the
•ails from the
the line.
6 ACE
■ OF -
TRACK
Q-I9-M
Clearance Lines for Third - Rail Territory
-itch.i and Curv«» ..c.dlnq 7' — 10' (600
DIAGRAM NO.?
V^
Rodiut )
NOTE I- No porf of ft,, fhlrd roll ttruclur, or fmn co»l.^\n Ihlnt roU UrrUor,,
tJ'olljJojjKt Uynr^d M, Th-.rd Roll CI,oronc, U^, HT-QT-FT-AT-iT-
CT-DT-ET-JT-KT and LT
Th, '^''■•^ ro'lj^f '-0 locoHom.On, locoflon o. thown on th.
0,Q,rom(No.2)for ,-,/cA,, ond cjr^,, ceding r-IQ'. Th, „cond
locution for tangtnl, ond c^r„i not t.cdlng T-IO: (So, dlogrom No.1)
^f.
eQUlPHENT CLEARANCE LINE
IS„Nol*i ! 3 a*)
THIRD RAIL CLEARANCE LINE
(S„ Not, I J
projrcl boyond fti, Equ,pm,nt CI,oror<c, Llnti AE-BE-CE-DE- EE-Ht
»tc,pf cor whttii wh'ich ihollnot pro/tct btyond F'E' and GE:
N0T£3-E^lpm,nl dHploc,m,nl co„,r, all horr.ontal and ^orlUol r,oJ,m,nf.
Th,r,for,, all part, of th, ,qu>pm,nt mult b, locoUd for tnough on th,
mild, of th* Equipmont CI,aronc, Lin, to that no port of th, oqui'pimnt
du, to ,qulpm,nt ploy, w,or, conttrucfion variation, tprlng d,fl,ct'ion
and off tot du, to curvatur, ,t,all projact b,yond lln,t AE -BE -CE-
DE-EE-HE-FE, nor than car wh„li projoct b,yond F'E' and G'E:
NOTE4 -(a)Equlpm,nt ploy.woar ar>d conttruction variation or, varlobi, and
d,p,nd upon kind, typ, and conttruction of ,qu!pm,nK
(b)Th, tprirtg d,fl,ction thall b, bat,d upon a IracK with 7' tup,r-
,t,volion unloit othorwit, tp,cifi,d by Railroadt r,pr,t,ntatlon in th,
'Roilmay Lin, Cloarancrt',
(c)Th, offt*t for curvatur, thall b, bat, d upon a 30' cur v, unl, tt
othorwit, tpoclfi,d by Rollroadt r,pr,t,ntotlon in th,'ftbllway Lin,
Cloaranct.
NOTE S-No part of th, P,rman,nt Way Structur,t thall projoct boyond th,
Cl,aranc, Lin,t AS -8S -CS-and OS.
All figur,t r,pr,ttnt dlm,nthnt in Irtchoi wh,n placd aft,r dot'ignoling
l,tt,ri ttvy r,pr,t,nt r,tp,cflv,ly tl>, ,l,votlon in Inchot abov, th,
plan, of topt of running ralli wh,n thomn abov, th, lin, ,and th,
" tone, in inch,* along th, plan, of topt of running rolls from th.
',ar,tt gag, Itn, of i
running roi.% -p | y J
ng rail whwn thown bt/ow /A* //nr>
'#
f—r7-r7rr7T77i
> > r / f/ 't\l A
5 pace requirec^
for Cor fietarderi
Location of Train Control
Inductor in Third Roll
Torrltory.
6ACE
■ OF -
ritACH
8-19-M
SIDE CLEARANCES
PLATFORMS
SIGNALS
BRIDGES
TUNNELS
8
VI 0
li
It
a
t-
z
Ul
0
0
0
0
z
0
10
z
<
a.
u
-1
<
2
z
1
8
a
1
Z
i
0
«' (-
D ">
^c Z
z
1"
I
0
z
<
a
z
0
<
K
U
z
0
-1
4
FREIGHT
I
o
I
u
z
<
<
U
J
u
1-
I
o
w
I
u
z
<
<
-1
0
t-
I
u
z
<
<
0
i
z
0
I
<o
uiz
4-(r
T-y
4-6'
?(r'
4"
3-0-
30-
6-0-
66"
8-cr
Yes
8-0"
Yes
7-8"
T-8"
nCMCT
8-f
8-6"
JttTHW
r
V-'o-
>•*■
4-(r
5'- 9- '
4"
3'-0"
3'-0"
6'-0"
8'-3'
8'-0"
Yes
J'-O"
Yes
7-0'"
6'-«*
8'-6"
»'-0"
;'
4-p'
7-6'
4 6"
8^'
4'
30'
30"
6-0"
8-6'
8-0 ■
Yej'
8-0"
Yes
T8r
8-0"
8-6"
e-6-
r
rs-
«'-0"
4'-d
S-9"
4"
s^-d-
li-(f
6^Cf
^-3-
a'-o'
Y9?
a'-o"
Yes
r-0"
6'-a"
ar-6'
af-0^
f
-l^tf
\'^>J
4'-6-
E(-<5'
4"
3'-0'
3:o'
ei-cc
8'-6"
8'-0"
Yes
9'-0
Yes
6(0"
8'- 6"
6'-5"
^-0"
8'- 6"
8'-0"
4.-0"
8-6- 4
4-6'
SO-'
4"
3-0"
3-0"
6 0^
e-6-
8-0'
Yei
8-0"
Yes
&d"
7-8"
6-5"
a-o"
8-6'
8'-0'
i
4^(5
5'- 9"
4"
3-tf
3'-d"
€-c^
e'-o"
r-8'
t
4-0"
r-i-
oyEB.
8'-6-
4'-6-
8-or'
4"
3-Cf
3'-0"
6'-0"
8f-0"
8'-0"
Yt8
8-0"
Yes
EXEMPT
6-8"
8'-6"
a'-o"
5'-9"
5-8-*
2-8"
Non«
e'o'
8-6'
8-0"
Yes
/-o"
'1^
9'0"
8-0'
8-0'
\\
5-9" •
2-8"
None
8-0"
8-0"
Yes
710"
6-3'
T'6'
8-0
9-0"
7-0"
)'
TS-
«'■-«•
4-0'
5'-9-'
4"
J-CT
?-d
g-d
ef-3"
e(-o"
Yes
8'-0'
MBS
7^0'
e'-s-
e:-^
s'-o"
8'-0'
e'-o"
c
9-p'
6-0"
4-0
5'-9f"
4'-6'
8«=
4"
3'0'
'-0'
r-o-
e'-o"
8f-0"
Yes
8'-0"
No
r-0"
6'-0'
e'-i"
8'-0'
8'-0"
e(-o'
r
4'-€
e'-d
4-6
S'-7"
4-^
4"
3'-cr
3'-0"
e:-^
8-OP
r-^
a'-d-
—
a'-o"
5'- 9"'
3-0"
6-6"
8'-6"
8'-6"
No
8'- 6'
No
8'-6'
3'-6'
8' -6'
8'-^
B'-e"
8^""
— E
X
E
M
p
T —
8^'"
tXtMPT
EXEMPT
laCMPT
t.t»»T
8-6'
8-6"
Yes
8-6
Yes
NOTE
8-6'
8-6"
8-6"
8-6"
CM
5-9"
3"
4'-Z'
0\i
S'ibS'
8'-6"
8-0"
Yes
8'-6-
Yes
6-0
8'-r
6-5"
8'-6-
8-6"
8- 6"
i"
OVER
8'6
4'-0'
5-9-OR
4-6
8!CJ=
4'
3'-0'
J-o'
6'0'
8'-0"
8-0"
Yes
8'-0'
Yes
iXEIUPT
5'-9'
8'-6'
^-0"
^•6'
6?-9'
y
i*.'"-
«'•?■
4'-0'
5'- 9" •
4"
3-0"
3-0"
6-0"
8'-3"
8'-0"
Yes
8'-0"
Yes
7:0- .s
6-8"
8'-6-
8'0"
>■
4-0
7-3'
4-6"
8^'^
4'
3-0"
3-0
6-0'
8^"
8'-0"
Yes
8-0
Yes
7-8
7-8
lUMPT
8-0"
8-6
■^
V(f'
4:0°
5- 9'"'
4&
e'o'
4"
3'0'
4'-0-
8'-6"
8'-0"
Yes
No
ro^
6'-0'
6'-l"
8'- 6"
B'-6-
8'-6"
>■
ovt*
«-o"
v-ir
r-r
4kJ
i-9-
4"
3-(J
3'-rf
6-tf
8'-0"
Ym
8"-0"
Yes
r-o"
6'-8-
8'-6"
8f-tf
4-0'
a-o"
tV
8-0"
No
8-0'
No
8-0'
8'-0"
8-0"
8-0"
8-0'
8-0'
8-0"
8-0"
8'-0"
No
8-0"
No
8-0"
8-0"
y
«'-0'
e-6'
4-0'
5' -9"
4"
3'0"
3'-cr
6'cr
8'- 3"
8'-0"
Yes
8-0'
Yes
7-0"
6-8'
8'-6'
8'0'
r
<(r
7'-y
OVEB
V-0-
8'-6'
4'-6"
y-oT'
4"
3'-(r
3'-0"
6'-0"
8'-6'
8'-0"
Yes
e'-o"
Yes
[JttMPT
7'-8"
8'-6"
8'-0"
r
20
»
4'-^
8'-cf
4'
^<;
3'-Cf
6:-or
8'-0"
Yes
8^Cf
Yes
8'-0"
8f-0'
e'-tf
8-0"
?'
4'-CC
LESS e
4'-^
3'-0'
4"
3?0"
3'0'
e'o"
8' -6"
8-0"
Yes
8'-0"
Yfes
8'0"
8''6'
6'-5'
8'-0"
8'- 6'
8'-0"
8'-0"
No
3"
FLOOR
5' -9"'
4"
Jo'
8-0'
8-0"
Yes
7-0"
8'- 6'
8'-6
8'-0"
8-6'
8'- 6"
>
8*
4-8"
"^'9'
NOTE
4-8
8-0
4
3-0
6-6
8-0"
8-0
Yes
8-0
Yes
8-0'
7-0
6-5"
8-0"
8-0
8-0
)
8-6"
6"
4-0"
2-6"
5-6"
8-6"
7-6"
Yes
CHCM^
7^0'
EiCMPT
7-0'
J"
1-9"
5'-8"
4-0"
7-3'
4-6'
^■'
3-0"
3-0"
6-0'
8-6"
8-0"
Yes
8-0"
Yes
7-6"
7-e'
IICMTT
80'
8-6'
r-l'
r-6"
3"
!?^-
8'-6'
4-ff'
5-3"
4'-6'
s'o-'
4"
3^C(
3'-or
6-0"
e-0-
8'-cr
*$ '
e-or
N«
7-6"
5'-9r
8--6-
8'- or
8'-6"
8'-6'
r
5-0'
6'-4' '
OrtR
8'-6"
8-6"
No
8-6"
No
8-er
5=
4-0"
4'-0"
5-r '
4"
3'-0"
3'-0"
f-0"
8'-3'
B'-O-
Yes
B'-O'
Yes
7T"
6'-8-
8'-6"
8'-0"
8"
4-tf
4-<i
5'- 7"
4"
3'-tf
3'-0'
6-tf
8'-0"
Yes
tfo"
Yes
a'-cf
4-0'
.„,.„.
8-0"
Yes
8-0"
Yes
M
GENERAL NOTES
IVCRMEAD CLEARANCES CONVERTEO TO TOP OF RAIL If LAtfS RROVIOE BASE OF RAIL USING 6"oiFrERENCE
'lEARANCES generally rOR TANGENT TRACK. MOST LAWS SfECIfy INCREASES FOR CURVED OR
SURERELEVATED TRACK
ilOE CLEARANCES ARE FROU CENTER LINE OF TRACK
) G-l-5
3:11-54
■B-n-si
i ENGINE HOUSES EXEMPT OR PERHHTTED LESSER DIMENSIONS
S CHECK WITH RAILROAD INVOiyED FOR LATEST LOCAL AND STATE REGULATIONS
REVISE
WVISE
REVISED 11-17-58 REVISE
REvijtD l^•l-^7 REVISCD
6
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
-CLEARANCES
s a
CLEARANCES
BASED ON
MAXIMUM
CAPSIZES
SPACING BETWEEN TRACKS
OVERHEAD CLEARANCES
1
REGULATION
REFERENCE
2 \-
3 z
z „
< u
1 u
i
i.
5z^
u
5|5
5 '^
i|
<
ii
III
si!
< J*"
*: JO
SzS
-J
ill
111
ill
hi-
< z
i
5.
It
D
BRIDGES
TUNNELS
STRUCTVJRtS
til
BUILOINCS
STRUCTURES
i
PLATFORMS
SIGNALS 1
BRIDGES 1
TUNNELS 1
J
"^ a
z
i
2
1
1
f 1-
1 |1
I
"1*
I
1
z
%l
h
5
-1
\
P°
PASSENGER
FREIGHT
9
d
X
I
i
-1
X
i
1
5j
<d
uz
WIDTH
«iGM7
A(.A»*»U
Notes 5 820!
OCCSON \ ....
4906
2.14
—
—
—
1 —
_
_
_
~
Arkamsas
Cos* R-1012
1956
4383
191
14'- 0
i?T
i«'-o-
14-0
i^F
17'- 0"
17'- 0-
20'-0-
ZO'-O'
1
l3'-0'
22'- 0'
Yes
n-r
Yes
22'- 0-
Yes
l7'-0" "
TP
Yes
«'-6-
8'
5'-0-
JVCT
T?-
4'-(r
1^
J-
4"
3'-0'
3-0-
to.
e-o-
is:
8'-3'
1^
Yes
Yes
JHL
I'-o-
Yes
±1
r-v
7-8- .U-,
6'-8" r-6-
«'-o-
»-6" '."T"
C«!.'roflNi«
Oen Order 26-0 1941
Hit
A&
10-10"
li-6
J4i]!
•M£
15 0'
Jlitf
s?
.2J)-J)
^0-0
-— -
— -
IJ-O
IJ-O
■i:ij.
_Ye5
Yes
IIS
Yes
l8'-0-
IT]
Yes
8-?'
_4!_
ij:
fM
7-6"
iii
4i-
4"
3io:
M
6 0'
8-6"
io'
Yes'
6-0
Yes
Tr
6-0"
8 6" r'r
[ CrssEC^iC^'"
|Do*et 8995 '956
831
g38
13^
i?o"
15'- 0'
Wo
i?o"
l^-tf
IB'-O'
l9'-0'
l9'-0-
l?o'
^
13'- 0"
w^tf'
22'0''
Yes
22'0'"l Yes
w&
Y*s
18'- CT"
u
Yes
n
^
i3
tl
S,.S4'-6lg-(5
4"
4"
id
Jo' e-d
S-3'
rf-fi"
-8^
fl-n"
Jet-
^
Yes r-0"
Yes f*-fY»
8f-6-' S-O-j •
?i;.«««RE ' Order 214
lass
295
JJ3
14-0
I4'.0
15-0
U'-6"
13-6'
16-0'
18-0'
19-0"
19-0'
3-6
|l3-6'
13'- Ol^
13'- 6'
22 0,
Y«_5_
p-o'
Yes
22'0'
Yes
la'-o' "
8-6'
Yes
8 6"
4^0-
4'-0'
^f.
4-6"
e<s
4'
3-0"
3 0
6 0
6 6-
8-0"
Yts
8-0
Yss
W^
7-R"
6-5"
8- 01 8- 6^
RVV
Tlosio*
Ortiv 1971
i»i
50 10
219
13-6
13-6
19-U
19-0
■
IJ'-O-
22-cr
l7'-0"
8-tf
lO'-O'
^SL
4'-e-
,
ts
5'- 9"
_4"
3'-(}s-dl6;-(j
_._
fiVg:
ri
IPAHO
Gen.Or<ler 99
1955
2742
1.20
10'- 10
l5'-6-
14^
l4'-0"
l5'-0'
liPr
l4'-0"
20-1?'
2C-Cf
zo'-o"
2i-cr
i^cr
WT-
I3'-Q"
13'- 0 •
zi^
Yes
ii<
Yes
2^7
Yes
18'- d"
8^
Yes
8-6'
"1^
~^
w
W
w
8'-6'
4'-er|8'-ir
"4^
i^
3'-0-
6'-0"
ff^
8^
Yes
tf¥
Yet
cwi
S^
f(^
fTff
^^
Illinois |G«n Order 22 1 1920
11777
514
13-6
13-C
15^0
13-6
13-0
15-0
17-0'
i;-o
19-0
'
i3-e
13-6
|i-6-
Yes
21-6
a'-d'"
9-0"
j:
V-i-
S-8"'
?'-8
«inr
o'o'.
8-0*
r-n"
vra
Indiana S'atuic i»«
6857
^99
22-0
22'- 0
22-0
8-0
ft-o
' '
low* Docktt H- 1281 '936
8906
389
14^0
13^0
l5'-0
13-6
13-0
I5-0'
17-0-
17-0"
1 9-0'
""'"'
22-0
Yes
22-0
No
*i«X'
e'-C"
No
5'-9'"
7^8
None
8-n"
8-0
7-n'
—
T^
^rrrr
Kansas Dc.c^eI ssk^or
'958;8479
3.70
14- cr
l4'-0"
14'- 0"
\4-6
14'- 0'
17-0'
17'- tf
2tfO
Z60
13' -0
220"i Yes
23'0'
Yes
zt-6
Yes
lef-o""
B'-6'
Yes
8'-6-
B-
5'-n"
rf
i'f-
4-0
5'-=*"
4"
i-di-o
M
rt-r
rt-n
Yes
R'-n
Yt>s
7'-n
f^
■i-gU-n
B'-O'R^-n"
KtNTVCKY .Notes 5 a 20
3534
154
1
2,2-0"
22-0'*
22-0"
—
Louisiana [Notes 5 8 20
4292
1.8;
Maine IGer. Order 2
1956
1862
0.81
22'cr
Yes
22-0'
No
22'- 0'
No
17'- 0""
8'-0"
No
g-0'
12"
5'-4-
<<fro
s'-o-
4-a
5'-9r'
4'-6
rfd
' 4"
3'0'
-)'-!
Tr
fl'-O
rt-o
Yes
fl'-O
No
w
B'-O" 6'- 1
S^
B'-CTS-O-
Maryland Order 50(38! 1953
1328
Oit
Ittf
is-cr
\i-g
l?-0"
l?-P"
l^o■
l3'-0"
22'-Cf
22'-0-
Iter
Y«5
18'- 0"
e'-e"
Yes
8-
s'-r
4'-^
8'-<5l4^Cil S'-7-
4-^'0
' 4"
3'-c(1s-d1«;-dt
a'-cf
r-6f
R'-rf
R'-nr
Massachusetts Stoiutes ^1956 1745
016
l3'-or
13-0
13-0
I3-0"
IJ'-O-
\r-ff
I/-U
ll'-O
ll'-O
IJ-O
IJ-O
li-0
li-0
■it-i
No
'2ii-6
No
22-«
No
a'-6-
fl'-6"
5-9"'
TO
6'-Kl8'-6
8'- 6
No
8'- 6"! No
8'-6'af-erH-e
fi'-fflR'-K*
Michigan siatutej '957 7175
3.13
I4-0"
l4'-0*
l4'-0'
l4'-0"
14'- 0'
14'- 0"
l4'-0*
l4'-0-
14'- 0-
l4'-0-
<«-..
14'- 0"
14-0"
22'6'
??■%'
OCUPT
s"-fi"
8"-fi-
8-6"
^c
,
p
,-,
(^
^4.--
^^^
Minnesota shiuim 1943 '8371
365
10-4"
I4-I4'
H-O"
l4'-0'
14-0
14-0
14-0''
17-0'
17=0'
l9'-0'
19-0"
I4'0'
14'- 0'
14-0"
l4-0"
22-0
Yes
2?-0
Yes
22-0
No
22- 0' '
8-6'
No
,?!}!•
8-6'
8-6
Yes
8-6
Yes
WS"
8-6
8'-<
8-6"
8-6"
Mississippi \;tes5a20 j38i3
166
Missouri gw Or«r 24 , 1951:6939
303
13- 6-
13-6-
13- 6'
13'-6-
13-6-
17 -0-
I7-0'
l9'-0-
19- cr
13'-6-
13- 6'
13- 6-
13'- 0"
22-0
Yes
22-0
Yes
22-0
Yes
8-6"
Yes
8-6"
i-
'■•I-
5-9"
3"
4-2
o't><
S'tiS
B-e'
8-0
Yfi
«'-6
Yt»
6-0
R-B"
6-5
R'-r
B-r
R-fi"
Montana , Or,3er 2597 ,I956!5105
2i3
10- lU
iS-e:'
W'-O"
M'-CT
15'- C
l4'-0
14-0
20-0'
200
20'0'
200'
4'-0
l4-0
l3'-0"
13-0'
22-6
Yes
22' 6'
Yes
22'-6'
Yes
18'- 0""
8'- 6'
Yes
8"- 6'
8"
4-8'
"v^rf
B'-e:
4'0
4'-*C
' 4"
3'-0l3;-0
6-0
R'-O
B'-O
Yes
B'-O
Yes
TtOK^
5'-9
b'-6
F(-0"
f(-fi"
fi:-9''
Nebraska iGe-. j-ie^oo: •in ;im
2i7
14'- 0'
14'- 0"
ib'-o-
U'-O-
14'- 0-
ir-0'
ir'-o'
20'- 0-
20'-0-
14'- 0-
14'- 0-
l3'-0-
U'-O-
22'-0-
Yes
23'- 0-
Yes
22'-6-"
Yes
l7'-0" "
8'-6-
Yes
8-6-
8-
S'-O
""
«■(
4-0
5'-9- •
4"
3'-0-
3'-0
8-0
8'-3'
8"-0
Yes
e'-o
Yes
w
6'-«"
8-6
8'-0
Nevada Cim 1159 19471 1828
0.80
10-8
15-1
14-0
ISO'
14 0
20-0-
20-0'
20'-0'
20-0'
11-6
13-0-
22-0
Ye>
22-0
Yes
22-0
Yes
18-0"
8-6"
Yes
«-6"
ft"
4-«
4-0
7-3"
4-6
8k)
' 4"
3-0
VO
6-0
6^
8-0
Yes
8-0
Yes
7-8
7-8
i.i— 1 j-o
8=6'
.""
New Hampshire Ctie' 6922 ii956
956
0.42
14'0'
14'- 0"
l5'-0-
14'- 0'
l4'-0'
Ig-O'
l8'-0'
IB'-O'
IB'-O'
1*0'
14'- 0'
13'- 0"
iJ-0-
2l'-0'''
Yes
21'0"
No
2l'-d"^
No
I/-0" "
8'- 6
No
e'-6'
12"
5-4'
'»«■
4;o
5'- 9"
4-6lB'0
' 4'
3'-0|;;:5
i'-n
8-e
R'-O
Yes
R'-6
No
r-ole'-o
fi'-l
R'-6"
Ff-fi-
R'-fi"
New Jersey No-es 5 a 20 ,
2070
0.90
New Mexico Ord» 220a 1953
2598
1.13
14^
14'-0-
15^-0"
14'- 0-
14'- 0-
ir-0"
l7'-0"
2d-0"
20'-0'
l3'-0"
??'rf
ssr-o-
zi-e
Yes
17'- 0' "
B'-fT
Yes
8- 6"
B"
ilsl4kjl S-9-
4"
3'-(1
3'-rfl6-d1
R'-O
Y«
s'-d Y»»
/-n
6-8"
8'-6
(*-<<
','■ W VOBR fotes 5 a 20 7664
3-34
21-8'
21-6"
21-6'
'•:=-- !«50.iN« Ns-es 5 8 20, '4628
2-02
'.^=-- .«>:-« S'ltjtei I9l3i5262
2J0
10-6'
14-2'
13-0
l3'-0'
13-0
13-0
13-0
13- O'
13-0"
li-o
l3'-0-
l3'-0'
l3'-0'
l3'-0"
21-0
No
21-0
No
21-0
No
8-0'
No
8-0-
4-0
8H)
8-0
No
8-0
■ No
8-0
8-0
8-0
8-0
8-0"
8-0"
Cr,: r-r»i ,i955;m35
368
i4r-n'
l4'-rt'
l5'-0'
I4'-C5
l4'-0"
ly-o
I5-0'
18-0-
16-0"
14-ri
?l-0
No
71-0
No
71-0
No
»"-0'
No
8-0'
8-0"
8-0
8-0
No
8-0
■ No
8=0
8-0
CHLAHOMA Ortler 33347 1956
6018
263
4'-0'
14'- 0"
l4'-0"
14'- 0'
14'- 0'
17-0'
17'- 0'
20'0'
20'- d
14'- d
14'- 0'
13'- 0"
13'- 0'
22' 0
Yes
2J0
Yes
22'-d
Yes
17'- 0""
8'-6'
Yes
fi'-e"
8"
s'-o'
"""
4-0
5' -9"
4"
3'-0
3'-dl6'dlB'-3
8'-0
Yes
8'-0
" Yes
7=0
6'-8
8'- 6
B'-O
Oregon ^g. q 33^00 isss
3383
148
10'- 10-
15- 6-
15'- 0'
l5'-0" l5'-0'
l4'-0'
14-0'
20'-0-
20'-0-
20'-0-
20'- 0-
l4'-0-
w'-o-
13' -0-
13'- 0-
??'-6-
Yej
?2'-6
Yes
??'-6'
Yes
l!'-0" "
8- 6'
Yes
8-6"
8'
4'- 8"
4'0-
7'-3
8'-e-
4'-6
r-or
' 4"
3'-0-
3'-0
6'-0
8'- 6
8"-0
Yes
8'-0
Yes
ta,^
7'-8
8'-f
e'-o
?ES>iSrL«»Nt4 Order ; 1954
0088
440
iS-6-
IS-B'
l5'-0-
i;^'-f?
18-cr
l8'-0-
l9'-0-
l3'-6'
22'-Cf
Yes
22'- 0
Yfes
22'0'
Yes
la'-o"'] tf-6"
Yes
8'- 6'
8"
5'-r
4'-^9'-d1 4"
S-(5l3kll6'-0
8'-0
Yes
S^Cfl Yes
8'-d
^-0
8'-d1
8'-0'
Z.r-T ; ..,; Doo<et 608 i955
189
008
IS'-O'
I3'0-
l5'-0"
xi-0'
iS-0-
l8'-0'
l8'-0'
l9'-0'
l9'-0'
14'- 0'
13'- 0"
14'- 0"
18'- a
Yes
18'- 0'
Yes
IB'-O"
Yes
is'-o-'ls'-e
Yes
8'- 6'
8"
S-2
4'-d
i;S,.5j4'-^'-0
' 4"
3^ol3'-0
6'0
8-6
8'-0
Yes
8'-0
Y(!S
B'O'
8'-6
6'-5
8'-0
B'-6-
3'-0'
S:."- Zt'C s» Swtj'es 1942
3349
146
22- 0"
No
8-0"
No
S:.-- 3AR0-* Oraf-f2465il957
3988
174
22'- e;
Yej
22'e
No
i7'-o"
8-6'
No
8'- 6
8"
4'-8
5' -9"
4'
3^0
8'-0
8-0
Yes
7=0
8'- 6
8'-6
B'-O
8=6"
8'- 6'
Tennessee siiiutw i 1949
3503
153
14- O'
14-0
14-0
ll'-O
14-0
18-0
18-0
l8-0'
l«-Q
14-0
14-0'
13-0
13-0
??'-o"
T"
??'-o'
Yes
??'-0
in
l7-0"
8-0
Yfl
8-0'
8"
4-8
s'
4-8
4-8
8-0
4
3-0
6-6
8-0""
8-0
Yes
8-0
Yes
8-0
7-0
6-5
8-0
6-0
8-0
Texas S'ati/tM ; 1925
Wi
69?
72-0
Yes
27-0
77-0
8-6'
6-6'
12"
4-6"
8-6"
6"
4-0
26
56
86
7^6
Yis
■«»>
7^0
lU-P.
7-0
Utah Gw Order 661 1953 191)8
083
I4^rf
i4-(r
11-0^
13-0'
l3-0l
17-0"
17-0
?o-n"
?n'-n'
11-6
11-6
??-fi
Yes
??fi
Yes
22-fi
Yes
18'- 0"
8-6"
Yes
8-6'
«"
4 «■
1-9
58
4 0
7"-3"
4-6
8^'
' 4"
3-0
3-0
6-0
8-6
8-0
Yes
8-0
Yes
7-6
7-8
-H 8-0
8-6
V.S-
Vermont
Slotutts 1951 1 915
040
27-0
??-o
??-o
7-fl'
r-6
Vwemu
ilotes 5 8 20 r952i4205
184
Washmcton
SeiOite TMU
1350.5301
?1l
Iff-ICf
15- (f
14- 0"
14 -n'
15-n-
I4-0-
4-d'
je-g
70-0-
w-n-
?n'-o"
W-f
14'- 0-
13'- 0"
13'- 0"
??'-(r
Yfi
77-f
Yei
n-e
Yes
i8'-(r "
&'-6-
No
;--s-
6'
4-8'
b'-6
4-(r
5"-3-
4-b
b'o
1 4"
3'd
i-a
6-0
8-0"
8'-cr
*s
»-e
No
T-f
i-S
ir-l
-itoL
West Vmginia
SenOrdcr 121
953
1763
164
15-0"
\n-(f
15-rt-
Irf-O"
I8"0"
rf-rf
i;V-o'
—^
-^.j-
,
WucoNsm
Stitulet
951
liS4n
7tf\
14-0'
14-0"
14- 0'
I4-0'
14-0"
14-0"
14-0'
14-0"
l4'-0"
14-0-
14-0
14-0'
14-0"
27-0
77-0
No
22-0
8-6"
No
i-V
Vt
5 0
8-4 '
8-6
6-6
No
8-6
No
8-6
wlSZr
toot) 9287
9S5
l4'-0-
14'- 0-
15'- 0-
l4'-0"
14'- 0-
17'- 0-
17- 0-
?0'-0"
?0'- 0"
l4'-0"
l4'-0"
13'- 0-
13'- 0-
2?'- 0'
Yes
23'- 0-
Yes
22'-r
Yes
ir-o" "
t'-r
Yes
8'-e-
4'-0*
5'- 9" •
4''
3'-l|-
s-rr
8'-3-
Yes
Yes
I4^rf
4'-rf
K-n"
i4'-rr
i4'-n*
IS'-O"
i9'-n"
iT-n"
??-rr
Yes
??-ri'
Yes
??-""
Yes
18'- 0"
K'-fC
8"
4'-d1^-Cf
5'- 7"
4"
3'-(j3'-C(l6'-(J
8'-0"
Yn
rf-0
Yes
8'-d
'
-
,« Order ^Vtq
946
n-ff
ir-(»
14-0'
4'-rf
11-0'
|5'0'
15-0'
IS'-O'
l8'-0"
12-0
12-0'
77-0
Yes
22- 0'
Yes
}}-0'
8-4j'
Yes
4-0
"«".'""
8-0
Yes
il
Yes
Sffi
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,
,
^ ,.
-^
,
,
1
1
1 ,
1
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Clearances 503
Report on Assignment 5
Clearance Allowances to Provide for Vertical and Horizontal
Movements of Equipment Due to Lateral Play,
Wear and Spring Deflection
Collaborating with the Mechanical Division, AAR
E. E. Mills (chairman, subcommittee), C. O. Bird, D. H. Brown, S. M. Dahl, W. T.
Davis, J. G. Greenlee, A. R. Harris, W. F. Hart, C. F. Intlekofer, C. E. Peterson,
W. S. Ray, J. F. Smith, R. L. Williams, M. A. Wohlschlaeger.
Your committee presents, as information, a suggested method of determining clear-
ance allowances for horizontal movements of passenger cars, with the view of presenting
it for inclusion in the Manual after due collaboration with the Mechanical Division.
(See chart on page 504).
The report is based on the results of field tests on passenger cars carried out by the
AAR under the direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. A report on
these tests entitled "Passenger Ride Comfort on Curved Track" will be found in the
Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 125. Other background material will be found in the
reports of Committee 28 in the Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 559, and \'ol. 59, 1958,
page 661.
Report on Assignment 7
Methods of Measuring High and Wide Shipments
W. F. Hart (chairman, subcommittee), S. M. Dahl, J. G. Greenlee, C. O. Bird, D. H.
Brown, W. P. Kobat, J. W. McMillan, E. E. Mills, C. E. Peterson, A. D. Quacken-
bush, J. F. Smith, J. W. Wallenius, H. G. Whittet, Jr.
Your committee submits the following report as information.
Data and requirements are being reviewed, looking to:
1. The economical design of a fixed measuring template to incorporate direct re-
cording of clearances. Studies have been made of templates employing fixed columns, as
well as of a movable template on fixed support.
2. The development of a uniform method of recording and transmitting initial
measurements throughout the routing of a car.
3. The inclusion of approved methods of measurements in an appropriate manual.
Progress is being made, and the data developed will be submitted in later reports.
504
Clearances
100
90
80
70
60
< 50
40
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
20
30
70
80
90
100
Fig.
40 50 60
Speed-MPH
4- Diagram Showing Percent of Average Lateral Displacement to be Added, as on Allowance
for the Effect of Track Irregularities and Dynomic Behavior of Passenger Cars.
Report of Committee 15 — Iron and Steel Structures
D. \'. Messman, Chairman,
Cornelius Nevfeld,
riff Chairman,
P. E. Adams
Raymond Archibald
R. C. Baker
H. A. Balke
Ethax Ball
J. L. Beckel
L. S. Beedle
J. E. Bernhardt
E. S. BlRKENVVALD
R. T. Blewitt
M. Block
H. F. Bober
E. T. Bond, Jr.
R. N. Brodie
E. E. BuRCH
Abram Clark
J. G. Clark
\'. R. Cooledge
R. P. Davis
W. E. DOWLING
C. E. Ekberg
E. T. Franzen
T. L. Fuller
R. W. GUSTAFSON
C. D. Hanover, Jr.
A. R. Harris
J. M. Hayes
Alfred Hedefine
D. L. Jerman
E. A. Johnson
M. L. Johnson
B. G. Johnston
J. C. King
M. L. Koehler
Shu t'ien Li
F. H. Lovell
J. F. Marsh
F. M. Masters
M. L. McCauley
James Michalos
N. W. Morgan
C. T. Morris (E)
N. M. Newmark
J. C. Nichols
T. G. O'Neil
R. E. Peck
G. H. Perkins
A. G. Rankin
C. A. Roberts
G. E. Robinson
G. W. Salmon
C. H. Sandberg
T. C. Shedd
L. L. Shirey
A. E. Smith
H. F. Smith
J. E. S:)UTH
G. L. Staley
H. C. Tammen (E)
W. M. Thatcher
E. K. TiMBY
H. T. Welty (E)
A. R. Wilson (E)
W. M. Wilson (E)
L. T. Wyly
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Revision of Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges, submitted lor adop-
tion and publication in the Manual pa^e 506
Revision of Ru'es for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridgss, submitted
for adoption and publication in the Manual page 507
Reapproval without change of Manual Material, submitted for adoption
and publication in the Manual pages SQ6-.=i07
3. Specifications for use of high-strength steels.
Final report, with revision of Specifications for High-Strength Steel, sub-
mittsd for adoption and publication in the Manual page 508
4. Stress distribution in bridge frames:
(a) Floorbeam hangers;
Progress in study, but no report,
(c) Truss bridge research project.
Progress report, presented as information page 508
505
V
506 Iron and Steel Structures
5. Design of steel bridge details.
Progress in study, but no report.
6. Preparation and painting of steel surfaces.
Progress report, presented as information page 509
7. Bibliography and technical explanation of various requirements in AREA
specifications relating to iron and steel structures.
Progress report, presented as information page 535
8. Specifications for design of corrugated metal culverts, including corrugated
metal arches.
Progress report, presented as information page 550
10. Specifications for design of continuous bridges.
Final report, presented as information page 553
The Committee on Iron and Steel Structures,
D. V. Messman, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 548, January 1959.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
E. S. Birkenwald (chairman, subcommittee), J. L. Beckel, R. P. Davis, A. R. Harris,
J. F. Marsh, D. V. Messman, C. Neufeld, C. H. Sandberg.
Your committee submits for adoption the following recommendations with respect
to the Manual:
Pages 15-1-1 to 15-1-43, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES
Page i of Table of Contents: Under Part 1, Sec. C, change the word "Alloy" to
"High-Strength".
Page 15-1-4, Art. 8, Sec. A: For plate girders, change 125 ft to 130 ft, and for
riveted trusses, change 100 ft to 130 ft.
Page 15-1-15, Art. 46, Sec. A: Substitute the following for the last sentence:
If the grip equals or exceeds 6 times the nominal diameter, the body shall be
tapered from the head for a distance not less than 3.42 times the nominal diameter,
but not more than 4^4 in. The body diameter at the head shall be s^ in greater and
where not tapered, b\ in less than the nominal diameter.
Page 15-1-27, Art. 110, Sec. A: In the second paragraph, first line, delete the word
"plate."
Pages 15-4-1 to 15-4-3, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF RIGID-FRAME
STEEL BRIDGES
Reapprove without change.
1
Iron and Steel Structures 507
Pages 15-6-1 and 15-6-2
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MILL INSPECTION OF
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Reapprove without change.
Pages 15-6-2 to 15-6-4, inch
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE INSPECTION OF THE FABRICATION
OF STEEL BRIDGES
Reapprove without change.
Pages 15-6-5 to 15-6-9, incl.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE INSPECTION OF BRIDGE ERECTION
Reapprove without change.
Pages 15-7-1 to 15-7-3, incl.
CLASSIFICATION OF RAILWAY BRIDGES
Reapprove without change.
Pages 15-7-3 to 15-7-8, incl.
RULES FOR RATING EXISTING IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES
Adopt the revisions to Art. 14, pages lS-7-6 to 15-7-8, incl., as published on
page 701, Vol. 59 of the Proceedings, except that the coefficients preceding the term
Jrr^ in the compression formula for high-strength steel up to and including 1 in thick
shall be changed from 0.66 to 0.62 for riveted ends and from 0.86 to 0.83 for pin ends;
and for high-strength steel over 1 in thick, from 0.66 to 0.53 for riveted ends and from
0.86 to 0.70 for pin ends; and that the coefficients preceding the term f/6^ in the com-
pression formula in extreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders and built sections, subject
to bending, shall be changed from 7.5 to 12 for high-strength steel up to and including
1 in thick and from 7.5 to 10 for high-strength steel over 1 in thick.
Page 15-M-3
FUSION WELDING
Reapprove without change.
Page 15-M-20 and 15-M-21
TRACK ANCHORAGE ON BRIDGES AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES
Reapprove without change.
Page 15-M-30 to 15-M-33, incl.
METHOD OF SHORTENING EYEBARS TO EQUALIZE
THE STRESS
Reapprove without change.
508 Iron and Steel Structures
Report on Assignment 3
Specifications for Use of High-Strength Steels
E. S. Birkenwald (chairman, subcommittee), Ethan Ball, R. T. Blewitt, N. W. Morgan,
N. M. Newmark, G. H. Perkins, L. L. Shirey, E. K. Timby.
At the last annual meeting of the Association, a specification was adopted for the
use of high-strength steels.
Since then, a study was made of the column formulas and the formulas for com-
pression in extreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders and built sections subject to bending,
given in Art. 1, Sec. C, which indicates that the coefficients for the terms f/r and
l~/h'^ are not consistent with the application of the secant formula in Appendix A, page
15-1-41 of the Manual.
To remedy this the following revisions should be made to the Manual:
SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES
Page 15-1-39, Art. 1, Sec. C: For the coefficients preceding the I'/r term in the
column formula for riveted ends, change 0.66 to 0.62 for materials up to and including
1 in in thickness and change 0.66 to 0.53 for materials over 1 in thick; for pin ends,
change 0.86 to 0.83 for materials up to and including 1 in in thickness and change
0.86 to 0.70 for materials over 1 in thick.
For the coefficients preceding the I'/h"^ term for the compression formula in extrerne
fibers of rolled shapes, girders and built sections subject to bending, change 7.5 to 12
for materials up to and including 1 in in thickness and change 7.5 to 10 for materials
over 1 in thick.
Change the limit of the l/h value from a maximum of 40 to a maximum of 30.
A letter ballot has been taken and voted on favorably by the committee. It is
recommended that the Association adopt this revision for publication in the Manual.
Unless the Association desires the committee to prepare design specifications for
proprietary low-alloy steels, which cost as much or more and which do not provide
yield point and working stresses as high, it is recommended that this Association
assignment be terminated
Report on Assignment 4
Stress Distribution in Bridge Frames
(c) Model railway truss bridge
C. H. Sandberg (chairman, subcommittee), E. F. Ball, J. E. Bernhardt, E. S. Birken-
wald, R. P. Davis, E. T. Franzen, J. M. Hayes, F. M. Masters, J. Michalos, N. M.
Newmark, N. W. Morgan, G. L. Staley, L. T. Wyly.
Your committee submits the following report of progress.
The model truss bridge has been erected on Northwestern University property at
Emerson and Maple Avenues in Evanston, III. A steel building has also been erected
which encloses the bridge. The loading jacks are in place; however, the hydraulic
system remains to be erected. Due to the lack of funds, G. M. Magee has volunteered
to have his staff place the strain gages on the control end-post members which will be
Iron and Steel Structures 509
tested first. It is hoped to have the hydraulic system in place and tests started in the
first part of 1959.
The project is sponsored by Xorthwestern University, Association of American
Railroads, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army and Bureau of Public Roads. Numerous
business firms have also contributed material, labor, and money. The project director
is L. T. Wyly, profe.ssor of civil engineerinft, Northwestern University.
Report on Assignment 6
Preparation and Painting of Steel Surfaces
R. C. Baker (chairman, subcommittee), R. N. Brodie. .\. R. Harris, D. L. Jerman,
F. M. Masters, N. W. Morgan, R. E. Peck, G. H. Perkins, A. G. Rankin, C. A.
Roberts, G. W. Salmon, A. E. Smith.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
During the past year the director of research of the Steel Structures Painting
Council, committee members, and representatives from the .A.'KR research staff inspected
paint tests on two bridges of the Missouri Pacific near Chester, 111., three bridges on
the Santa Fe near Kansas City, one bridge on the New York Central in Chicago near
the AAR Research Center, one bridge on the Great Northern near Breckenridge, S. Dak.,
and one bridge on the Pennsylvania near Rayland, Ohio.
.\n additional test installation was started on the Chicago Great Western near
Byron, 111., with the purpose of evaluating the performance of various protective coating
.systems on the top flanges of deck plate girders.
The committee is continuing its cooperation with the Sleei Structures Painting
Council on laboratory and fields tests to determine the best painting and cleaning prac-
tice to use over welded joints, the possible use of iron o.xide produced by the rusting
of steel in the formulation of a suitable paint for such surfaces and the comparison
of hot sprayed coatings with those applied by conventional methods.
The progress reports of the Steel Structures Painting Council on "Brine-Resistant
Bridge Paints" and "Protecting Top Flanges of Bridges", presented hereinafter as
Appendix A and Appendix B, respectively, give a more complete description of .some
of the studies being conducted.
Appendix A — Brine-Resistant Bridge Paints
By John D. Keane* and Joseph Bigos**
A. DIGEST
This test was conducted by the Steel Structures Painting Council in cooperation
with the Missouri Pacific Railroad through arrangements made by the Association of
.\merican Railroads. The purpose of the test is to provide information toward the
solving of one of the railroad industry's greatest maintenance problems — corrosion
caused by brine drippings on steel structures. In this test, two bridges were cleaned
and painted with a number of paint systems in an endeavor to obtain satisfactory
methods of painting the floor systems of railroad bridges exposed to brine drippings.
* Secretary and director of research, Steel Structure.-^ Painting Council.
** Formerly director of research, Steel Structure.-, fainting Council, presently connected with
.■\pplied Research Laboratory, U. S. Steel Corporation, Monrocville. Pa.
510 Iron and Steel Structures
One bridge was sandblasted, and a number of systems applied; the other bridge
was steam cleaned and wirebrushed before painting. The paint systems on the two types
of surfaces are not all the same, but the control systems and several others are duplicated
on both bridges. Application was completed October 2, 105.S, and a touch-up of the
steam-cleaned wire-brushed bridge was carried out in 1956. Five inspections have been
made — in September 1054, June 1955, April 1956, July 1957, and September 1958.
The experience gained from this test after five years of exposure is that several
systems afford excellent protection over sandblasted surfaces and that it may also be
possible to do a good job of bridge maintenance under severe brine conditions without
sandblasting if a careful job is done on surface preparation and if follow-up repairs
are made as indicated by periodic inspections.
On sandblasted areas, a vinyl system, a chlorinated rubber, an alkyd, an asphalt
mastic, and a phenolic all remained in excellent condition. Several were in fairly good
condition, including 2 phenolics, 2 coal tar mastics, a vinyl, an alkyd phenolic, and a
styrene-butadiene copolymer coated section. Sections showing some deterioration included
the oil-base control system, a Neoprene section, one of the phenolics and an amine
catalyzed epoxy. An epoxy ester exposure was interrupted by fire.
On the hand-cleaned bridge the low-cost rust-preventive greases were badly deteri-
orated the first year. The asphalt oil with bridge cement topcoat deteriorated badly
the second year. On the remainder of the bridge, most of the sections where brine had
splashed were in poor condition at the 1956 (three-year) inspection, particularly around
rivet heads, fillets and sharp corners on the floor beams, including not only the low-cost
rust preventives but also the proprietary vinyls and alkyd-phenolics as well as the oil-
base control. The bridge was carefully retouched in the bad areas in 1956. After more
than two years of additional exposure the paint systems are now in excellent condition,
and indicate they will give several more years of additional service.
B. INTRODUCTION
The object of this test is to evaluate paint systems over sandblasted and over
steam-cleaned wire-brushed surfaces for their ability to resist corrosion due to brine
drippings from railroad refrigerator cars.
Details of the test plan and preparation are given in a previous report.' The
present report is an account of the work and conclusions since that time.
Perhaps the most important and severe factor in determining the life of railroad
bridges is the presence of brine drippings, which expose the floor systems and lower
chords of bridges to a very corrosive environment. As the ice melts in the customary
bunker type of refrigerator car, the drippings flow out through drain spouts as a salt-
water solution, which is dripped and sprayed on steel structures along the right-of-way.
Because of the seriousness of the resultant corrosion problem, much study has been
devoted to satisfactory painting of railroad structures exposed to brine.
Other approaches to a solution of this problem have also been investigated by the
railroads; it has been found, for example, that the addition of corrosion inhibitors to
the ice in the bunker would drastically decrease the corrosiveness of the brine drippings.
Collecting of the brine for periodic discharge has also been suggested, and eventually
mechanical refrigeration may eliminate the problem. Since these other corrective or
preventive measures will not be materially effective for many years, it is important that
reliable protective coatings be found for protection of the bridges and other structures
along the right-of-way.
' -Sep "References" at end of this report.
Iron and Steel Structures SH,
The painting of railroad bridges has always been a serious problem, but the rapidly
increasing costs of maintenance painting necessitates a careful analysis of the methods
of protection to reduce annual painting costs to a minimum. The tests described in
this paper, as well as others undertaken by the SSPC and by the railroads, are believed
to be significant in showing the way to more efficient painting and to the utilization
of more resistant coating materials of longer life expectancy. It is believed that the
experience being obtained on this test will be a useful supplement to the Steel Structures
Painting Manual.""' This manual includes a comprehen.sive summary of good painting
practices in the painting of railroad bridges and outlines in detail the available .specifica-
tions for the surface preparation, pretreatment and application of paint in the shop
and in the field.
C. DESCRIPTION OF TEST
This field test was conducted on the floor system of two bridges of the Missouri
Pacific Railroad located within 12 miles of each other in the vicinity of Chester, 111.,
appro-ximately SO miles south of St. Louis, Mo. The Missouri Pacific supplied the labor
and material for the test. These bridges were selected because of heavy refrigerator car
traffic, which had led to considerable trouble in the past.
Prior to the painting of these bridges, it was found that the most severe attack
occurred on the floorbeams, principally between the truss and the stringers; the stringers
were attacked principally on the top flanges and the outer surfaces. Only minor localized
attack occurred on the surfaces of the stringers and the floorbeams between the rails.
Fig. 1 shows a typical condition after cleaning, illustrating that a considerable portion
of the steel surface had been attacked by brine corrosion. On both bridges the remaining
paint had very poor adherence to the metal and much of it was undercut by rust.
A futile attempt to retard corrosion had been made with paint which was applied
to the rusted web of the floorbeam, but which failed to stop corrosion underneath the
paint.
Two methods of surface preparation were selected for these structures: blast clean-
ing on Bridge 69 and steam and hand cleaning on Bridge 94. There is no doubt that
blast cleaning is the best method for obtaining maximum paint life on such structures,
It is, however, an expensive operation and the individual railroad must decide for itself
whether it is an economical one. As described in Chapter 2 of the Steel Structures
Painting Manual, there are many methods of blast cleaning, but the principal one in
field use on bridges is direct pressure sandblasting. On the hand-cleaned bridge, steam
cleaning was used before wire brushing in order to remove the brine which had soaked
into the rust, cracks, crevices and the old paint.
Bridge 69 — Sandblasted
Bridge 69 over the Okaw River consists of one ISO-ft through truss span and one
216-ft through truss draw span which is not opened. The iSO-ft span contains 7 floor-
beams and the 216-ft span includes 10 floorbeams. Diagrams of the test plan are shown
in Figs. 2 and S, and the bridges are pictured in Fijis. .^, 4 and 0.
The floor svstem of the 2 through truss spans on Bridge 6^ is divided into 1.'^ test
areas, as .shown in Fig. 2, the division points being the center of each panel. These areas
are lettered A through (). Supplementary tests were also made on areas which wen- in
somewhat more sheltered locations, G4, H4, H5, 14, I."?, J4, J5 and N5.
From previous experience on the bridge it was known that the corrosive attack
from brine drippings is much greater on the west side of the spans. Therefore, test areas
512 Iron and Steel Structures
include the west ends of the tloorbeams from the west line of stringers outward, west
face of stringers including top and bottom surfaces of top flanges, and lower panel
laterals outward from the west line.
Bridge 69 was sandblasted. In the course of removing the rust and paint, which
had been overcoated a few years previously by a grease type of coating, it was neces-
sary to blast to a grade almost equal to white metal, as de:cribed in SSPC-SP6-S2T
"Commercial Blast Cleaning." Some Ottawa silica sand was used, but most of the work
done with Meramec River sand, which had to be dried before use. Fig. 7 shows the
oil-fired rotary kiln used for drying the sand, and details are given in a previous
paper.^
Each test area is approximately 250 to 300 sq ft. Pretreatment SSPC-PT2-53T,
"Basic Zinc Chromate, Vinyl Butyral Wash Coat Pretreatment" was applied as soon
as possible after sandblasting to the diagonal half of certain test areas. The purpose
of this diagonal division of the floorbeams was to have some indication of the effect
of wash primer, but, due to the localized attack of the brine, deterioration tended to
occur wherever the brine struck, regardless of the presence or absence of the pre-
treatment. Similarly, these particular areas were also divided diagonally in the other
direction, to test the effectiveness of aluminum versus black topcoats, but no conclusion
can be drawn due to the localized nature of the attack.
Various paint systems were applied, including combinations of vinyls, phenolics,
alkyds, coal tar mastics, chlorinated rubbers, styrene-butadiene copolymer resins, de-
hydrated castor oil alkyd, epoxy resins, and Neoprene coatings. All paints were applied
in compliance with the SSPC-PA1-53T "Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting" and
paint records were kept on Council forms.
Bridge 94 — Hand and Steam Cleaned
Bridge 94 across the St. Mary's River consists of one 150-ft through truss span
identical with the 150-ft span in Bridge 60. It is located 12.5 miles south of Bridge 69
and contains 7 floorbeams. Traffic and environmental conditions are the same for both
bridges; approaches are open deck timber trestles and the first and last floorbeams are
exposed. Test areas on this bridge have been lettered P through V. Fig. 8 is a sketch
of the test areas and Fig. 9 is a picture of the bridge.
This bridge was in extremely bad condition due to neglect over a number of years.
On this bridge, as on Bridge 69, the west side was selected for the test area because
of exposure to sunlight as well as slightly worse corrosion than on the east side.
As described in the previous report,^ the surface of this bridge was prepared for
painting by applying a heavy dose of hot detergent solution (Oakite 92) and flushing
off with hot water (steam cleaning), as shown in Fig. 10. Next the paint and rust
scale were removed by chipping, scraping and wire brushing, followed by a final rinse
with hot water. Cracks and crevices were blown out with air prior to painting. The
first steam cleaning was used in order to remove residues of brine which had soaked
into the rust and cracks, whereas the final steam cleaning was carried out to remove
the oil and brine deposited during the cleaning period.
As on Bridge 69, the Council Pretreatment SSPC-PT2-53T, "Basic Zinc Chromate,
Vinyl Butyral Wash Coat Pretreatment" was applied to diagonal halves of each test
area, and aluminum or black topcoats were placed on the opposite diagonal halves,
making four test sections in all.
Following the pretreatment, paint systems were applied in accordance with SSPC-
PA1-5.^T "Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting." These .systems included combina-
Iron and Steel Structures 513
tions of phenolics, alkyds, vinyls, asphalt oil, greases and proprietary materials, as listed
in Table 2. As a control, a standard oil-base paint system of the Missouri Pacific was
included on each bridge.
D. TEST RESULTS
Inspections of these two bridges have been made annually, with the last inspection
being held in September 1958. In general the condition of the sandblasted bridge was
excellent. The steam-cleaned wire-brushed bridge is now also in excellent condition, but
this bridge was retouched in 1956.
Ratings for rusting were made in accordance with ASTM Designation D 610-43
"Standard Method of Evaluating Degree of Resistance to Rusting Obtained with Paint
on Iron or Steel Surfaces." According to this commonly accepted rating method, a score
of 10 is considered perfect, and 0 indicates complete failure. A rating of 8 usually indi-
cates that spot cleaning and spot priming the surface will suffice for repainting, while
a rating of 6 indicates that complete cleaning of the surface prior to repainting is neces-
sary. Ratings of 4 or below indicate that complete removal of the coating is required
before repainting; such surfaces are so badly rusted that the numerical values below 4
have no great significance. Photographic standards tend to keep this rating method
objective and fixed.
Bridge 69 — Sandblasted
Paint systems on the sandblasted Bridge 69 were given ratings representing the
reading by the members of the inspection party. Unless otherwise indicated, the rating
represents an average between the condition of the stringer and the floorbeam. Com-
plete inspection results are shown in Table 1. Ratings shown in the paragraph below
represent the condition of the floorbeam only in the September 1958 inspection.
Of the vinyls, an aluminum vinyl system (B), SSPC — Paint 8 — S5T "Aluminum
Vinyl Paint", over the wash primer is in almost perfect condition but shows some rust
due to bad cleaning at crevices only (Rating 9.0). On area (A), a wash primer, two
coats of red lead vinyl, topcoated with black vinyl (SSPC Paint 106) i.s doing fairly
well (8.0), having some rust on the side of a few rivets and seme breakdown due to
poor cleaning of scale at crevices.
A chlorinated rubber system (C) has very good appearance (9.0) with only a few
rivet heads slightly rusted: A styrene-butadiene copolymer system (D) i; flaking off
with very tiny rust breakthrough on floorbeam (8.0). Where there is a thicker film on
the flange top, the paint system is doing better. This system had had some tiny specks
of rust when first inspected in 1954, but has not deteriorated much since then.
The red lead phenolic system topcoated with aluminum and black phenolics (E)
had some spots of scale on the floorbeam (8.0). This system had no rust spots at all
until the 1956 inspection.
A red lead, zinc chromate, zinc oxide, alkyd-phenolic (two coats) with aluminum
and black phenolic topcoats (F) is doing well (8.5), showing only a few tiny rough
spots on the stringer and floorbeam (possibly imbedded sand).
On area (H) the red lead, zinc chromate — mica — castor oil alkyd (two coats) with
the aluminum and black (SSPC Paint 103) phenolic topcoats is slightly better (8.5")
than the above. Only two rivets were slightly rusted and this was the first deterioration
to show since painting.
A zinc chromate — red lead — iron oxide — mica — phenolic (I) (SSPC Paint 10) top-
514 Iron and Steel Structures
coated with aluminum and black phenolics had a had area at crevice of the stiffener.
some blisters and rust spots (8-) .
Red lead — iron oxide — phenolic (SSPC Paint 6) under aluminum and black phenolic
finish coat (J) rated 8.5 and a coal-tar mastic system (K) rated 8.5, having some rust
scale. Another coal-tar mastic system (L) of two coats rather than three rated 7.5 due
to rust on rivet heads, stiffener, web and edge of flange.
A two-coat system (M) which rated an 8.5 had SSPC Paint 10 as the first coat
(Same as Area I) and an asphalt gilsonite mastic as topcoat. There is no rust, although
the topcoat appears to be losing adhesion to the primer.
The early type of amine-catalyzed epon system on area N showed poor durability
(6-) on the fioorbeam.
Evaluation of the epoxy ester coating system on area (O) was discontinued because
of a fire which damaged this coating.
The control system (Beam G) — containing red lead, lead chromate, iron oxide and
extender in a linseed oil vehicle in the primer (two coats of which were applied) and
a carbon and linseed oil finish coat — has some slight pinholes that are apparently due
to sand. The floorbeam has rust blisters and rates 7.5.
Bridge 94 — Hand and Steam Cleaned
On the steam- and hand-cleaned bridge, No. 94, serious deterioration of the grease
rust preventives was noted as early as six months after application. During the second
year serious rust blistering occurred on the asphalt oil system with severe undercutting
by rust. By April 1956 considerable breakdown had occurred on other vital areas where
brine contact was continuous. As previously mentioned this bridge was then carefully
retouched in the bad areas.
In September 1958, two years after this repair, all systems were doing well except
for two proprietary materials which show the beginning of flaking and chalking. Both P
and Q were in very good condition, although Q had been better than P at the time
of retouching in 1956.
Vinyl system S with the wash primer and red lead vinyl primer was the best on the
bridge and considerably better than vinyl T with the proprietary primer. The control
system on this bridge (Beam R) rates about 8.5. Ratings and comments are summarized
in Table 2.
E. SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS
Portions of both bridges not included in the main test were used in an auxiliary
study to evaluate special materials. The paint systems are listed in Tables 1 and 2
along with their ratings as determined by subsequent inspections. These sections received
the same surface preparation as the bridge to which they were applied. Due to the
sheltered location of these areas, they show relatively little deterioration, and no con-
clusions have yet been drawn regarding these systems.
The tops of the upper flanges of the turntable stringers on Bridge 69 were blast
cleaned and primed with a proprietary adhesive primer. The west stringer had one coat
of a proprietary rubber film. The east stringer had one coat of a polyvinyl chloride
film, with a second layer of rubber film on top of the center half. All films were
wrinkled and torn because of traffic before the adhesive had time to cure.
The east part of the web of the floorbeams in area L was blast cleaned, and one
half of the area primed with the film primer, the other half unprimed. A rubber film
Iron and Steel Structures 515
was applied to half the test area and a polyvinyl chloride tilm was applied to the other
half in such manner that both films were tested over bare steel and over primed steel.
In September 1058 the films between the ties were gathered together and under the
ties were worn away; film on the web was still in fairly good condition.
•Additional areas on the east side of Bridge 94 were painted at the time the rest
of the test was retouched in 1956. .-Vlthough a polyurethane and a vinyl mastic were in
fairly good condition two years later, a vinyl cocoon was in poor condition; the.sc
exposures cannot be compared with the main test on the west side of the bridge
because of the less severe attack on the east side.
F. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the average rating for the various test sections the following conclusions
are drawn from observations made to date.
1. With sandblasting it is pos.sible to do a good job of bridge maintenance under
severe conditions.
2. A fairly wide choice of systems applied to a sandblasted surface will provide
good protection in severe brine conditions, including properly formulated vinyl,
alkyd. phenolic, coal tar, asphalt, and chlorinated rubber paints.
3. It is possible to do a good job of bridge maintenance without sandblasting
if a careful cleaning job is done and if careful periodic inspection and repair
follow.
4. Further observation of these bridges should be made in order to yield neces-
sary data on paint life, frequency of touch-up and over-all cost per square
foot per year for adequate protection. It is often difficult to detect under-
cutting on the hea\y mastic or oil protectives until after serious amounts of
rust have formed.
F. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The tests described in this report were carried out under the guidance of AREA
Committee 15 under its Assignment 6 (subcommittee chairman, R. C. Baker). Advice
and direction were also furnished by the Research Committee of the SSPC, J. O. Jack-
son, chairman, and by the AAR, E. J. Ruble, Association representative. The Missouri
Pacific Railroad furnished labor and materials, and was responsible for the execution
of the test plan under the direction of R. E. Peck, bridge engineer. W. L. Short,
assistant engineer, played a most important part in the selection of the bridge, choice
of test areas, the procurement and application of materials and in the frequent observa-
tion of the test site.
REFERENCES
! AREA. Proceedings, Vol. 55, pp. 1021-1042 (1954;.
2. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Vol. 1, "Good Painting Practice."
v Steel Stnirtiire> Paintinu Miinual, \n\. 2, "Ss stems and SpecifKHdMiis."
516
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Fig, 1 — Portion of bridge 69 after blast cleaning, showing attack
by brine on rivets and plates.
Figiire Z.
Principal Paint Test Areas
MoPac Bridge No. 69, Roots, HI.
1^ 150 Ft. Through Truss Span ^i 1 216 Ft. Through Truss Draw ^ i
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across the Okaw River.
Fig, 4 — Typical test areas on bridge
69 after two years of exposure.
Fig. 5 — Rotary sand-drying kiln.
524
Iron and Steel Structures
Fig. 6 — Sandblasting bridge 69. Fig. 7 — Spraying coal tar emulsion,
bridge 69.
Figure 8.
Principal Paint Test Areas
MoPac Bridge No. 94, Chester, Ul.
! . 150 Ft. Through Truss Span
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Bridge 94 across the St. Mary's River.
Fig. 10 — Steam cleaning bridge 94.
526
Iron and Steel Structures
Fig. 11 (left) — Hand chipping
on bridge 94.
Fig. 12 (below)— Section U of
bridge 94, showing failure of low-
cost rust preventive after less than
one year of exposure.
-l''^^::.^^-^
Iron and Steel Structures
527
Fig. 13 — Typical areas on bridge 94 prior to retouching
(Sections T, R and Q).
528 Iron and Steel Structures
Appendix B — Protecting Top Flanges of Bridges
*By John D. Keane
Summary
Over 20 durable steel-protective systems were applied to portions of the top flanges
of a 786-ft bridge, where they will be exposed to severe attack from weathering, salt
brine, abrasion and moisture. These protective systems were applied to both sand-
blasted and hand-cleaned surfaces, chiefly in the fabricating shop, and included the
following: metallizing, vinyl tapes, coal tar coatings, rust preventives, tie pads and
paints based upon vinyl resins, epoxies, chlorinated rubber, zinc dust, Neoprene, inorganic
zinc silicate, and various proprietary combinations. It is also planned to test these same
systems in four other locations and environments by panel tests. Field tests were made
of four of the best treatments previously found for painting over welds.
The test bridge is a shop-welded, open-deck girder with high-strength bolt field
connections, located at Byron, 111. These tests were made possible through the coopera-
tion of the Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company, the Chicago Great Western Railway
and the Association of American Railroads.
The Problem
One of the most difficult structural steel coating problems is the protection of the
top flanges of the beams on railroad bridges. These surfaces are directly beneath the
timber ties and are subjected to a combination of brine drippings from refrigerator cars,
abrasion from the ties, exposure to weathering and retention of moisture and con-
taminants. In many instances the rate of deterioration of the paint film over these
cover plates and flange angles is accelerated in comparison with other parts of the
structure, especially where there is a considerable amount of refrigerator car traffic.
Often, the top cover plates or flanges are almost corroded through because of corrosion
— erosion action. Because of the widespread interest of the railroads in this problem,
a cooperative test was started on the Chicago Great Western Railway Bridge C-87-29
across the Rock River in Byron, 111. This is a 12-span open-deck girder bridge, 786 ft
long, of shop-welded design with all field connections made with high-strength bolts.
Shop fabrication and painting of the test areas were carried out August 17-29,
1958, at the Des Moines plant of the Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company under the
direction of G. W. Hall, plant manager. Field erection and painting of the test spans
were carried out August 25-October 30 by the Mass Construction Company under the
direction of J. M. Peterson, bridge engineer for the Chicago Great Western.
Test Plan
As shown in Fig. 1, 5 spans, each 70 ft long, were selected for testing of the pro-
tective systems. Two of these spans were sandblasted in accordance with SSPC-SP6-
S2T "Commercial Blast Cleaning", 2 were hand cleaned in accordance with SSPC-SP2-
S2T, "Hand Cleaning", and one was hand cleaned and painted with the specified oil
base primer before application of the additional protective systems.
On the principal test, the experimental area was confined to the tops and edges
of the top flanges, the tops being 16 in wide. In each case, identical protective systems
were applied to the corresponding north and south girders of each test area. Welded
stiffeners divide the web of each girder into 14 areas, each approximately S ft in length.
Secretary and director of research, Steel Structures Painting Council.
Iron and Steel Structures 529
as shown in Fig. 1. On this test, the top tlanges directly above these 14 panels have
been identified by the letters A through N from west to east. As shown on the diagram,
a minimum test area for most of the systems consists of a 10-ft length on both the
north and south girders. All systems (except metallizing, tie pads, and tape) were
applied by brush application to the film thickness recommended by the manufacturer.
Unless otherwise indicated in Table 1, the various coats were applied in the shop. Any
damage which occurred during handling, transportation or erection was repaired in the
field immediately after erection.
All of the systems used are outlined in Table 1, which also shows the location of
test spans and the sequence of application of coats. A detailed record was made of the
application of all shop and field protective systems. Twenty-six protective systems were
used in the manner outlined, representing a cross section of those systems which have
been used successfully in the past, which were recommended by the railroads and the
SSPC Research Committee, or which were recommended by material suppliers for this
particular application. It is also planned to test the?e materials, if possible, on .sand-
blasted and hand-cleaned steel panels, not only on this bridge but also at three other
locations for comparative purposes.
As shown in Fig. 1, spans 4, S, 6, 7 and 8 were selected for this experiment. Spans
1, 2. 3, 9, 10, 11 and 12, as well as intermediate sections on the test span, were painted
with a three-coat system, consisting of a red lead — linseed oil primer and two coats
of a black linseed oil topcoat.
The sequence of surface preparation, pretreatm&nt, priming and topcoating for all
of the test systems are listed in Table 1. Although commercial blast cleaning was cm-
ployed on spans 4 and 5, it was necessary to carry out additional sandblasting on the
4 panels before metallizing. The top flanges had been Vacublasted, using G36 (Norton)
grit, but immediately before metallizing they were reblasted, using half G36 and half
G24. On panel A, girder 5 (south) only G36 was used, due to a shortage of the coarser
material. A Metco gun type 4-E was used for both the J^-in pure aluminum wire and
the zinc wire.
The vinyl tapes were first applied in the shop, but had to be removed and reapplied
in the field. During erection temporary ties were placed on the top flanges without the
firm anchoring obtained on permanent ties, resulting in movement and abrasion which
badly scuffed the tapes.
Weld Treatment Test
In previous work by the Council, over 40 methods of treatment have been inves-
tigated to improve the performance of paints over welds. The five methods found most
effective in these earlier tests were, therefore, applied to the shop welds on the outer
face of the south girder on span 4. Th horizontal welds at the top and bottom flanges
were made with a continuous submerged arc weld, employing Lincoln Melt 840 and
Lincoln Wire L-60. The vertical welds along the stiffeners were hand welded with an
a-c machine, using a Lincoln Improved 47 electrode similar to E6013. Thus for each
of the S treatments, 20 lin ft of submerged arc weld and 20 lin ft of hand-welded bead
were treated. The treatment used consisted of plain water, chromic acid (5 percent
acid diluted 3/1), phosphoric acid (10 percent acid diluted 3/1), MIL-C-10S78A Type I
(diluted 3/1) and a proprietary chromate — phosphate compound (diluted 2/1). It was
noted that a white discoloration remained on the surface of the MIL-C-10578A after
treatment was completed. In each case the solution was brushed onto the weld and
onto an urea 2 in on each .side. It was then allowed to stand for 30 min before being
530 Iron and Steel Structures
rinsed with plain tap water and dried with towels and an air blast. Shop priming with
the control primer was carried out approximately 2 hr afti'r drying. The layout of this
test is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Future Plans
It is planned that these top flanges will be observed at least annually until a
comparison is obtained among the various alternative systems. It is hoped that more
than one system will be effective in order to give the railroads a choice on the basis
of cost, application and local conditions. The information should also be of value in
other applications and locations.
The weld treatment test, together with similar exposures elsewhere, will aid in the
transfer of laboratory tests into practical application in the problem of painting over
welds.
Acknovi^ledgement
The test is the result of the planning and work of many people, including E. J.
Ruble of the AAR, Committee IS of the AREA, and the Research Committee of the
SSPC, who contributed to the selection and planning phases. For the actual carrying
out of the test work in the shop and field, credit is due to J. M. Peterson of the
Chicago Great Western Railway and L. R. Morgan of the AAR, and in particular to
the members of the Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company, including Messrs. Hall,
Perdue, Ryals, Van Pelt, Chapman, Bell, Stuchell, Barkley, Prewitt and Moore.
Iron and Steel Structures
531
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Report on Assignment 7
Bibliography and Technical Explanations of Various
Requirements in AREA Specifications Relating
to Iron and Steel Structures
E. K. Timby (chairman, subcommittee), P. E. Adams, Ethan Ball, J. E. Bernhardt,
R. N. Brodie, James G. Clark, R. P. Davis, J. M. Hayes, B. G. Johnston, F. M.
Masters, N. M. Newmark, G. E. Robinson, T. C. Shedd, J. E. South.
Your committee presents the following material as information, looking to its
adoption and publication in the Manual next year as Appendix B of the Specifications
for Steel Railway Bridges. Comments and criticisms are solicited.
APPENDIX B— TECHNICAL EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS REQUIREMENTS
OF THE SPECIFICATIONS, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Explanations of Articles in Section A. Design and Manufacture
10. Depth Ratios 44. Net Section
18. Live Load 47. Pitch and Gage of Rivets
19. Distribution of Live Load 49. Edge Distance of Rivets
20. Impact 54. Lacing
24. Nosing 59. End Connection Angles
26. Bracing between Compression Members 60. Proportioning Girders and Beams
28. Reversal of Stress 61. Flange Section
30. Secondary Stresses 65. Thickness of Web Plates
31. Unit Stresses 67. Intermediate Stiffeners
35. Proportioning Web Members 78. Shoes and Pedestals
40. Compression Members 79. Base and Masonry Plates
41. Outstanding Legs of Angles
Explanations of Articles in Section C. High-Strength Structural Steel
1. Unit Stresses 4. Lacing
2. Thickness of Material 7. Secondary Stresses
Bibliography
Explanations of Articles in Section A. Design and Manufacture
10. Depth Ratios
The depth ratios specified were adopted many years ago and have resulted in struc-
tures that have proven satisfactory in railroad service. For these depth ratios the maxi'
mum deflections for open-deck bridges for the combined effect of E 72 live load and
impact are approximately 1/800 of the span length for trusses and plate girders, and
approximately 1/600 of the span length for rolled beams used as girders.
18. Live Load
The recommended live load, Cooper E 72 was adopted in 1^35. This was discussed
by Hardesty as follows: (1)*
The numbers in parenthesis refer to references in the Bibliography.
536 Iron and Steel Structures
"For railway bridges the normal live load, if made merely equal to that from
the heaviest engines, presumably would be the Cooper E 70 or some equivalent
loading. It was thought preferable to go slightly higher — to the Cooper E 72 — in order
to provide for the contingency of small increases in the near future. In making this
choice of normal live load, it should be borne in mind that the impact formulas here-
tofore used probably are too high, and that some reduction has been made in the for-
mulas adopted in .''irts. 206 and 207 [current Art. 20]. It must not be forgotten that
our experience relative to the carrying capacity of bridges is based mainly on structures
rated in accordance with the impact formulas heretofore used, and that a reduction in
impact will logically call for a live load assumption amply on the safe side."
The impact formulas in the current Specifications are given in Art. 20. These are
based on tests made principally after 1935, and give impacts somewhat smaller for girder
spans under 100 ft long and somewhat larger for truss spans, when compared with the
1935 formulas; the differences are not sufficiently large to alter the conclusions as to
live load reached in 1935.
At this time steam locomotives have been largely replaced by lighter diesel locomo-
tives, although there are still some steam locomotives in service which produce ratings
in the range of E 72. There has been a tendency for diesel locomotives to increase in
weight and this trend is expected to continue.
Reference if. made to a Committee IS report (2) which shows diagrams of diesel
locomotives, and of heavy loads now being hauled by the railroads, and gives com-
parisons of their ratings with E 72. The report also gives cost data indicating that
savings in construction costs by substantial reductions in design live load are quite
small.
For members receiving load from more than one track, the proportions of full
live load on the tracks to be used for design were determined by use of the theory
of probability to determine the frequency with which stresses of various magnitudes
might occur, consideration being given to the fact that most of the trains that pass
over a bridge will produce lower stresses than the E 72 design live load on each
track (3).
19. Distribution of Live Load
(a) In a bridge without stringers where a track is carried on transverse steel beams
supported by longitudinal girders, the rails act as load-distributing beams resting on
multiple elastic supports. A number of tests of such bridges in service under passage
of locomotives have been carried out under the direction of Committee 30, which is
continuing its work of theoretical analysis, the correlation of theory with the test
results, and the development of a suitable formula for design. Until this work is com-
pleted, the empirical formula given in the specifications is to be used. It is considered
to give safe design, based on comparison with test results. The values of k specified
are suitable for open track or for track with minimum ballast and floor plates. Some
reduction in the values might be made when a concrete slab is used instead of, or in
addition to, a floor plate, or where the ballast exceeds 10 in. The amount of such
reduction is now under study. (4) (S) (6)
(b) The loads for timber bridge ties can be determined analytically in the same
manner as for the transverse steel beams referred to above. Such analyses show that
the load on a tie will not exceed % of the axle load, and for tie supports in excess
of about 8 ft the load will not exceed % of the axle load. Tests have shown that the
actual distribution of the wheel loads to the ties was quite irregular due to variations
in modulus of elasticity, tie dimensions, and in play between rail base, tie plate, and
Iron and Steel Structures 537
tie, as a result of which one tie may be obliged to carry well in excess of the load
given above. However, design of a tie for V3 of the maximum axle load is considered
adequate to avoid objectionably high stresses. (7)
(c) For a ballasted floor supported on longitudinal beams and girders, the require-
ments specified represent the judgment of Committee 15. Tests of two bridges having
such floors showed the actual loads less than those specified. (6)
For open-deck bridges, the equal loading of the beams was considered proper on
the basis that if it does not occur initially, it will occur if and when the stresses in the
beams enter the plastic range.
20. Impact
The impact forces specified were based on investigations and tests of railroad
bridges in service under passage of locomotive and train loads which have been in
progress for many years. The early tests, prior to 1935, were made with mechanical
instruments and included measurements of deflections and strains. In general, and par-
ticularly for shorter spans, the instruments were subject to considerable error due to
vibration. The later tests were made with electrical instruments which permitted accurate
measurements without disturbance from vibrations. Such work of testing is still in
progress. While these later tests included many on beam and girder spans, only a few
were made on truss spans, and work on such spans particularly is expected to continue
for some years. The work is now being carried out jointly by Committee 30 and the
research staff of the Association of American Railroads, the latter conducting the fi^ld
and laboratory investigations. (9)
The magnitude of the rolling effect was determined from the early tests and con-
firmed by the later tests, which also showed that this was substantially the same for all
speeds. (11)
The impact forces providing for direct vertical effects were adopted in 1948. For
beam and girder spans, they were determined from the later tests. For truss spans, they
were determined in part from the later tests and in part from the early tests. It was
found that certain values obtained by the use of mechanical extensometers in the early
tests were free from instrumental errors, thus justifying their use in the determination
of impacts for longer truss spans, which had not been covered by the later test pro-
gram. (8)
The later tests were made with electrical strain gages and oscillograms. A strain
gage is connected to an oscillogram in such manner that the latter provides a continuous
graphic record of the strains, or stresses, as a locomotive or train passes over the bridge.
The ordinates on the resulting oscillograph represent the strains or stresses and the
abscissae the elapsed time. (9) (10)
The use of a strain gage on each of two identically located points of, say, two
girders of a girder span, each connected to its oscillogram, makes possible the determina-
tion separately of the several effects which together constitute the total impact at any
instant during the passage of the locomotive or train. The difference between the mean
stresses on the two graphs measures the rolling effect. The direct vertical effect is meas-
ured in two parts: (a) the speed effect is measured by the average of the mean .stresses
recorded on the two graphs; (b) the track effect for diesel locomotives, and similarly
the combined track effect and hammer-blow effect for steam locomotives, is measured
by the difference between the mean stress and the maximum or minimum stress on each
graph. (10)
538 Iron and Steel Structures
The final step in the determination of impact formulas from the tests consisted of
the plotting of the test results on a chart and the selection of empirical formulas, verified
by plotting on the chart, to fit these test results. (8) (9)
The requirements specified for impact for members receiving load from more than
one track represent the judgment of the committee. For a double-track span, the short-
est span for which the impact for only one track is to be used is 225 ft. For an open-
deck through truss span of this length the use of impact for the second track would
add approximately 5 percent to the total design load of the truss. It seems quite im-
probable that the full specification impact effects will occur simultaneously for both
tracks, but even if this should be the case, the resulting increase in total load is small.
24. Nosing
Tests have shown that a reasonable load to provide for the nosing of locomotives
can be taken as iV of the weight of one locomotive without tender. For the E 72
design live load, this results in a load of 20,000 lb as specified.
26. Bracing Between Compression Members
The requirements specified were adopted in 1935. Their basis is not known.
Winter (22) presents an analysis for determination of the strength and rigidity of
such bracing required to prevent buckling of the compression members as this is affected
by the crookedness and other imperfections which exist in compression members and
by the deflections of the bracing panel points in the plane of the bracing. Such an
analysis would require less capacity in the bracing than provided for by the specified
IYt, percent shear. However, the bracing on railroad bridges is subjected to many other
effects which are not provided for by a design for the other specified lateral forces.
Some examples are dead- and live-load stress participation, unequal temperatures in
the various members, and partial fixity of the bracing system by the fixed end shoes.
In view of such effects and the importance of substantial bracing in railroad structures,
the 23^ percent shear requirement is considered justified.
28. Reversal of Stress
The requirements specified are to provide against fatigue failure. They have been
carried forward from the 1910 Specifications.
Tests have shown that the fatigue strength varies with the number of stress cycles
and the range of stress in the cycle.
For a cycle in which the stresses are reversed, the fatigue strength is a minimum
when the ratio of the two stresses of opposite sign is 1. As this ratio decreases, the
fatigue strength increases, having closely a straight-line variation, with a fatigue strength
1.25 times the minimum for a ratio of 0.5, and 1.5 times for the limiting ratio of 0. (li)
Only limited data are available as to the number of cycles, and their stress ranges,
which various members of a bridge might have to undergo during the life of a bridge.
However, such data show clearly that the number of times when the stresses closely
approach the design stress is quite small compared with the total number of stress
applications. (24, p. 104) (25, p. 112)
To insure against fatigue failure of such members under the number of cycles and
their stress ranges anticipated during the life of a bridge, it is indicated that the fatigue
strength for a stress ratio of 1 can be taken as % of the yield point and for a ratio of 0
as equal to the yield point, with permissible unit stresses for the latter ratio equal to
Iron and Steel Structures 539
those specified in Art. 31, and for other ratios proportional to the fatigue strengths.
The specification requirements give results conforming closely to this.
For riveted connections, the fatigue strength is found to be less than for members,
and it is indicated that the slip between the parts in riveted connections contributes
largerly to this result. The specification requirement to proportion the connections for
the sum of the maximum stresses will reduce, if not entirely eliminate, such slip, should
avoid loosening of rivets as a result of slip, and should give adequate fatigue strength
for the connections. (26)
30. Secondary Stresses
It is provided that if the secondary stress exceeds 4,000 psi for tension members
and 3,000 psi for compression members, the excess shall be treated as a primary stress.
The above stress of 4,000 psi for tension members when added to the maximum allow-
able stresses for all of the forces named in Art. 29 results in a maximum combined
stress of 18,000 + 4,500 + 4,000=26,500 psi, which is considered to be the maximum
permissible. (1)
This Article also provides that secondary stresses due to truss distortion usually
need not be considered in any member the width of which, measured parallel to the
plane of distortion, is less than ttf of its length. Excepted from this general provision
should be the effects of secondary truss members, such as floorbeam hangers and sub-
verticals; these may produce excessive secondary stresses in the chord unless adjustment
is made in the lengths of the verticals.
31. Unit Stresses
(a) Structural and Rivet Steel
1. Axial compression, gross section
The formulas for compression members centrally loaded were adopted in 1935.
(12). They were based on the theoretical analysis and studies of tests embodied in the
reports of the Special Committee on Steel Column Research of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, 1926, 1931, and 1933. Referring to the tests, it was found that the
ultimate strength of columns could be calculated with a satisfactory degree of accuracy
by the use of the theoretical formula, commonly known as the secant formula, basing
ultimate strength on yield point of material. For columns forming part of a riveted
truss, there are two elements of uncertainty, namely, the actual effective eccentricity
of load which is dependent very largely upon the secondary bending stresses at the ends
of the member, and the amount of initial curvature or crookedness. It was concluded
that the ultimate strength could be fairly represented by a secant formula in which the
eccentric ratio — — is taken as 0.25 and the free length as ^4 of the center to center
r
length of the member. For pin-connected members, study of pin friction led to the
conclusion that the free length should be increased to about 0.85 of the center-to-center
length. (0.875 was actually used).
The resulting secant formulas for riveted and pin ends are given in Appendix A
of the Specifications. The use of factors of safety, about as for tension, as specified in
Appendix A, gives allowable unit stresses.
As the secant formula is very inconvenient for general use, and as it was found
that a parabola could be drawn to fit very closely the secant formula up to a slenderness
ratio of 140-160, the simpler parabolic formula.* shown in the Specifications were adopted
for slenderness ratios up to 140.
540 Iron and Steel Structures
2. Compression in extreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders, and built sections, subject
to bending
The formula specified is based on the concept that the compression flange acts to
some extent as a column, with deflections permitted normal to the plane of the web.
It is especially adapted to design of rolled beams and girdets having the compression
flanges supported at intervals by laterals, cross frames, or knee braces.
The origin of the formula is not known, but it was probably derived from the
parabolic formula specified for axial compression for members with riveted ends by
multiplying it by the ratio 18,000/15,000 and assuming that r equals 0.245 b. This is a
fair average value of r for compression flanges of beams and girders. If for any par-
ticular case the value of r varies materially from 0.245 b, the formula can be modified
accordingly.
3. Bearing between rockers and rocker pins
The low bearing of 12,000 was adopted in order to reduce excessive wear of the
pins, which was being experienced with previous higher bearing values.
-/. Bearing on expansion rollers and rockers
The bearing values were adopted in 1035 and were based on static and rolling tests
made on rollers and rockers. (13)
The average vertical pressures over calculated contact areas for loads substantially
less than design values are in excess of the yield point, giving a flow of the material.
It was concluded that the resulting "spread" of the roller and base, measured parallel
to the axis of the roller at points near the surfaces in contact was the most satisfactory
phenomenon to use in determining design values. Such "spreads" or deformations were
measured in units of 0.001 inch per inch per 1000 strokes, each stroke corresponding
to a roller movement of 4 in and an equal movement back. Design values according
to the tests would give total deformations varying from about 3 units to less than 1.
35. Proportioning Web Members
In determining whether it is safe to keep an old structure in service, the "Rules
for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges", Part 7, this Chapter, govern. Experience
with older structures, designed for lighter live loads, showed that in such structures
the web members of trusses, particularly, reached their capacity sooner than other por-
tions. This situation could be remedied either by providing an initial design of all mem-
bers for an increased live load at higher unit stresses or by providing a truss design
under which the web members reach their safe live load capacity at substantially the
same increased live load as the remainder of the truss. The latter method was preferred
by the Committee and is provided for by the Specification requirements. (1)
40. Compression Members
(a) Thickness o/ webs 1/32 and cover plates 1/40
These thicknesses are discussed by Hovey. (14) He develops the following formula
for the minimum thickness of plate at which buckling of the plate will occur when
the plate is simply supported at both edges and is stressed to the yield point in com-
pression. In the formula, the coefficient 2.712 is 75 percent of the theoretical value, this
reduction being made in order to provide for small initial buckles in the plate as rolled.
} = /
2.712 £
Iron and Steel Structures 541
where
b = the width of the plate
/ = the thickness of the plate
E = Young's modulus = 29,000,000
S,.r = the yield point
For a yield point of 33,000, the ratio /;// equals 48.8. This shows that the provisions
of the Specifications are very conservative, particularly for the webs of .segments.
(h) Thickness when the stress is less than the allowable
In order to provide the same factor of safety against buckling that is provided for
plates that are stressed up to the allowable, the formula clearly becomes:
b_ / 2.712 E _ / 2.712 £ / p_
t - V Srrf/P V Srr ^ V f
From this it follows that the ratios b/t for plates stressed up to the allowable may
be multiplied by V /»// when the stress is less than th^ allowable.
41. Outstanding Legs of Angles
Assuming elastic behavior up to the yield point, the following formula, derived
from Bleich (20, p. 330 and 331), shows the width/thickness ratio at which buckling
of the angle leg will occur when an equal-legged angle is stressed to the yield point:
/) / 0.384 E
T= /"XT"
where
/) = the width of the outstanding angle leg
t = the thickness of the angle
E = Young's modulus = 29,000,000
5f , = the yield point
This gives values as follows:
Yield Point b_
Psi i
33,000 18.4
50,000 14.9
For unequal-legged angles the values will be slightly higher.
To allow for imperfections that cause effective inelastic behavior below the yield
point, conservative practice in the design of main members would permit about % ol
the foregoing values, or 12.3 and 10.0, for the tabulated yield points. These values art-
in line with the specification values of 12 and 10. For bracing and other .secondar>
members, somewhat higher values are permissible. The ratios between the specification
values of 14 and 12 and the formula values of 18.4 and 14.9 are, respectively, 0.76
and 0.81, and these ratios are con.sidered sati.'factor> .
44. Net Section
This is discussed by Chapin. (15) He gives the history of this method of obtaining
the net section of a riveted tension member to take account of the weakening effect
of staggered rivet holes. He gives the rather complicated formula which represents thf
542 Iron and Steel Structures
theoretically correct solution of the problem, and states that the simplified formula
shown in the Specifications gives approximately the same results. A chart for use with
the formula is included with his discussion.
47. Pitch and Gage of Rivets
49. Edge Distance of Rivets
The provisions of paragraphs (b) and (c) of Art. 47 and for maximum edge dis-
tance in Art. 49 were adopted in 1943, and were based on the experience and judgment
of the Committee.
The formulas for maximum pitch on a single line for sealing and for maximum
edge distance, which is also for sealing, give smaller values than had previously been
permitted. They indicate the belief that these values should increase with the thickness,
though not in direct proportion, as this would give values either unnecessarily low for
thin material or too high for thick material. It was further believed that staggered
rivets on a second gage line reasonably close to the outer gage line, would also be
effective in sealing. The maximum gage at which such a second line is considered effec-
tive was arbitrarily made the same as the maximum edge distance, which recognizes
that this maximum gage should increase somewhat with the thickness.
The requirements for stitch rivets in compression members, that the maximum
pitch in a single line shall not exceed 12t nor the gage 24(, had been in force for many
years and were considered satisfactory. However, when it was not practical to have
a gage as large as 24t, because the material was not wide enough, or not so disposed,
as to permit it, the requirements often led to an extravagant number of rivets. The
new provisions with respect to staggered pitch permit the use of a reasonable number
of rivets in such cases. A study of the possible rivet patterns that might result from
these provisions indicated that they would give greater security against buckling than
the permissible pattern without stagger, using pitch of I2t and gage of 24t.
54. Lacing
The probable maximum shears on column lacing were analyzed by Hardesty.
(16) He lists the various causes producing shear on column lacing, as follows:
1. Transverse forces acting on the column.
2. Moments at the end of the column, or eccentric appHcation of loads.
3. Initial curvature of the column.
4. The springing of the column as a result of Causes 2 and 3.
5. Local defects in the column, and initial stresses set up in the column during
fabrication.
Causes 2, 3, and 4 are analyzed and are evaluated theoretically, by making certain
assumptions which are consistent with those made in the formula adopted as the basis
of column design. Formulas are developed for the shears and the results plotted on a
diagram, together with the results of a number of tests. Finally the empirical formula
shown in the Specifications was developed and plotted on the diagram. This design
formula is such as to give values somewhat higher than shown by the analyses, in order
to make some provision for Cause 5, which can not be evaluated theoretically.
The specification formula represents average conditions. For end conditions not
properly covered by the assumptions made in the analyses, special investigation can be
made by means of the appropriate formulas given. It is emphasized that this design
Iron and Steel Structures ■''4.^
formula covers only shears dut- to accidental eccentricitii-s and usual column imperlec-
tions, and does not include shears caused by transverse forces (Cause 1 ) or 1)\ know n
eccentricity of load.
59. End Connection Angles
The requirements for the connection angles for stringers were proposed by Wilson
(21) after a study of the bending stresses in the angles as a result of the deflection
of the stringers under live load and impact, and of the lengthening of the bottom
chords of through truss spans under live load and impact. His conclusions follow.
The lengthening of the chords does not produce a very large flexural stress in the
connection angles but does produce large fle.xural stresses in the floorbeams, both of
which become smaller as the connection angles are made more flexible.
The deflections of the stringers under load produce a bending moment in the end
connection, assumed to give maximum tension at the top varying to zero at the neutral
axis, with the bottom of the connection in compression. The upper part of the con-
nection is, therefore, the critical portion. It was found that at the top of the connection,
the resulting deflection of the connection angles under maximum live load and impact
was several times as great as the elastic deflection corresponding to a yield-point stress,
even with connections more fle.xible than those commonly used previously. It is known
that a deflection ten times as great as the elastic deflection produces a stress only slightly
greater than the yield point, and also that structural steel can be stressed beyond the
yield point several thousand times without failure. These facts, combined with the fact
that the conditions of loading assumed for the analysis are of infrequent occurrence,
were believed to explain why such connection angles have remained in service many
years without failure. The excessive deflection of the angles also produces flexure in
the rivets, particularly near the tops of the angles, and while failure of such rivets is
not common, they have been reported on several bridges. Failures of connection angles
at the top have also been reported.
For a given flexural stress, the deflection of the outstanding leg varies directly as
the thickness of the angle, inversely as the square of the gage, and, very closely, also
directly as the length of the stringer. The specified formula for the gage conforms to
the requirements indicated by this statement, and will give connections more flexible
than previously used. It is intended to represent a reasonable compromise between
mathematical analysis and experience.
60. Proportioning Girders and Beams
This article provides for proportioning riveted members which take bending by
the moment-of-inertia method, using a neutral axis along the center of gravity of the
gross section and using the moment of inertia of the entire net section for determination
of fiber stresses in tension and the moment of inertia of the entire gross section for
determination of fiber stresses in compression. Actually, the neutral axis for a section
through the rivet lines will not be along the neutral axis of the gross section but will
be somewhat nearer the compression flange due to the rivet holes through the tension
flange; if such a section is analyzed taking due account of the lack of symmetry of the
section and consequent differences in distances from the neutral axis to the two flanges
in determining the section moduli for the two flanges, it is found that the section
moduli for- the two flanges agree very closely with those prescribed for use in this Article.
Accordingly, it is considered that the simple method prescribed will give flangi' stresses
as close to the truth as can reasonably be determined.
544 Iron and Steel Structures
61. Flange Section
The only requirements which need any comment deal with partial-length cover
plates and the percentage of the total flange area permissible for cover plates, both of
which were adopted in 1956.
Without extensions of cover plates beyond their theoretical ends, the critical
stresses in fatigue failures of cover-plated beams and girders will occur at the ends
of the cover plates, due to the abrupt changes in flange area. The limited data now
available indicate that the extension of each cover plate far enough to develop its
capacity beyond the theoretical epd will reduce these critical stresses sufficiently to
insure against fatigue failure under the number of cycles and their stress range anticipated
during the life of a bridge. (24) (25)
In order to secure a compact flange section for heavy cover-plated beams and
girders and to reduce the length and number of long rivets required to transmit flange
stresses from the beam flanges and flange angles to the outer cover plates, it is desirable
to limit the total area of the cover plates. The percentage specified is considered a
reasonable maximum desirable for good design.
65. Thickness of Web Plates
The required thickness of web plate was discussed by Hovey. (14)
Bending moments in girder spans cause horizontal compressive stresses in the webs
adjacent to the compression flanges. Vertical stiffeners are quite ineffective in supporting
webs to resist buckling caused by such compressive stresses, and hence it is necessary
either to provide horizontal stiffeners or to make the web of such thickness that stability
against buckling is secured. Hovey develops the following formula to show the required
ratio of clear depth of web to its thickness to give such stability against buckling:
h _ 25,000
when YP = yield point
t y/YP
The compression flange secures the web against buckling where the web enters
the flange, and it is assumed that this support will be adequate for at least S times
the thickness of the web away from the flange. Hovey's study of a group of railway
plate girders indicated that the unit fiber stress at a distance of 5 times the web-
thickness away from the toes of the flange angles was about 0.6S times the maximum
allowable extreme fiber stress in tension. The above equation then becomes:
k 25,000 31,000
t y/o.65YP yvp
t
For a yield point of 33,000, this gives ^ = 170.7
This corresponds to the figure 170 given in the Specifications.
If p = the allowable extreme fiber stress
/c=the actual extreme fiber stress, less than /»
F -— the factor of safety
Then the above equation can be written;
h^ _ 31,000 _
Iron and Steel Structures 545
If the fiber stress is /, then to maintain the same factor of safety:
h 31,000
and clearly the ratio for the fiber stress / becomes \ p/f times 170. as Kivtn in th;'
Specifications.
67. Intermediate Stiflfeners
(a) Permissible depth of weh zcithoitt stiff eners
Hovey (14) has developed a formula for this depth:
f=/
4.83 £
/5
where
h = depth of web between flanges or side plates, inches
/ = thickness of web, inches
E = Young's modulus = 2P,000,000 psi
fS = shearing yield point, psi
For structural steel having tensional yield point of 3.^,000 psi, /.S'^ 21,000 psi
h
Substitution in the equation gives "7" = 81.7.
The specification ratio is conservative and provides allowance for small waves in the
surfaces of the plate.
(b) Stiff ener spacing
The development of the specification formula is shown by Moisseiff & Lienhard. (19)
It is based on a shearing yield point of 21,000 psi and a factor of safety of l.S against
buckling of the web. It is explained that this value, while lower than used for tension
and compression, is adequate because buckling of the web does not cause failure but
only causes its proportionate share of compression to be transferred to the flange, and
since this stress is small, it will cause only a correspondingly small overstress in the
flange. Furthermore, the buckled web adjusts itself to sustain the shear by tension and
transmit it to the vertical stiffeners.
The 72-in maximum spacing of stiffeners is specified in order to provide stiffeners
at reasonably close intervals to aid in removing any small waves or buckles that may
e.xist in the web as rolled.
(c) Size of stiffeners
The requirements for the size of stiffeners have been carried forward from older
specifications. They appear in the 1010 Specifications and their origin is not known. The
subject of proper stiffeners has been investigated by many and is discussed and analyzed
in detail by Bleich, (20) who gives approximate formulas which can be used to deter-
mine the required moments of inertia of the stiffeners in order to properly stiffen the
web. It is indicated that these give results which agree fair!\' well with laboratory tests
but that further tests are necessary. The specification requirements will he compared
with the requirements from his formulas.
Let
J = the required ratio of rigidity of .stiffener to web plate
546
Iron and Steel Structures
111 =: Poisson's ratio = 0.3
// = depth of web between flanges or side plates
d = required clear stiffener spacing
,/„ = actual clear stiffener spacing
B = h/d
I = required moment of inertia of stiffener
Then from Bleich's formulas 772, 774, and 778, the following equation will develop:
dof J
12 (1 — OT-)
where
or say
/= (28B'— 20) I —
971 g' — 0.244'
B- — 0.109
J — (28 B"— 20) R
The expression is applicable only when h is equal to or greater than d.
Values of R follow;
BR BR
1.0 0.543 1.6 0.766
1.1 0.605 1.7 0.781
1.2 0.652 1.8 0.797
1.3 0.691 1.9 0.807
1.4 0.719 2.0 0.818
1.5 0.746
The table which follows shows the stiffeners which would be required by the specifi-
cations for a number of girders of extreme dimensions for each size of stiffener angle
and each thickness of web plate and for maximum unit shear, and a comparison of
their moments of inertia with those required by the above formula. As the specifications
permit a maximum unit shear of 11,000, this value has been generally used in the
table, except for Girder 5 where 10,000 has been used. It is believed that in actual rail-
way girders the unit shear will never exceed 10,000; hence a deficiency in stiffener
capacity as shown for Girder 4 will never occur. The conclusion can therefore be
reached that the specification requirements will give adequate stiffeners for all railway
girders, insofar as this can be determined from data now available.
Stiff.
Flange
Unit
Stiff.
Reqd.
No.
2 Angles
Web
Angles
Shear
;i
d
B
do
I
I
1.
4x3 ^x3^
OOx^
6x6
11,000
48
37
1.30
37
18.9
3.4
5x3 Vim
90x^
6x6
11,000
78
50
1.56
50
36.7
20.7
3.
GxixYs
120x^
8x8
11,000
104
62
1.68
62
63.5
63.2
4.
Ix'^xJ^
144xM
8x8
11,000
128
75
1.71
72
118.2
134.0
.■).
Ix'ixJ^
Uix%
8x8
11,000
128
78.8
1.62
72
118.2
113.5
(;.
7xAxJ^
1.50xM
8x8
11,000
126
75.0
1.68
72
146.1
126.5
and 12x^ side plates
(d) Stiffeners on one side of the web
The Specifications do not specify the axis about which the moment of inertia of a
single stiffener shall be calculated. Actually, a portion of the web will act with any
such stiffener, and if an angle is used for the stiffener, the center of gravity of the
Iron and Steel Structures 547
combined angle and web will be so close to Ihe back of the angle that for all practical
purposes the moment of inertia of the stiffener can be taken as for the angle alone about
an axis through the back of the angle.
Referring to the table above. Girder 1 represents the maximum value of / which
will be required for any stiffener for any girder 60 in or less in depth. The required /
is 3.4. The / of one of the stiffener angles shown about its center of gravity axis is 4.2
and about the back of the angle axis is 8.1. This shows that for shallow girders the
.-specification requirement is very con.servative, as a single angle stiffener of the size
siH-cified for double-angle stiffeners is more than adequate.
78. Shoes and Pedestals
The requirements specified in the .second paragraph are based on judgment and past
practice. A consideration of relative deflections with those found in tests .shows that
these requirements will give stiff shoes and pedestals with substantially uniform pressure
on the masonry.
79. Base and Masonry Plates
The specified relative thicknesses of base and masonry plates for rockers and for
sliding bearings are based on the tests of rocker assemblies. (17) (18)
The rocker tests showed that the deflections of the base plate result in low pres-
sures at the edges of the cantilevered plate and high pressures along the axis of the
rocker except near the edges. The ratio of the high pressure to the average pressure
on the base plate based on uniform distribution varies with the relative plate thickness,
decreasing as this increases. For a plate thickness equal to ^ the cantilevered length,
the pressure varies but little from the uniform, and the ratio as shown by the tests
was approximately 1.1. For a plate thickness equal to ^ the cantilevered length, it was
slightly less than 1.5. For the specification requirements permitting an extension of the
base plate beyond the end of the rocker equal to the thickness of the plate and a
cantilevered length of the plate beyond the bearing Hne of the rocker equal to twice
the thickness of the plate, the ratio should be approximately 1.5. This gives a pressure
which it did not seem desirable to exceed but which the confined masonry can safely
carry.
Explanations of Articles in Section C. High-Strength Structural Steel
1. Unit Stresses
(a) Axial compression, gross section, for compression members centrally loaded.
The parabolic formulas specified agree closely with the secant formulas referred to
in the discussion of Art. 31 (a) 1 of Sec. A up to a slenderness ratio of 125.
(b) Compression in eactreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders, and built sections,
subject to bending.
The formulas specified were derived from the parabolic formulas specified for axial
compression for members with riveted ends in the manner described in the discussion
of Art. 31 (a) 2 of Sec. A.
2. Thickness of Material
As the modulus of elasticity of high-strength structural steel is the same as for
carbon structural steel, and as the factor of safety against the yield point provided by
the allowable unit stresses is for all practical purposes the same for both steels, the
thicknesses specified in this Article can be determined by comparison with those specified
548
Iron and Steel Structures
for carbon steel in Sec. A. All of these thicknesses var_\ with the square root of the
ratios of the yield points.
/ 50,000 _
V 33,000 ~ ^-^-^
From Art. 40, the minimum thickness ratio for webs of segments of compression
members becomes
1 1 1
1.23 X "37 = ^' J^' is specified
From Art. 40, the minimum thickness ratio for cover plates or webs connecting the
segments of compression members becomes
1 1 1
1.23 X^ = 3yj' -JY~ '''• ^P^"*^'^^
From Art. 65, the minimum thickness ratio for webs of plate girders becomes
1.23 X
1
170
1
138.5 140
is specified
From Art. 67, the minimum thickness ratio for webs of plate girders without
stiffeners becomes
1.23 X-^ = ^^- ^5- is specified
The widths of outstanding legs of angles in compression were determined as
described in the discussion of Art. 41, Sec. A.
The formula for stiffener spacing given in Art. 67 applies also to high-strength
structural steel. However, due to the higher unit stresses used for web plates of high-
strength structural steel, the sizes of the stiffeners required for deep girders will be
greater. In the Explanation for Art. 67, Sec. A, a formula is given for determination
of required moment of inertia of a stiffener. The table which follows shows the stiffeners
which would be required by the Specifications for a number of girders of extreme
dimensions for each size of stiffener angle and each thickness of web plate and for
maximum unit shear, and a comparison of their moments of inertia with those required
by this formula. It will be noted that for the deeper girders the specification stiffeners
will be deficient unless the unit shear is reduced well below the allowable. It is doubted
that the actual shears for such deep railway girders will ever exceed those for which
the minimum stiffeners provided by the specification requirements will serve, but if so,
the required stiffness can readily be determined by use of the data here given.
Stiff.
Flange
Unit
Stiff.
Reqd.
No.
2 Angles
Weh
Angles
Shear
/(
d
do
I
I
1
4x3 1^x^-8
tiOxJ-8
6xtj
16,000
48
31
31
18.9
5.3
2
5x3i^x?/s
90x%6
6x6
16,000
78
47
47
36.7
33.7
3
6x4x^
120x8^
8x8
16,000
104
62
62
63.5
109.0
4
6x4xJ^
120xJi
8x8
11,000
104
79
72
63.5
69.3
0
6x4x?^ ,
120xJi
8x8
10,000
104
75
72
63.5
54.5
ti
7x4x,%
144xJ^
12x^
Pis
16,000
120
72
72
146.1
197.5
7
7x4x?fe
144xK
14,000
120
77.5
72
146.1
157.0
8
7x4x \
144xJ/8
13,000
120
80.. "S
72
146.1
138.0
Iron and Steel Structures 540
4. Lacing
The requirements for lacing were determined in the manner outlined in the Explana-
tion for Art. 54, Sec. A.
7. Secondary Stresses
The permissible secondary stresses of 5600 psi and 4200 psi are in line with those
specified for carbon steel in Art. 30, Sec. A, when account is taken of the difference in
yield points. See the Explanation for Art. 30, Sec. A.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Bibliography includes only the specific material used in developing or e.xplaining
specification requirements. In most cases there is much other material in engineering
literature with reference to such requirements.
(1) Live Loads and Unit Stresses for Bridge Design, Shortridge Hardesty, AREA
Proceedings, Vol. 36, 1935, page 770.
(2) Economics of Various Design Loadings, Committee Report, AREA Proceed-
ings, Vol. 57, 1956, page 558.
(3) Live Loads for Multiple-Track Bridges, H. C. Tammen, AREA Proceedings,
Vol. 36, 1935, page 734.
(4) Beams on Multiple Elastic Supports, Part II, Modern Framed Structures,
Johnson, Bryand & Turneaure.
(5) Distribution of Live Load Test Report, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 49, 1948,
page 279.
(6) Distribution of Live Load Test Report, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955,
page 45.
(7) Report of Tests on Bridge Ties and Floor Timbers, AREA Proceedings, Vol.
50, 1949, page 127.
(8) Test Results on Impact, Committee Report, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 49,
1948, page 207.
(9) Impact in Railroad Bridges, E. J. Ruble, ASCE Proceedings, Separate No.
736, July 1955.
(10) Tests of Steel Girder Spans on the Milwaukee Railroad, Committee Report,
AREA Proceedings, Vol. 57, 1956, page 15.
(11) Test Results on Relation of Impact to Speed, Committee Report, AREA
Proceedings, Vol. 50, 1949, page 432.
(12) Comments on Column Formula, F. E. Turneaure, AREA Proceedings, Vol.
36, 1935, page 713.
(13) Bearing Values of Small Rollers, Committee Report, AREA Proceedings,
Vol. 36, 1935, page 691.
(14) Elastic Stability of Plates Subjected to Compression and Shear, Otis E. Hovey,
AREA Proceedings, Vol. 36, 1935, page 715.
(15) Net section of Riveted Tension Members, C. H. Chapin, AREA Proceedings,
Vol. 36, 1935, page 775.
(16) Shears on Column Lacing, Shortridge Hardesty, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 36.
1935, page 724.
(17) Investigations of Distribution of Pressures Under Bridge Rocker Shoe Slabs,
M. B. Lagaard, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 53, 1952, page 91.
(IS) Report of Bridge Rocker Shoe Assembly Test, M. B. Lagaard, .AREA Pro-
ceeding.s. \'nl 40. 1048. page 214.
550 Iron and Steel Structures
(19) Theory of Elastic Stability Applied to Structural Design, Moisseiff and Lien-
hard, ASCE Transactions, Vol. 106, 1941, page 1052.
(20) Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, Bleich, McGraw-Hill, 1952 Edition.
(21) Design of Connection Angles for Stringers of Railway Bridges, W. M. Wilson,
AREA Proceedings, Vol. 41, 1940, page 889.
(22) Lateral Bracing of Columns and Beams, George Winter, ASCE Proceedings,
Paper 1561, March 1958.
(23) The Fatigue of Metals, Moore and Kommers, 1927, page 186.
(24) Cumulative Damage in Structural Joints, Munse, Fuller and Petersen, AREA
Bulletin 544, 1958, page 67.
(25) Fatigue Tests of Beams in Flexure, Committee Report, AREA Proceedings,
Vol. 52, 1951, page 111.
(26) Fatigue Tests of Riveted Joints, Wilson and Thomas, University of Illinois
Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin 302.
Report on Assignment 8
Specifications for Design of Corrugated Metal Culverts,
Including Corrugated Metal Arches
W. B. Dowling (chairman, subcommittee), R. Archibald, H. F. Bober, R. N. Brodie,
V. R. Cooledge, C. E. Ekberg, R. W. Gustafson, D. V. Messman, C. Neufeld,
G. H. Perkins, A. G. Rankin, G. W. Salmon, L. L. Shirey, H. F. Smith.
Your committe* presents as information the following revisions and additions to
the specifications for corrugated structural plate pipe, looking to their adoption and
publication in the Manual next year. Comments and criticisms are solicited.
These revisions and additions are intended to broaden the scope of the present
specifications to include structural plate pipe-arches and arches and to bring other por-
tions of the specifications in line with established industry and field practices.
Pages 1-4-25 to 1-4-32, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CORRUGATED STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE
Page 1^-25: Change title of specifications to read: "Specifications for Corrugated
Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arches, and Arches."
Revise Art. 1, Sec. A, to read "These specifications cover corrugated structural plate
pipe, pipe-arch and arch culverts 60 in or more in diameter or in span."
Add the following paragraph to Art. 1, Sec. B:
Plates for a pipe-arch, when assembled, shall form a cross section made up of four
circular arcs tangent to each other at their junctions and symmetrical about the vertical
axis. The top section shall be an arc of not more than 180 deg nor less than 155 deg.
The bottom section shall be an arc of not more than 50 deg nor less than 10 deg. The
top and bottom sections are to be joined together by side sections, each having an
arc of not less than 75 deg or more than 873^ deg and having a radius of from IS
to 22 in.
Pages 1-4-25 and 1-4-26: Revise Art. 3, Sec. B to read:
A coating of prime western spelter, or equal, of not less than 1^^ oz per sq ft
of each surface, shall be applied by the hot-dip process. If the average spelter coating
as determined from the required samples is less than the amount specified above, or if
Iron and Steel Structures
SSI
any one specimen shows a deficiency of 10 percent, the lot sampled shall be rejected.
Spelter coating shall be of first-class commercial quality, free from injurious defects, such
as blisters, flux and uncoated spots.
The sheets are to be galvanized after fabrication.
Page 1-4-26: In the first paragraph of Art. 6, Sec. B, revise item 5 to read "S.
Identification symbols showing heat number."
Page 1-4-27: Add the following paragraph to Art. 1, Sec. C:
When specified, the structural plate for round pipe shall be formed so as to pro-
vide, when assembled, an elliptical cross section having a vertical elongation of approxi-
mately 5 percent. The use of elliptically shop-formed pipe is not a substitute for
strutting, but will eliminate the need for heavy jacking.
Revise the title of Art. 1, Section D, to read "Maximum Gage of Plates for Struc-
tural Plate Pipes, Pipe-Arches and Arches (Cooper E 12 Live Load)."
In Table 1, under Art. 1, Sec. D, on the line of gages for 5 ft of cover, add the
figure 8 under 132 in diameter pipe and the figure 7 under 144, 156, 168 and 180 in
diameter pipe.
Page 1-4-28: Add a new Table 3 and a new Table 4 to Art. 1, Sec. D, as follows:
Table 3 — Structural Plate Pipe-Arch
Maximum Height
Spa
n of Pipe-Arch in Inchex*
of Cover in Feel
60
72
84
96
108
leo
ise
144
156
2-3
8
10
12
12
12
12
12
8
10
10
10
10
10
10
.5
8
8
10
10
10
10
3
5
7
7
8
8
8
1
3
5
5
5
7
7
4
1
1
3
3
.5
5
5
6
1
1
3
3
7
8
9
10
12
10
10
8
7
.5
3
11
12
10
10
8
7
■•)
3
12
12
10
10
8
7
.5
3
1
13
12
10
10
8
7
5
3
1
14
12
10
10
8
7
0
3
3
1
1.5
12
10
10
8
7
.5
3
3
1
* Pipe-Arches are available in a range of spans, rises and areas. Tabular values are for gage
determination.
Table 4 — Structural Plate Arch
Maximum Height
of Cover in Feet
Spa
n of Arc
108
h in Inches*
60
72
84
96
120
1S2
144
156
168
2
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
12
8
8
8
8
10
10
10
10
10
6
5
5
7
8
8
8
8
8
1
3
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
3
4
1
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
6
7
8
9 . -- .
1
1
3
3
3
10
1
* Arches are available in a range of spans, rises and areas. Tabular values are for gage determina-
tion of arches having a ri.se to .^pan ratio of 0.20 to 0.50, incl.
552 -IronandSteelStructures
Revise Art. 2, Sec. D to read "For structural plate pipes and pipe-arches having
a gage lighter than No. 1, the bottom plates may be specified of heavier gage than
shown in the above gage tables."
Revise Art. 7, Sec. D to read:
The height of cover measured from base of rail to top of structural plate pipe shall
be not less than half the diameter of the pipe, except that for pipes having diameters
over 120 in, the minimum cover may be S ft.
The minimum height of cover measured from base of rail to top of structural plate
pipe-arches and arches shall in no case be less than 2 ft and is restricted as shown on
Tables 3 and 4.
Page 1-4-29: Add a new Art. 8 to Sec. D reading:
8. Maximum Height of Cover
The maximum height of cover as shown for Gage 1 material in Table 1 of Art. 1
of this section for Structural Plate Pipe, Strutted, may be increased 50 percent pro-
vided the number of bolts per foot of longitudinal seam is increased from 4 to 6.
Add "and Pipe-Arches" to the title of Art. 1, Sec. E.
Revise Art. 1, Sec. E to read "Where multiple lines of pipe or pipe-arch are erected,
the adjacent sides shall be separated by one-half diameter or one-third the span to
permit careful tamping of the filling material; however, the separation need not be
more than 4 ft."
Page 1-4-29 and 1-4-30: Revise the title of Art. 3, Sec. E to read "Bedding and
Backfilling — Pipe and Pipe-Arch Structures."
Revise the first paragraph of Art. 3, Sec. E to read "When a pipe or pipe-arch
structure is to be erected in a trench, the width of the trench must be sufficient to
permit thorough tamping of the earth backfill against every plate except the bottom
90-deg segment of pipe or the bottom arc of pip^e-arch."
Add a new second paragraph to Art. 3, Sec. E reading "Rules given hereinbelow
for bedding and backfilling pipe also apply to pipe-arches, except that rules involving
pipe diameter are to be taken as applying to the vertical dimension of a pipe-arch.
In the existing second paragraph of Art. 3, Sec. E, revise the first sentence to read
"The pipe shall be bedded in an earth foundation of uniform density".
Page 1-4-31: Delete the entire second paragraph of Art. 5, Sec. E.
Revise the existing third paragraph of Art. 5, Sec. E to read:
Where elliptically shaped pipe is to be field strutted, the length of the struts shall
be such that they will fit snugly between the bearing blocks or sill without causing the
elongated vertical diameter of the pipe to be extended. Where vertical diameter is to be
elongated 3 percent by jacking, top and bottom sills extending from end to end of the
pipe and compression caps of a softer wood than that of the struts, shall be used in
conjunction with the struts.
Change the number of the table in Art. 5, Sec. E to 5.
Page 1^-32: In the next to last paragraph in Art. 5, Sec. E, change the table
reference to 5.
Revise Art. 1, Sec. F to read:
The footage to be paid for shall be the actual number of linear feet of the pipe,
pipe-arch or arch. The number of linear feet shall be the average of the top and bottom
center line lengths for pipe, the bottom center line length for pipe-arches and the average
of the spring line lengths for arches.
Iron and Steel Structures 553
Report on Assignment 10
Specifications for the Design of Continuous Steel Railway Bridges
J. F. Marsh (chairman, subcommittee), H. A. Baike, R. T. Blewitt, J. G. Clark, T. L.
Fuller, Shu t'ien Li, M. L. McCauley, J. C. Nichols, R. E. Peck, J. E. South.
Last year your committee presented Specifications for the Design of Continuous
Steel Railway Bridges with the recommendation that they be adopted and published
in the Manual. These specifications were approved by the convention and are now
contained in the Manual. To the present time no criticisms have been received which
would necessitate revisions in the adopted specifications.
The committee submits this final report as information with the request that the
assignment be concluded.
Report of Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles
S. L. Goldberg, Chairman,
F. E. Schneider,
Vice Chairman,
W. L. Anderson
C. E. At WATER
H. AusTU-L (E)
W. W. BOYER
T. P. Burgess
A. W. Carlson
H. M. Church (E)
F. H. Cramer (E)
E. M. Cummings
B. E. Daniels
K. L. DeBlois
P. R. Eastes
J. T. Evans
J. D. Eraser
W. A. Genereux
R. H. Gloss
G. J. Grantham
S. F. Grear (E)
R. E. Grieder
F. J. Han rah AN
J. F. Holmberg
W. C. Howe
V. T. HUCKABY
R. E. Jacobus
Milton Jarrell
R. P. A. Johnson
J. V. Johnston
W. D. Keeney
J. R. Kelly
H. G. Kriegel
L. R. KUBACKI
R. E. KUEHNER
A. L. Leach
C. V. Lund
W. B. Mackenzie
F. W. Madison
L. J. Markwardt
E. A. Matnev
T. K. May
J. W. N. Mays
C. H. Newlin
W. H. O'Brien
W. A. Oliver
O. C. Rabbitt
D. V. Sartore
B. J. Shadrake
Josef Sorkin
F. L. Thompson
L. W. Watson
Clifford Wendell
A. M. Westenhoff
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Revised trestle plans, submitted for adoption and publication in the
Manual T page 556
2. Grading rules and classitication of lumber for railway uses; specifica-
tions for structural timber, collaborating with other organizations interested.
Progress report, submitted as information, with the recommendation that
the material be published in the Manual a year hence page S5S
3. Specifications for design of wood bridges and trestles.
No report. A progress report on the testing of >^ -scale Douglas fir stringers
at the Forest Products Laboratory is being held up pending completion
of entire investigation.
4. Methods of fireproofing wood bridges and trestles including fire-retardant
paints, collaborating with Committees 6 and 17 and with the Fire Pro-
tection and Insurance Section, AAR.
No report. Work on this assignment has continued during the past vcar
looking to the presentation of a final report in 1960, which will include
a specification for fire-retardant coatings. Work has already been started
on an investigation of new fire-retai-dant additives.
555
556 Wood Bridges and Trestles
5. Design of structural glued laminated wood bridges and trestles.
No report. The committee is developing recommended plans for glued
laminated girders and trestle members, with accompanying tables, and
will report on same to the Association as soon as possible.
6. Design of timber-concrete composite decks, collaborating with Committee 8.
Report submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual page 562
7. Repeated loading of timber structures.
No report. Draft of a final report on this assignment is practically com-
plete, and it is expected that, following review and approval by the com-
mittee, it can be presented in the June-July 1959 Bulletin.
8. Protection of pile cut-offs.
In the first phase of its study on this assignment, the committee is inves-
tigating various physical tests which may be conducted, but is not pre-
pared to make a report at this time.
9. Hardening of timber bearing surfaces.
The committee is investigating previously developed information relating
to this assignment, including work being done by the Forest Products
Laboratory, but is not prepared to present a report.
10. Rules for rating existing wood bridges and trestles.
No report. During the past year the committee has started work on this
assignment, looking to the eventual development of a method of rating
existing timber bridges.
The Committee on Wood Bridges and Trestles,
S. L. Goldberg, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 548, January 1959.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
Sidney L. Goldberg (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Atwater, W. W. Boyer, B. E.
Daniels, K. L. DeBlois, J. V. Johnston, C. V. Lund, W. B. Mackenzie, F. W.
Madison, W. A. Oliver, O. C. Rabbitt, B. J. Shadrake, L. W. Watson, A. M.
Westenhoff.
Last year your committee presented, as information. General Notes and Plans for
Open-Deck Pile and Framed Trestles, Multiple-Story Trestles and Ballasted-Deck Pile
and Framed Trestles (Proceedings, Vol. 59, 1958, pages 744 to 760, incl.)
Your committee now recommends that these General Notes and plans, with the
minor corrections to some of them indicated below, be adopted and published in the
Manual to replace obsolete drawings. Figs. 1 to 8, incl., presently shown on pages
7-4-3 to 7-4-10, incl., of the Manual.
Fig. 1 — Floor Plan for Open-Deck Trestles.
In Note, change words "grade of lumber" to "species of lumber".
Wood Bridges and Trestles S57
Fitr. 2 — Floor Plan for Ballasted-Deck Trestles.
Correct plan view to show every other >t ringer continuous over bents.
Fi<r. .^ — Bulkheads and Miscellaneous Details.
In elevation showing Provision for Superelevation, designate top of low
rail as such, and add vertical dimension '"Distance as Required", be-
tween top of low rail and horizontal line for working points for center
lines of piles.
Fig. 4 — Cap Stringer Fastening and Pile Top Protection.
No change.
Fig. 5 — Bent Details for Open-Deck Pile Trestle.
No change.
Fig. 6 — Bent Details for Ballasted-Deck Pile Trestle
No change.
F'ig. 7 — Longitudinal Bracing.
Show bolts through cap into pile on Half Bent Elevation, vertical
instead of sloping.
Fig. 8 — Details of Footings for Framed Bents.
No change.
Fig. 9— Multiple-Story Trestle Bents.
No change.
Fig. 10 — Multiple-Story Trestle Bents.
No change.
Fig. 11 — Walk and Handrail — Open-Deck Trestles.
Change railing post size from 4"x6" to 4"x4". Change diagonal cuts on
railing post braces to square ends.
Fig. 12 — Water Barrel and Refuge Platform — Open-Deck Trestles.
Change railing post size from 4"x6" to 4"x4". Change diagonal cuts on
railing post braces to square ends.
Fig. 13 — Track Car Platforms — Open-Deck Trestles.
Change railing post size from 4"x6" to 4"x4". Change diagonal
cuts on railing post braces to square ends. Extend 3"x6" runner from
curb to running rail.
Fig. 14 — Walk and Handrail — Ballasted-Deck Trestles.
No change.
Fig. 15 — Water Barrel and Refuge Platform — Ballasted-Deck Trestles.
No change.
Fig. 16 — Track Car Platform— Ballasted-Deck Trestles.
No change.
558 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Report on Assignment 2
Grading Rules and Classification of Lumber For Railway Uses;
Specifications For Structural Timber
Collaborating with Other Organizations Interested
R. E. Kuehner (chairman, subcommittee), W. L. Anderson, E. M. Cummings, K. L.
DeBlois, W. C. Howe, V. T. Huckaby, R. P. A. Johnson, H. G. Kriegel, A. L. Leach,
C. V. Lund, L. J. Markwardt, C. H. NewUn, CHfford Wendell, W. D. Keeney, T. K.
May, W. H. O'Brien.
Your committee submits as information the accompanying table classifying stress-
tiraded lumber as to the minimum quality recommended for railroad use for the various
structures indicated. It is intended to be used as a guide by designers and purchasers.
Next year it is proposed to submit the table with the recommendation that it be
adopted and published in Part 1, Chapter 7, of the Manual. Comments and criticisms
are invited.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
CLASSIFICATION OF STRESS-GRADED LUMBER
FOR RAILWAY USES
Table 1 — Minimum Quality Recommended for Uses Indicated
559
KIND OF WOOD
3f-
o o
8 g
-5
CC K U S
K S 5 o
BRIDGES AND THESTUS
Sills, Posts, arvi Caps
231.
235
233_
TIT
123a
g?3a
ill-
Bridge Ties
P & T Size
285
B t S Size
Grard Timbers and Backwalls
PlanklDK (For Walks)
Planklnj? (For Roadway Sub-Floor &
Wear. Surface)
285
Palling
Railing Foste
Sills and Sleepers
285
225b ||i_
Posts and Caps
285
225b l^^
285
Purlins, Kaftera, Studs, Plates, etc.
Sub-Flooring (Plank)
235
Flooring (Heavy Duty)
285
CANOPIES AND SHEDS
Posts, sills, and Sleepers
285
Beans, Joists, Purlins and Rafters
285
P«.
127_
CONCRETE PORK
Shoring and Plates
Joists and Bean Forms
106
233
196
FOR NOTES SEE END OF TABLE
560
Wood Bridges and Trestles
Table 1 (Cont'd)
PIEBS AND WHABVES
Sheet Piling
Crib Timbers
Sheeting for Ferry Backs and Transfer
Bridge Fenders
Caps (Supporting Tracks)
Stringers (Supporting Tracks)
Bangers and Claraps (Supporting Tracks)
Fender and Fender Sheeting (For Plere)
Becking (Heavy Service)
Decking (Light Service)
Fender File Caps and Choking Tlnbars
Tlnber Belov Water
(Clanps, Bracing, Wales, etc.)
Tlliibar Above Water (Not Supporting Tracks!
Sills, Poets, and Caps
Joists
Pl4nk8 (Heavy Service)
Planks (Light Service)
TANKS AND SUPPOBTS
Tank Bottom and Staves
KIND OF MOOD
333
31*9
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
285
e s
^ g
w
B S
123b
12Ub
225b
223b
225b
Note
Bi
O M
!§L
wu
!ft
317
317
n IX
106
315
Pb.
223b 1I7
118 87
106
Pg.
.25_
FOH NOTES SEE END OF TABLE
Wood Bridges and Trestles
561
Table 1 (Cont'd)
nro OF WOOD
§isl
TEMP. AND FAIfiEWORK
SI
Sills, Posts and Caps
285
316
285
285
lAgglng and Bracing
Wedges
Upper and Lover Chords, Web Hembers
223a
Thick or Less
Thick or More
U" I 6" sod Wider
6" X 6" - 8" z 8" - 10"
6" X 10" and Wider
8" X 12" and Wider
KfTt C
— V^x k"
y . U" X 6" and Wider
^2^- 3"
>»" and Thicker
NOTg r
Hough Concrete
Tight Boards
DOIKUS TIP
(COAST RESION)
Par. No. 123b
Par. No. 12Ub
Par. No. 122a
Par. No. 123a
Par, No. 125a
Par. No. 121m
Par. No. 12Ua
Par. No. ISSi
Par. No. 123a
Par. No. l67«
Par. Ho. l67b
t>ar. No. 122a
Par. No. 125b
Par. No. 120d
Par. No. 120a
WEST COAST
HEMLOCK
Par. No. 223b
Par. No. S2Ub
Far. No. 22Sa
Par. No. 223a
Par. No. 225b
Par. No. S2Ub
Par. No. 22Ub
Par. Ho. 222a
Par. No. 223a
Par. No. 222*
Par. No. 225b
Par. No. 220(1
Par. No. 22a»
CENBRAL NOTES
1. Nunberg shown In the above table refer to paragraph (or page) numbers In the grading rules of the
association shovn opposite the various species.
2. The paragraph number, or lumber grade, shovn for the structure member is the preferred mlnlmuo for
railroad use and is to be taken as purely advisory. Where proper design Indicates the use of a
higher grade, selection should be made from Table 1 or Table 2, "Specifications for Structural
Timbers" .
3- All footnotee to Table 1, "Specifications for structural Timbers", pertain to the above table.
5o2 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Report on Assignment 6
Design of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks
Collaborating with Committee 8
W. A. Oliver (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Atwater, T. P. Burgess, E. M. Cum-
mings, B. E. Daniels, W. A. Genereux, R. H. Gloss, G. J. Grantham, R. E. Grieder,
J. F. Holmberg, W. D. Keeney, R. E. Kuehner, T. K. May, W. H. O'Brien, O. C.
Rabbitt, D. V. Sartore, B. J. Shadrake, Josef Sorkin.
Your committee submits the accompanying drawing showing Recommended Prac-
tice for Timber — Concrete Composite Decks with the recommendation that it be adopted
and published in the Manual as Fig. 2 under Recommended Practice for Overhead Wood
Highway Bridge, page 7-M-4.
This drawing was presented last year as information (Vol. 59, 1958, page 796).
Wood Bridges and Tr es ties
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Report of Committee 11 — Engineering and
Valuation Records
Morton Friedman,
Chairman,
R. B. Aldridge,
Vice Chairman,
B. H. Moore, Secretary,
F. B. Baldwin (E)
S. H. Barnh.\rt
J. L. Becker
G. R. Berquist
B. a. Bertenshaw (E)
H. C. BOLEY
H. T. Bradley
J. Bert Byars
C. E. Bynane
C. E. Clonts
P. D. Coons
Spencer Danby
R. S. Danis
C. R. DOLAN
V. H. Doyle
W. S. Gates, Jr.
M. M. Gerbf.r
W. M. Hager
C. C. Haire (E)
H. N. Halper
Nelson Hammond
J. H. Hande (E)
K. A. Heiny
J. W. Higgins
L. W. Howard
R. D. Igou
W. H. KlEHL
W. A. Krauska
C. E. Lex, Jr.
W. M. LXTDOLPH
C. B. Martin
J. K. MORRISSEY
B. F. Nauert
F. H. Neely
C. F. Olson
D. E. Pergrin
A. T. Powell
H. L. Rest all
F. A. Roberts
C. S. ROBEY
E. J. Rockefeller
H. B. Sampson
R. L. Samuell
H. A. Shinkle
J. N. Smeaton
E. W. Smith
J . E. Stein
J. B. Styles
j. R. Traylor
E. L. Vogt
R. C. Watkins
H. C. Wertenberger
W. C. Wieters
J. L. WiLLCOX
H. R. Williams
L. Wolf (E)
M. C. Wolf
Committee
(E) Member Emeritu.'i
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, including recommended revisions p-^ge 56()
2. Bibliography on subjects pertaining to engineering and valuation records
Progress report, submitted as information page Sb^
3. Office and drafting practices.
Progress report, submitted as information page .S70
4. Use of statistics in railway engineering.
Progress in study, hut no report.
.V Construction reports and property record.^.
Progress in study, but no report.
6. V'aluation and depreciation:
(a) Current developments in connection with regulatory bodies and courts.
Progress report, .submitted as information page 571
565
566 Engineering and Valuation Records
(b) ICC valuation orders and reports.
No report.
(c) Development of depreciation data.
No report.
7. Revisions and interpretations of ICC accounting classifications.
Progress report, submitted as information page 574
8. Simplification of records to determine original costs of tracks to be used
in their retirements from the investment account.
Progress in study, but no report.
9. Simplification of annual reports on Form 588 to the Interstate Commerce
Commission, and underlying completion reports.
Progress report, submitted as information page 574
10. Photography in railroad construction and maintenance, collaborating with
other interested committees.
Final report, submitted as information page 592
The Committee on Engineering and Valuation Records,
Morton Friedman, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 548, January 1959.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
W. A. Krauska (chairman, subcommittee), F. B. Baldwin, G. R. Berquist, P. D. Coons,
E. M. Killough, W. M. Ludolph, F. A. Roberts, R. L. Samuell, J. N. Smeaton,
E. W. Smith, H. R. Williams, M. C. Wolf.
The revision of Graphical Symbols, Figs. 2 and 3, appearing on pages 11-4-12 and
11-4-13 of the Manual, has been completed after an extensive study by a committee
on the special assignment: "Standardization of Colors and Symbols to Be Shown on
Maps", and the following recommendations with respect to these symbols are submitted
for adoption:
GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS
Page 11-4-12, Fig. 2 — Agriculture — Railways (Topographical Maps) — Railway Tracks
(Track Maps): Reapprove with revisions (revised drawing presented herewith).
Page 11^-13, Fig. 3 — Profiles— Vertical Curves — Boundary and Survey Lines —
Cartography: Reapprove with revisions (revised drawing presented herewith).
Your committee also recommends adoption of the following revisions to ASA refer-
ences as shown on page 11-4-24:
Graphical Symbols for Plumbing: change (Z32.2.2-1949) to (Y32.4-19SS).
Graphical Symbols for Heat-Power Apparatus: change (32.2.6-1950) to (Z32.2.6-
1950, Reaffirmed 1956).
Engineering and Valuation Records
567
©
HILL SHADING |5 5.?.v,.>-s»afei>.<
'■'MV^iS^trA'^^ TAILINGS
WmB^ M.NINOO
«^ TAILINGS OR
EBRIS
'^///i;i\\^'
DEPRESSION
CONTOURS
Z, — -■ «-«*<i»"
MEADOW
ABUTMENT, WAL
AND PIER
^]-|
AGRICULTURE
CLEARED LAND
S'^o'ccoco
DECIDUOUS TREES
0 0 0 O O 0
0 9 9 0 0 0
0 O O 0
6 O 0 O '
0 O O ^ 0
ORCHARD
OAK TREES
TTTTTtr)
TTTftfl
ff rf T-r
CORN
EVERGREEN TREES
'--^U
WILLOWS
TOBACCO
ri'iSVrr
V1NCYARD
PINE.WILLOWS
AND BRUSH
rrrq I nil I M I
CULTIVATED LAND
• RAILWAYS (topographical MAPS)
STEAM
ELECTRIC
STREET RAILWAY
NARROW GAGE
I I 1 I I I I I \zzr
* RAILWAY TRACKS (track maps and profiles)
FOR COMPANY OWNED TRACKS
SYMBOL
EXISTING TRACKS TO REMAIN
EXISTING TRACKS TO BE REMOVED
EXISTING TRACKS TO BE LINED
NEW LOCATION OF TRACKS TO BE LINED
NEW TRACKS TO BE CONSTRUCTED
PROPOSED FUTURE TRACKS
COLOR
BLACK- SOLID
YELLOW- SOLID
YELLOW- DASHED
RED -DASHED
RED- SOLID
BLACK- SYMBOL
FOR FOREIGN LINE OR PRIVATE TRACKS
EXISTING TRACKS TO REMAIN
EXISTING TRACKS TO BE REMOVED
EXISTING TRACKS TO BE LINED
I y I )( I y I X I
NEW LOCATION OF TRACKS TO BE LINED ^ ^ ^ i^
NEW TRACKS TO BE CONSTRUCTED II I I II
PROPOSED FUTURE TRACKS »♦♦♦♦♦
BLACK-HATCHED
YELLOW- HATCHED
YELLOW- SYMBOL
RED- SYMBOL
RED- SYMBOL
BLACK- SYMBOL
Fig. 2.
568
Engineering and Valuation Records
4*C.R.
2C,L.
250 S. 2"CL. 260'S.
PROFILES
ALINEMENT-4°CURVE TO RIGHT-2\eFT
ALINEMENT-2°CURVE LEFT-250'SPIRAL
VERTICAL CURVES
* USE OF SYMBOLS IS RECOMMENDED FOR ALL TRACINGS OF EXHIBITS, CONTRACT
MAPS OR CONSTRUCTION MAPS FOR NEW WORK WHEN A LARGE NUMBER OF
PRINTS ARE REQUIRED. WHERE COLORS OR SYMBOLS ARE USED AN APPROPRIATE
LEGEND SHOULD BE SHOWN.
BOUNDARY AND SURVEY LINES
FOREIGN R.OF W. LINE
STATE LINE
COUNTY LINE ■
TOWNSHIP LINE
CITY OR VILLAGE LINE
RESERVATION LINE
INNER PARCEL LINE
STREET BLOCK OR OTHER PROPERTY LINE
RED
SURVEY LINE
CENTER LINE
COMPANY PROPERTY R.OF W. LINE
Sfiom locafion And By^erSymbo/.
CARTOGRAPHY
SECTION CORNER i^ SECTION CENTER
TRI ANGULATION STATION OR TRANSIT POINT
BENCH MARK B.mXi232 5T0WE MONUMENT
-a 17
IRON MONUMENT ■
VILLAGE =^ fi=
FIRE LIMITS i^/©,SSsi
CHURCH-SCHOOL (^ (5
TANKS AND GIL RESERVOIRS
OIL AND GA S WELL S o°o° o °
PROSPECT X
MINE TUNNEL —<Z
COAST GUARD STATION I
oannni
CITY
CITY I iuiT«i ^nnnnnnn
CEMETERIES [cem] [t]
COKE OVENS ^X=3C?)QC?
MINE OR QUARRY
SHAFT B
LIGHTHOUSE OR BEACON
3L.S.S. ^ C.G.S.
MAGNETIC MERIDIAN
if HATCH OR COLOR (TRANSPARENT )RED
H
M.orQ.
Angle
Fig. 3.
Engineering and Valuation Records 569
Report on Assignment 2
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Engineering
and Valuation Records
J. B. Byars (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Clonts, C. E. Lex, Jr., B. H. Moore,
F. H. Neely, E. J. Rockefeller, H. C. Wertenberger, W. C. Wieters, L. Wolf.
Your committee presents as information the following bibliography of subjects
pertaining to railroad engineering and valuation records:
Depreciation
1. Depreciation Accounting. The Journal of Accountancy, June 1958, page 35. The
case for the declining-balance method of depreciation as presenting a more accurate
reflection of the economic usefulness of depreciable assets.
2. Price Level Depreciation Survey. The Journal of Accountancy, April 1958, page
36. A summary and analysis of opinions expressed by over 400 executives and educators
on the desirability of disclosing current cost of depreciation.
3. Effect of Salvage Value on Depreciation. The Tax Magazine, February 1958,
page 97. There is nothing startling in the new depreciation regulations with respect to
salvage. However, they may require revision of some accounting practices with regard
to salvage and possibly some adjustment of prior years income.
4. I.R.S. Restudies Depreciation Rules that Business Says are Obsolete. Business
Week, February 16, 1957, page 89. The Internal Revenue Service has barkened to the
charge by business that the depreciation period allowed on much property and equip-
ment is unrealistic. I.R.S. is reviewing and overhauling Bulletin "F", the basic handbook
for depreciation periods.
5. Sequel to an Engineering Viewpoint on Depreciation Accounting. Journal of
Accountancy, 105: 35^0, June 1958. The author contends that dechning balance and
other methods of accelerated depreciation more accurately reflect the economic useful-
ness of depreciable assets than straight-line depreciation.
6. Original or Replacement Charge for Depreciation. Commerce and Finance,
February- 27, 1958, page 187.
7. Practical Method for Applying Current-Value Depreciation. National Accounting
Association, Bulletin — January 1958, page 39.
Valuation
8. The Valuation of a Railroad in Reorganization. Columbia Law Review, March
1958, page 316.
9. Implications of Switching to Fair Value. Public Utilities Fortnightly, December
19, 1957. Reasons why it would be contrary to the investor's interest to shift over to
fair value or current cost rate base practices.
10. Does Our Rate Making Process Need Overhauling? Public Utihties Fortnightly,
May 8, 1958. Some ideas of modernizing regulatory procedures including specialized
appellate tribunal.
11. Can Property Records Pay Their Way? Public Utilities Fortnightly, February
27, 1958. The answer is yes, but it is not easy.
Railroad Service
12. Discontinuance of Railroad Service. Public Utilities Fortnightly, May 8, 1958.
An account of the problem which railroad companies face in seeking to control Josses
from unprofitable operations through discontinuance.
570 Engineering and Valuation Records
Automation
13. Answering Automations Biggest Question. Public Utilities Fortnightly, January
16, 1958. Whether persons dislocated by mechanization are able to iind new jobs com-
parable with the ones displaced by automation.
Report on Assignment 3
Office and Drafting Practices
W. M. Ludolph (chairman, subcommittee), W. A. Krauska, A. T. Powell, H. B. Samp-
son, R. L. Samuell, H. A. Shinkle, J. R. Traylor, W. C. Wieters.
Your committee has from time to time reported on new materials, methods and
processes to aid or improve office and drafting practices. This year, it comments on
the permanency of the various kinds of records.
The useful life of records varies greatly with the amount of handling required;
where they are stored; the material of which they are made; the sensitivity of the ink
or coating material to light, temperature, humidity, atmospheric contamination, etc.; as
well as a number of other conditions.
First, a few comments on the base material used for the records:
Tracing Cloth
Tracing cloth is probably the most permanent material for engineering maps and
other records; however, it is subject to attack by some insects which will eat the sizing
out of the cloth. It is also sensitive to high humidity at high temperatures. Usually,
these problems are not present in well kept offices.
Life of Paper
The life of paper is unpredictable as it depends on the material from which it is
manufactured and the manufacturing process.
Generally speaking, bond paper or a paper with a large rag content will be the
most satisfactory for permanent records and records which require a large amount of
handling.
Sulphite papers deteriorate quite rapidly but are usually used for records of a
temporary nature on account of their economy.
All papers are affected by humidity. That is, if the humidity is too low, they will
dry out and crumble, and if the humidity is too high, they are subject to fungus action.
Humidity of 40 to SO percent is recommended for most papers.
Also, paper is subject to deterioration by light, and if possible, records should be
stored in the dark. Ordinary office lighting, however, does not seriously affect the life
of paper.
Temperature is a large factor in the life of paper, and in order to secure the
maximum Ufe it should be kept in a cool place.
Plastic Films
Plastic films have come into use for office records and reproduction processes. How-
ever, these have not proved very satisfactory for the reason that they cannot be folded
without damage and also because they become brittle with age. Work is in progress to
produce a more satisfactory film.
Engineering and Valuation Records 571
Inks and Sensitized Coatings
1. Indian ink and printers ink are, for the most part, tht most part, the most per-
manent, although they are subject to destruction by insects such as cockroaches, which
can clean the India ink off of a fair-sized tracing over night or printers ink from a
sheet of paper. This need be no problem, however, as many effective insecticides are on
the market at the present time.
2. Dye inks vary greatly in length of life, but in most cases they outlast the paper
on which they are used.
3. Graphite pettcil records will outlast the paper, but are subject to smearing and
smudging, unles a firm pencil is used. Colored crayons also produce almost permanent
records.
4. The blueprint coating after being processed is very nearly permanent if placed
on good paper and not exposed to strong light or to an alkaline atmosphere.
5. Dyes in the dye- process reproduction are sensitive to light, heat, atmospheric
contamination and other conditions and, therefore, are not suitable for permanent rec-
ords; however, under proper conditions, they will be satisfactory for a number of years.
6. Dyes used in dye transfer reproduction processes usually outlast the paper.
7. Thermal process coating records can be destroyed in a matter of minutes if
exposed to heat, such as that of a radiator or of the bright sun in the summertime.
Report on Assignment 6
Valuation and Depreciation
(a) Current Developments in Connection with Regulatory
Bodies and Courts
C. R. Dolan (chairman, subcommittee), R. B. Aldridge, S. H. Barnhart, G. R. Berquist,
H. T. Bradley, J. B. Byars, C. E. Bynane, C. E. Clonts, P. D. Coons, S. Danby,
R. S. Danis, V. H. Doyle, W. S. Gates, Jr., H. N. Halper, K. A. Heiny, J. W.
Higgins, L. W. Howard, R. D. Igou, E. M. Killough, C. B. Martin, B. H. Moore,
C. F. Olson, H. L. Restall, C. S. Robey, E. J. Rockefeller, J. B. Stvles, E. L. Vogt,
H. R. Williams, M. C. Wolf.
ICC Bureau of Accounts, Cost Finding and Valuation, Section of Valuation
The forces of the Bureau were engaged principally during the year in railroad and
pipeline work, preparing tentative and final valuations on an annual basis for all pipe-
line companies subject to their jurisdiction. During the year statements were prepared
showing the elements of value for all Class I line-haul carriers and switching and
terminal companies as of December 31, 19S6.
During 1957, Class I line-haul carriers charged Account 459, Valuation Expenses,
$829,139 contrasted with $806,696 for 1956.
As of October 1, 1958, all pipeline and rail carriers were practically on a current
basis in the filing of valuation reports with the Bureau, with the following exceptions:
5 line-haul carriers not filing for 1955 and 13 line-haul and 1 switching and terminal
company for 1956. Valuation reports covering property changes for 1957 have been
received from 26 rail carriers and 33 pipeline companies.
The backlog of valuation work (rail and pipeline carriers) in the Bureau as of
October 1, 1958, was as follows:
572 Engineering and Valuation Records
Annual
Valuation
Reports
Engineering Inventories 1 ,614
Land 866
Original Cost Summaries 27
The total number of personnel engaged in valuation work in the Section of Valua-
tion on October 1, 1Q58, was 43, not including those field personnel which were previously
merged with the staff of the Bureau's Accounting Examiners.
During the year the Commission issued the following orders covering valuation
matters:
Order relieving all carriers from filing Forms B.V. 588-R "Report of Property
Changes" in duplicate.
Order reversing the valuation regulations governing the reporting of property
changes by pipeline carriers.
Order to carriers filing annual cost information for certain purchases of materials
under Valuation Order 14 suspending the requirement.
The Bureau transferred all basic engineering field notes for all carriers to a federal
records center. Carriers desiring to refer to any of these records should contact the
Bureau ten days in advance of their proposed visit to Washington.
Elements of Value as of December 31, 19S6 — The Bureau of Accounts, Cost Finding
and Valuation prepared its estimates for the Class I carriers covering the standard
elements of value as of December 31, 19S6, and released them February 25, 1958.
Elements of Value as of December 31, 1957 — It is understood that the Bureau of
Accounts, Cost Finding and Valuation, Interstate Commerce Commission, is preparing
its estimates for the Class I carriers (line-haul and switching and terminal companies)
covering the standard elements of value as of December 31, 1957, and that they will be
released early in December 1958.
Report of the Committee on Valuation,
National Association of Railroad and Utilities Commissioners
The above-named committee has recently issued its annual report for 1958, con-
sisting of a text of 12 pages, with 2 appendices. Appendix A gives an index: of cost for
items in utility plants for the period 1940-1958, and Appendix B a list of the cases cited
in the report. Copies may be secured from the Office of the Secretary, National Associa-
tion of Railroad and Utilities Commissioners, Room 5310, Interstate Commerce Com-
mission Building, 12th and Constitution Avenue, N. W., Washington 25, D. C, price SO
cents per copy.
The report in the main discusses the handling of "attrition" by the various state
commissions. A questionnaire was sent to the state regulatory agencies requesting infor-
mation as to the type of rate base utilized, whether attrition was considered and, if
considered, the specific treatment given, and the reasoning or justification for the type
of treatment.
After enumerating the replies received, the report concludes with the following
summary:
"1. A generally acceptable definition of attrition as applied to the utility industry is
as follows:
Engineering and Valuation Records 573
It is tiic decline in the percent earned on the rate base due to the replacement
of plant items at price levels higher than those experienced whtn the original plant
items were installed; it also comes about by additions to plant at a unit cost
higher than the average cost of existing units.
"2. Attrition is a direct result of inflation or the decline in the 'real' value of the
dollar.
"3. The majority of state regulatory agencies are cognizant of attrition as a factor
in the rate-making process today.
"4. No single method of dealing with or providing for the attrition factor has been
evolved. This is due in some degree to the different types of rate base utiUzed by various
regulatory agencies.
"S. Those agencies adopting a fair value or reproduction cost new rate base feel
that the rate base itself compensates for any erosion brought about by the attrition
factor.
"6. The agencies adopting the net investment rate base or a variation thereof deal
with attrition in one of three ways:
A. By an addition to the rate base to include a sum for extraordinary investment
made by the utility ; or
B. Through an adjustment upward to the rate of return authorized as reasonable
by the agency in view of the existence of the attrition factor; or
C. Through the use of a year-end rate base where previously rates had been
established on an average investment rate base.
"7. Attrition will remain a factor in the utility rate making process for the foresee-
able future."
Revision of Depreciation Rates for Income Tax Purposes
In a previous report, the committee mentioned the efforts that were being made to
modify or eliminate the 30-percent depreciation reserve that was imposed on the rail-
roads as a condition to their changeover from retirement to depreciation accounting on
road property for income tax purposes. Those efforts have finally resulted in the enact-
ment of Section 99 of Public Law 85-866 (H. R. 8381) which was approved by the
President on August 2, 1958. (Also known as Section 04 of the Technical Amendments
Act of 1958).
The section provides that any taxpayer who changed from the retirement method
of accounting for income tax deductions to the straight-line method of computing de-
preciation for any taxable year after December 31, 1940, and before Jannary 1, 1956,
may elect to have it apply. Its application will have the effect of reducing the 30-percent
depreciation reserve after adjustments for sudden obsolescence. The difference will be
added back to basis for future recovery after December 31, 1955, based on the esti-
mated remaining life of such property. This will result in larger deductions for depre-
ciation for the years subsequent to December 31, 1955. While an election under this
section precludes any refunds for the period 1942-1955, it permits the adjustment of the
so-called "equity invested capital base" for the determination of excess profits tax liabil-
ity for World War II and the Korean War profits. If applicable, this should increase
the excess profits credit and decrease the income subject to the excess profits tax, resulting
in refunds of the taxes paid during those periods.
The regulations under which the Internal Revenue Service will implement this sec-
tion have not yet been published. It is probable that they will provide for a limited
period during which the taxpayer may elect to accept the provisions of this section.
574 Engineering and Valuation Records
Report on Assignment 7
Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting Classifications
M. M. Gerber (chairman, subcommittee), S. H. Barnhart, C. E. Clonts, C. R. Dolan,
W. S. Gates, Jr., W. M. Hager, C. B. Martin, B. H. Moore, F. A. Roberts, C. S.
Robey, H. B. Sampson, J. R. Traylor, J. L. Willcox.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
The Bureau of Accounts, Cost Finding and Valuation of the Interstate Commerce
Commission on April 23, 1958, amended Case A-101 relating to accounting for the cost
of welding rail into longer lengths, and for retirement of track material not replaced.
This case formerly directed that when longer rails than those removed are applied
in maintenance, the cost at current prices of the other track material removed, if more
than the cost of such material applied, should be credited to Account 10, "Other Track
Material"; if less it should be charged to that account. Ih either case the necessary
adjustment should be included in Account 216 "Other Track Material."
This case now directs that the cost of welding rail into longer lengths shall be
treated as part of the cost of the rail. The service value of rail joints and other track
material retired and not replaced shall be charged to operating expenses.
Report on Assignment 9
Simplification of Annual Reports on Form 588 to the Interstate
Commerce Commission, and Underlying Completion Reports
H. N. Halper (chairman, subcommittee), R. B. Aldridge, J. L. Becker, H. C. Boley,
S. Danby, C. R. Dolan, V. H. Doyle, M. Friedman, M. M. Gerber, W. M. Hager,
N. Hammond, J. W. Higgins, W. H. Kiehl, B. F. Nauert, C. F. Olson, H. L. Restall,
E. L. Vogt, R. C. Watkins, H. R. Williams, M. C. Wolf.
Part 1 — Simplification of Completion Reports
The completion report has now become familiar to practically all railroad engi-
neers. It is essentially an engineer's report showing the details of units, quantities and
costs of construction projects. Although it was originally prescribed by a mandatory
order of the Interstate Commerce Commission, it has now become an essential cor-
porate record used for many purposes, particularly in connection with property control
records, depreciation, income tax benefit reports, retirements, insurance, corporate
financing, etc.
To simplify it so that on the one hand it would consume the least time possible
of competent engineers and at the same time to preserve its essential details desired and
required for corporate purposes is, indeed, a formidable task.
Members of the committee were assigned particular groups of properties contained
within various investment primary accounts and have given it careful study with refer-
ence to the units and quantities which are now being reported, suggesting modifications
for simplifying them.
The simplifications were then taken up at a meeting of the entire committee; and
after deliberation, the committee makes the following observations and recommendations:
A. Mass Property: Within this classification are grouped the accounts which con-
Engineering and Valuation Records 575
tain predominantly mass property, although they do contain ci-rtain largt- units.
These are Accounts 21/2, .^ 5, 8 to 12, both inclusive, l.v .U, and ,?Q.
B. Machinery and Equipment Properly: Accounts ,U. .^8, 44, 45, and 51 to 58,
both inclusive.
C. Structural Property: Within this group are included those accounts which con-
tain structures primarily, although some of them contain also, to some extent,
mass property. These accounts are 6, 7, 16 to 24, both inclusive, 20 and 35.
D. Communication Systems; and Signals and fnterlockers: .Accounts 26 and 27
containing both structural and mass properties.
With reference to Classitications A and B, that is. Mass Property and Machinerx
and Equipment Property, the committee found that the present requirements as shown
in the Revised Supplement No. 4 to Valuation Order No. .^, Second Revised Issue, effec-
tive January 1, 1933, "List of Units for Use of Carriers in the Preparation of Com-
pletion Reports and the Record of Property Changes" as prescribed by the ICC, arc
satisfactory. Most of them are not burdensome, others cannot be further simplified with-
out destroying the essential requirements of a property record.
With reference to Account 26 — Communication Systems, and Account 27 — Signals
and Interlockers, and particularly its mass property, the committee recommends con-
tinuation and expansion of the practice of combining similar and related items into types
and adjustment units.
With reference to structural property, the committee presents simplifications in
reporting as detailed below and in the accompanying tables. These tables give samples
of reporting Account 16— Station and Office Buildings, and Account 17— Roadway Build-
ings, shewing in parallel columns the present and proposed reporting.
The committee recommends that full details of construction and costs be preserved
permanently in the so-called "project envelope" even though the recommended simplified
list of units be used in the completion report; also, that record construction plans which
are an essential part of the completion report be permanently preserved.
The committee is fully cognizant of the fact that for corporate purposes it may be
necessary to record more detailed units and data than those presented above. It there-
fore cautions that the list of units be considered a "minimum requirement" and that
it be expanded and supplemented at the discretion of each carrier.
Structural Property
Structural property, presented herewith for simplified reporting, covers all buildings
and structures, including pipe lines, machinery, other than shops and power plant
machinery chargeable to Accounts 44 and 45, and all other items normally found in the
following accounts:
Account 16 — Station and Office Buildings
17 — Roadway Buildings
18— Water Stations
19 — Fuel Stations
20 — Shops and Enginehouses
21 — Grain Elevators
22— Storage Warehouses
2.^ — Wharves and Docks
24 — Coal and Ore Wharves
29 — Power Plants
35 — Miscellaneous Structures
576 Engineering and Valuation Records
The units and method of reporting physical property, including structural, in com-
pletion reports is prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission in detail, in revised
List of Units, Supplement No. 4 of Valuation Order No. 3, second revised issue effective
January 1, 1933. The list provides for all structural items to be shown in such detail
and in terms that reproduction prices as of any given date can be applied to the quan-
tities so reported to determine the reproduction cost new in place of any building or
structure or of any component parts thereof.
On account of the detail required, in many instances a field inventory of each new
building or structure has to be made by engineers or inspectors to obtain the reproduc-
tion units in the terms needed for completion reports, for these units as a rule are quite
different from those charged out to the job on store department requisitions and as
reported used in the structure by foremen in job reports from which the costs of
structural property are developed.
It is believed that the list of units recommended below will conform with present-
day needs and requirements of the commission and be useful as well for corporate
purposes, such as valuation, accounting, depreciation, etc.
The committee again strongly recommends that full details of construction and costs
of the various component parts of structural units of property which are frequently
required for estimating, retirements and other corporate purposes be preserved per-
manently in the "project envelope" even though the recommended simphfied list of units
are used in the completion reports; also, that record construction plans which are an
essential part of the completion report be permanently preserved. The committee con-
siders the recommended hst of units as a "minimum requirement." It is left to the
discr-etion of each carrier to expand it whenever it deems it desirable for corporate or
other purposes.
Account 16 — Station and Office Buildings
Structures should be reported individually and definitely located by towns, survey
stations, mile posts or other references.
Each building or structure, including attached platforms, should be described in
detail, stating size, type of consrtuction, kind of foundation and roof, mentioning any
other important features or characteristics and giving reference to engineers' or "archi-
tects' special or standard plans Each
For large and important buildings additional detail should be shown, as follows:
1. Plumbing (General description) Lot
2. Heating ( " " )
Unit heaters ( " " ) Each
3. Lighting ( " " ) Lot
4. Elevators and conveyors ( " " ) "
5. Air conditioning system ( " " ) "
6. Loud speaker system ( " " ) "
7. Machinery and equipment ( " - " ) "
8. Power lines (inside) ( " " ) "
9. Fire protection ( " " ) "
10. Sundry items (other minor items not mentioned
individually above) ( " " ) "
11. Any other important additional items ( " " ) "
Furniture and fixtures in all buildings should be briefly described and shown as a
separate group subdivided as follows:
Furniture and fixtures (other than office equipment) Lot
Office equipment — number of units
Engineering and \'aluation Records 577
When the unit "lot" is used, the cost should always be given the same as for indi-
vidual buildings or structures.
Representative reporting for other items of property in this account is as follows:
Tractors and trucks (Brief description ) Each
Stock pens (Sire or capacity and type of construction) "
Scales complete (Kind, make, model, size, capacity and kind and size of pit and
scale house ) "
Platforms, high wood (Complete description showing size and kind of foundation) "
Platforms, low brick (Size or sq ft, kind and Lin Ft of curbing) Lot
Platforms, other (Kind, thickness, size or sq ft and kind, size and Lin Ft of
curbing) "
Fences (Kind and type of construction) Lin Ft
Wells including casing (Diameter and depth) Each
Water tank (Size, kind and type of support) "
Outside lighting (Xumber of lights and brief description) Lot
Outside pipe hnes (Kind and size of pipe, indicating whether underground or
elevated and description of supports and conduits when applicable) Lin Ft
Mail cranes (Trade name and kind) Each
Freight derricks and cranes (Kind or make and capacity) "
Windmills (Kind, make, diameter of wheel and kind and height of tower) "
Landscaping (Brief description) Lot
Manholes — complete Each
Cesspools — complete "
Inside changes and rearrangements in existing structures not affecting type of
structure (General description) Lot
For additional items in this account, such as grading, drainage, protection work,
and paving, see Accounts 3, 6, and 39.
Additions to existing structures should be shown in the same detail as new structures.
Account 17 — Roadway Buildings
Buildings and appurtenances (see Account 16).
Machinery (see Account 44).
Section houses and other buildings of like size and importance should be reported
in the same detail as "large and important buildings" in Account 16.
Account 18 — Water St.\tions
Buildings and appurtenances (see Account 16).
Water tanks (State whether fresh water or treating tank with complete description
of tank, including frost box; stating size, kind of construction, and supports
showing total weight of steel in the tank including steel supports and treating
column when applicable) Each
Water columns and diesel locomotive hydrants (Kind, size and description of pit) Each
Pipe lines (Kind and size of pipe, stating whether underground or overhead and
description of supports, insulation and conduits when applicable) (cast iron
pipe-net ton ; other pipe Lin Ft
Dams, reservoirs and settling basins (see Accounts 3 and 6).
Drilled wells (size and depth including casing) Each
Dug wells and cisterns (Give size and kind of walls) "
Pumping machinery — boilers including fitting (Type and hp) "
compressors (kind, make, and size) "
pumps including pump jack (kind, make and capacity) "
engines (kind, make, size, and hp) "
motors including switch board rheostat and connections (type
and rpm ) "
Water treating plant — brief description, maker and capacity "
578 Engineering and Valuation Records
Account 19 — Fuel Stations
Buildings and appurtenances (see Account 16).
Service tanks, pipe lines and equipment (see Account 18)
Fuel oil station:
Oil storage tanks (kind, size or capacity, type roof, and weight of steel) Each
Dike around tank (see Account 3)
Oil cranes or diesel fuel oil hydrants (kind and size) Each
Oil troughs (description, kind and size ) "
Oil sumps (kind and size) "
Servatrain unit (brief description) "
Oil unloading station or tower (brief description and size) "
Equipment in fuel oil pump house:
Miscellaneous mechanical equipment (brief description) Lot
Fire protection:
Equipment in pump house: pump (kind, make and capacity) Each
Foamite tank, including fittings (kind, size and capacity) "
Foamite fire protection equipment including pipe lines (brief description) . . . Lot
Coaling station (state type, trade name and model, storage and operating
capacity in tons, kind of elevators and conveyors, number of aprons and tracks
served. Give kind, description and capacity of sanding facilities, if any, and
reference to plans) Each
Account 20 — Shops and Enginehouses
Buildings and appurtenances (see Account 16).
Diesel shop (describe in detail stating size, type of construction, kind of founda-
tion and roof and any other important features, giving reference to standard
or special plans) Each
1. Plumbing (Brief description) Lot
2. Heating
3. Lighting
4. Power wiring
S. Inside piping
6. Furniture and fixtures
Turntables and transfer tables:
1. Pit (Size and kind) Each
2. Table (Type and size) Lb
3. Table tractor (Kind, make, hp) Each
Cinder pits (Size and type construction) "
Smoke stacks (Size and type construction) "
Lorry and wheel tracks (Description) Lin Ft
Platforms (see Account 16)
Sanding plants (Complete description, capacity and plan reference) Each
Inside pipe (Size and kind, designating the building) Lin Ft
Driveways (Kind, thickness of base and wearing surface) Sq Ft
Car repair sheds (Description, size and type construction) Each
Wells and cisterns (see Account 18) "
Pipe lines (see Account 16 — outside pipe lines) Lin Ft
Car washing machines — description Each
Engine washing machines — description
Oil unloading station — see Account 19 (Unloading towers) "
Account 21 — Grain Elevators
Buildings — in same detail as Accounts 16 and 20
Machinery — complete description
Account 22 — Storage Warehouses
See Accounts 16 and 20.
(Text continued on page 587)
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Account 23 — Wharves and Docks
Account 24 — Coal and Ore Docks
Dredging (Method used and disposition of material) Cu Yd
Bridges, ferry transfer including machinery (Description and size, see Accounts 6,
44, 45 ) Each
Pontoons (Kind and dimensions) "
Dock and wharf constructions (Set up each structure separating sub and super-
structure with brief description) "
Breakwaters (Describe and separate each structure) "
Buildings (See Account 16)
Coal and ore handling plants (Describe and separate each installation. See
Account 19) "
For additional items, see other accounts. For larger plans, give plan reference.
Care should be exercised in separating structures to conform with units as established
Paragraph 15 — General Instructions, R. and E. as amended.
Account 29 — Power Plant Buildings
See Accounts 16 and 20.
Account 35 — Miscellaneous Structures
See other accounts.
Part 2— Simplification of B.V. 588 Returns
While the completion report is known and understood by practically all railroad
engineers, since it is essentially an engineering report of construction projects showing
details of units, quantities, and costs, the summarization of these completion reports
as required by the Interstate Commerce Commission into an Annual Report is not so
well known.
The report called the B.V. 588 Return is essentially an annual summary showing
the changes made in the physical property of a carrier since the date fixed for its basic
valuation. It is prepared in considerable detail as prescribed in the orders of the ICC
(Supplement No. 5 to Valuation Order No. 3).
Committee 11 believes that the detailed requirement may be simplified without
affecting the essential nature of the report — by showing in a summary form and in
engineering terms the quantitative and qualitative changes in the physical property of
the carrier and the expenditures incurred in making them.
The committee's recommendations are shown below, in detail, for the groups of
accounts mentioned.
1. Track Accounts
Account 8 — Ties:
Under this account show the road ties, separating them only between treated and
untreated, the units — Each. All other ties, such as switch, crossing, and bridge ties,
should be shown in the aggregate, units — MBM, separate totals for treated and untreated.
Account 9 — Rails:
Rails should b;* separated only as between new and relay, units — Gross Tons. Show
in the description column the track feet added and/or retired.
Engineering and Valua tion Records
Account 10 — Other Track Material:
This account should be grouped under the following headings:
1. Turnout material, unit — Cwt. This group should include frogs, switches, guard
rails, crossing frogs, slip switches, curve guard rails, etc.
2. Rail items, unit — Cwt, separated between new and relay. This group should
include angle bars, patented joints, bolts, nutlocks, and rail anchors.
3. Tie plates, unit — Cwt, separated between new and relay.
4. Spikes, unit — Cwt.
5. All other items which do not lend themselves readily to conversion into Cwt.,
such as switch stands, switch lamps, switch locks, gage rods, rail lubricators,
patented derails, patented bumpers, etc., not included in groups 1, 2, 3, or 4,
unit — Each.
Account 11 — Ballast:
No change.
Account 12 — Track Laying and Surfacing:
No change.
2. Structural Property (Including Account 13)
Account 13 — Fences, Snowsheds and Signs:
Fences — give a brief description. Unit — Lin Ft or Miles.
Signs — show total number. Unit — Each.
Account 16 — Station and Office Buildings:
Structures should be reported individually and definitely located by towns, mile
posts, survey station, or other references.
Small buildings (under $5,000) — Each building or structure, including attached plat-
forms, should be described in detail, stating size, type of construction, kind of founda-
tion and roof, mentioning any other important features or characteristics. For such
buildings show "Cu Ft" or "Each" and total cost.
Large and important buildings — Describe in same detail as "Small buildings" show-
ing "Cu Ft" or "Each" and cost (cost of building, attached platforms and foundation).
Additional items to be shown as follows:
Plumbing — general description and cost.
Heating — general description and cost.
Unit heaters — general description, unit Each, and cost.
Lighting — general description and cost.
Power Mnes (inside) — cost.
Loud speaker system — general description and cost.
Fire protection- — general description, unit — "Heads," and cost.
Elevators and conveyors — general description, unit — Each, and cost.
Machinery and equipment — general description, unit — Lot, and cost.
Other important items — general description and cost.
Sundry items (other minor items) — general description and cost.
Furniture and fixtures (other than office equipment) — cost.
Office equipment — number of units and cost.
Tractors and trucks — number of units and cost.
Stock pens — size and type of construction. Unit— Each, and cost.
Track scales — size or capacity and type of construction, unit — Each, and cost.
Engineering and Valuation Records 589
Platforms structurally detached from building — description and size, unit — Sq Ft,
and cost.
Paving (driveways, sidewalks, etc.), kind, thickness of base and wearing surface,
unit — Sq Yd, and cost.
Fences — kind, unit — ^Lin Ft, and cost.
Wells, including casing — diameter and depth, unit — Each, and cost.
Water tank — size, kind and type of support, unit— Each, and cost.
Windmill — kind, make, diameter of wheel, kind and height of tower, unit — Each,
and cost.
Outside lighting — number of lights, brief description, and cost.
Outside pipeUnes — kind of pipe and size limits, indicating underground or elevated,
unit — Lin Ft, and cost.
Manholes (complete), unit — Each, and cost.
Cesspools (complete) , unit — Each, and cost.
Mail cranes, trade name and kind, unit — Each, and cost.
Freight derricks and cranes — kind or make and capacity, unit — Each, and cost.
Landscaping — brief description and cost.
Remodeling, involving inside changes and rearrangements chargeable to A&B, of
existing structures, not affecting type of structure — brief description (no units), and
cost.
Grading, drainage, protection work, paving, etc. — see Accounts 3, 6, and 39.
Account 17 — Roadway Buildings:
For buildings and appurtenances see Account 16 — "Small Buildings," for large main-
tenance of way shops see Account 16 "Large and Important Buildings," and for
machinery see Account 44.
Account 18 — Water Stations:
For buildings and appurtenances, see Account 16.
Water tanks — brief description, showing kind, size, and cost.
Water treating plant — brief description and cost.
Pumping machinery (boilers, compressors, pumps, motors, etc.) — brief description,
size, unit — -Lot, and cost.
Water columns and diesel locomotive hydrants — kind, unit — Each, and cost.
Pipelines — kind and size of pipe, stating whether underground or overhead and
description of supports, insulation and conduits where applicable. Cast iron pipe unit —
Net Ton, and cost. Other pipe, unit — Lin Ft, and cost.
Dams, reservoirs and settling basins (see Accounts 3 and 6).
Drilled wells (size and depth including casing), unit — Each, and cost.
Dug wells and cisterns (give size and kind of wall), unit — Each, and cost.
Account 19 — Fuel Stations:
Buildings and appurtenances — see Account 16.
Coaling stations, state type, trade name and model, storage and operating capacity
in Tons, kind of elevators and conveyors, number of aprons and tracks served, give
kind, description and capacity of sanding facilities, if any, and reference to plans. Unit-
Each, and cost.
Service tanks, pipe lines and equipment — see Account 18.
590 Engineering and Valuation Records
Fuel oil station;
Oil storage tanks — kind and capadt\-, unit — Each, and cost.
Dike around tank — see Account 3.
Oil cranes or diesel fuel hydrants — kind and size, unit — Each, and cost.
Unloading station or towers^ — brief description and size, unit — Each, and cost.
Oil troughs — description, kind, and size, unit — Each, and cost.
Oil sumps — description, kind, and size, unit — Each, and cost.
Servatrain unit — brief description, unit — Each, and cost.
Oil unloading station or tower- — brief description and size, unit — Each, and cost.
Equipment in fuel oil pump house — miscellaneous mechanical equipment — brief
description, unit — Lot, and cost.
Fire protection:
Equipment in pump house: pump^ — kind, make, and capacity, unit — Each and
cost. Foamite tank including fittings — kind, size, and capacity, unit — Each,
and cost.
Foamite fire protection equipment including pipe lines, brief description, unit —
Lot, and cost.
Account 20 — Shops and Enginehouses :
Buildings and appurtenances — see Account 16.
Additional items not covered in other accounts:
Brick chimneys and smoke stacks on their own foundations — size and type of
construction, unit — Each, and cost.
Turntables and transfer tables — pit — size and kind, unit — Each, and cost; table —
type and size, unit — Each, and cost.
Tractors — kind, horsepower, unit — Each, and cost.
Outside pits, size, type of construction, unit — each, and cost.
Lorry and wheel tracks — description and length in Track Feet, and cost.
Outside platforms — see Account 16 — platforms structurally detached from building.
Driveways — see Account 16.
Sanding plants — complete description, unit — Each, and cost.
Inside piping — size limits and kind, unit — Lin Ft and cost.
Wells and cisterns — see Account 16.
Pipe lines — see "Outside Pipe Lines" in Account 16.
Car washing machines — description, unit — Each, and cost.
Engine washing machines — description, unit — Each, and cost.
Additional items — other than above mentioned — description and cost.
Account 21 — Grain Elevators:
Building — ^in same detail as Accounts 16 and 20.
Machinery — complete description and cost.
Account 22 — Storage Warehouses:
Buildings — in same detail as Accounts 16 and 20.
Account 23— Wharves and Docks:
Dredging — show method used and disposition of material, unit — Cu Yd, and cost.
Bridges (ferry and transfer) including machinery — give full description and capacity,
unit -Each, and cost.
Engineering and Valuation Records 591
Pontoons — kind and dimensions, unit — Each, and cost.
Wharves and docks — set up each structure separately with brief description and
dimensions, unit — Each, and cost.
Breakwaters — describe and separate each structure, unit — Each, and cost.
Account 24 — Coal and Ore Wharves:
See Account 23 for wharves and docks.
See Account 16 for buildings.
Coal and ore handling plants — each installatiun to be shown separately with descrip-
tion and cost.
Account 29 — Power Plants:
See Accounts 16 and 20.
Account 35 — Miscellaneous Structures:
See other accounts as applicable.
3. Other Structures
Account 5 — Tunnels and Subways:
Account 6 — Bridges, Trestles, and Culverts:
Account 7 — Elevated structures:
No changes recommended in the present requirements for the above accounts.
4. Accounts Containing Predominantly Mass Property
Account 2^ — Other Right-of-Way Expenditures :
Account 3 — Grading:
Account 39 — Public Improvements — Construction:
No changes recommended in the present requirements for the above accounts.
Account 26 — Communication Systems:
Account 27 — Signals and Interlockers:
Account 31 — Power-transmission Systems:
While the committee recommends no changes in the present requirements for the
above accounts, it urges the continued u.=e and development of simplified types and
adjustment units.
5. Machinery
Account 37 — Roadway Machines:
Account 38 — Roadway Small Tools:
Account 44 — Shop Machinery :
Account 45 — Power-Plant Machinery:
Each major machine should be briefly described, unit — Each.
Smaller machines — name of machine and number assigned by railroad, if assigned.
6. Overhead Accounts
Account 1 — Engineering:
Accounts 71-77 — General Expenditures :
No changes recommended in the above accounts.
592 Engineering and Valuation Records
7. Equipment
Accounts SI to 58, both inclusive:
No changes recommended in the present requirements.
Report on Assignment 10
Uses of Photography in Railroad Construction and
Maintenance Work
Collaborating with Other Interested Committees
C. B. Martin (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Kiehl, W. A. Krauska, B. H. Moore,
J. K. Morrissey, F. A. Roberts, E. W. Smith, J. E. Stein.
In addition to the extensive use of photography by the pubUc relations, safety,
claims, and other departments of the railroads in carrying out their various functions
and responsibilities, photography in its many forms has been and can be particularly
helpful to the railroad engineer. Accordingly, your committee submits as information the
following final report in the gathering of information pertaining to the use of pho-
tography in railroad construction and maintenance work. The equipment available for
such photography includes the following:
1. Miniature or 3S-mm cameras which take either black and white or colored
pictures. The black and white pictures can be enlarged to any convenient
size. The colored pictures can be made into slides for projection, which are
particularly adaptable for training programs.
2. Folding cameras, available in 2%- by 3^-in to 3^- by SJ^-in sizes. These are
easily carried and stored, and the pictures, generally black and white, are large
enough for ordinary use or can be enlarged for more detailed study.
3. A variation of the folding camera which produces a finished print in about a
minute, available in 2%- by 3^-in and 3^4- by 4i/4-in sizes. This type of
camera enables the photographer to observe the results on the spot and to
retake pictures if necessary. Additional prints and enlargements can be made
from the originals.
4. Commercial cameras utilizing cut film or plates. These come generally in 4- by
S-in or 8- by 10-in sizes, and are especially adapted for program studies on
large projects.
5. Moving picture cameras in either the 8- or 16-mm size. These camera take
either black and white or colored pictures and are especially good for training
programs and study of the uses of new machines and equipment.
6. Aerial photography, which is generally contracted for with outside parties.
The most generally accepted uses of photography, other than aerial, by the railroad
engineer for design and construction are:
1. To show particular features in connection with location surveys, for design
or layout of structures or yards.
2. Pre-construction and progress photographs.
3. For training and familiarization programs.
4. To show condition or special features of facilities to be rebuilt to aid in cost
analysis of reconstruction.
Engineering and Valuation Records 593
5. To record emergency conditions on construction projects for more detailed
study and future reference.
6. To show unsafe conditions as information for study and rectification.
The most generally accepted uses of photography, other than aerial, used by main-
tenance of way forces, are:
1. To show condition of bridges, buildings and other facilities needing repairs, for
studies developing type of repairs needed and cost, and for presentation to
management.
2. To record emergency conditions such as slides, washouts, derailments, etc.,
for studies in regard to prevention, cure and repair.
3. To show comparison of chemical weed-control programs by "before, during
and after" series.
4. For training and familiarization program for new personnel and for new types
of machinery and procedures.
5. To show unsafe conditions as information for study and for rectification.
6. For progress reports on lengthy programs.
The use of aerial photography can be subdivided as follows: Ordinary, aerial pho-
tography analysis, and aerial photogrammetry.
1. Ordinary aerial photographs can be used by railroad engineers for:
a. Recording existing conditions for engineering studies, including the making
of right-of-way maps to scale and for checking buildings and bridge
schedules.
b. Locating building sites, industrial sites or siding locations.
2. .\erial photographic analysis utilizing aerial photographs (vertical stereo cov-
erage) and field inspection can develop the following information:
a. Mapping of engineering soils classified as to te.xture.
b. Depths to bedrock, classified as shallow (0-5 ft), medium (5-20 ft) and
deep (over 20 ft).
c. Physical classification of bedrock, including type of excavation and other
special problems.
d. Soil bearing capacities as good, fair and poor.
e. Mapping of all organic materials such as muck, peat, swamp, and marsh,
and the respective depths of each.
f. Detailed drainage map of the entire area, including subsurface drainage and
seepage zones, with special emphasis on culverts and fills.
g. Depths of glacial drift or wind-blown material classified as in "b" above.
h. Selection of specific well sites for ground water supply based on geological
conditions,
i. Mapping of areas subject to flooding and washouts.
j. Mapping of problem areas such as sinkholes (classified as buried, active
or inactive) ; slides; rock falls; potential slide and/or mass movement areas;
boulder areas; areas subject to frost heave; permafrost and muskeg; caving;
and areas of erosion,
k. Mapping of all locations of sand and gravel deposits.
1. Mapping of all deposits of common borrow.
.•\mong the foregoing the most important uses of photography by the railroad
engineer are:
594 Engineering and Valuation Records
a. Predict possible land slides and erosion.
b. Development of industrial sites, with the added advantage of secrecy.
c. Location of materials.
d. Aid in location surveys, developing not only the best routes insofar as
grades and curvature are concerned, but also as to materials, river crossings
and possible future industrial sites or mining areas.
3. Aerial photogrammetry — As there has been remarkable development in aerial
cameras, photographic material and stereoscopic plotting equipment in recent
years, photogrammetry is now established as a basic procedure in all types
of map making from small scale and generalized exploration charts to the
exceedingly detailed contour maps of construction sites. Its uses for the railroad
engineers are:
a. Survey of present right-of-way location.
b. Survey for proposed Unes.
c. Survey of proposed sites.
d. Survey of timber lands and other noncarrier properties.
Since photographic material is useful for future studies as well as for the purpose
for which it was intended, it is the recommendation of the committee that an index be
prepared of the photographic material available in the various departments of the
railroad. It is further recommended that the index be placed in the library, chief
engineer's file, or some other central location for future reference.
Committee 24 — Cooperative Relations with Universities
\V. H. Huffman,
Chairman,
W. W. Hay,
Vice Chairman,
W. S. Kerr, Secretary,
M. B. Allen
W. S. AUTREY
* Died August 28, 1958
*» Pied March 4, 1958
J. B. Babcock
George Baylor
T. A. Blair
Armstrong Chinn*
H. B. Christianson, Jr.
R. P. Davis
J. F. Davison
G. H. Echols
O. W. ESHBACH**
E. I. FlESENHEISER
R. T. FORTIN
G. V. GUERIN
C. E. R. Haight
W. E. HiLTEBEITEL
R. P. Howell
S. R. HURSH
A. V. Johnston
G. A. Kellow
Frank Kerekes
H. E. KiRBY
T. R. Klingel
N. W. Kopp
J. W. Laurent
E. C. Lawson
B. B. Lewis
¥. J. Lewis
H. S. Loeffler
R. E. LooMis
E. E. Mayo
R. W. Middleton
G. W. Miller
R. C. Nissen
L. M. Ogilvie
W. A. Olr'er
J. F. Pearce
J. E. Perry
Dr. R. B. Rick
W. T. Rice
R. W. Ripley
V. J. Roggevekn
J. A. Rust
W. C. Sadler
P. S. Settle, Jr.
H. O. Sharp
John Stang
R. J. Stone
D. W. Tilman
R. D. White
T. D. Wofford, Jr.
Committee
To the American Raihi'ay Engnieering Association.
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Stimulate greater appreciation on the part of railway managements of
(a) the importance of bringing into the service selected graduates of colleges
and universities, and
(b) the necessity for providing adequate means for recruiting such grad-
uates and of retaining them in the service by establishing suitable pro-
grams for training and advancement, and
(c) the use of the best techniques and methods for recruiting college and
university students, these to be set forth in a guide.
Progress report on (c) , presented as information pagt SQ8
2. Stimulate among college and university students a greater interest in the
science of transportation and its importance in the national economic
structure by
(a) cooperating with and contributing to the activities of student organ-
izations in colleges and universities, and
(b) presenting to students and their counselors a positive approach to the
attractive and interesting features of the railroad industry and the
advantages of choosing railroading as a career.
Progress report, presented as information page 61.^
595
596 Cooperative Relations with Universities
.^. The cooperative system of education, incUidinR summer employment in
railway service.
Progress report, presented as information page 614
4. The role of engineering technicians in the railroad field.
Final report, presented as information page 619
5. Revise the brochure "The Railroad Field — A Challenge and Opportunity."
Final report, presented as information page 621
6. Procedures for orienting and developing newly employed engineering per-
sonnel.
Progress in study, but no report.
7. Stimulate an interest by college and university staff members in current rail-
road problems and practices, including AREA membership.
Progress report, submitted as information page 6^1
The Committee on Cooperative Relations with Universities,
W. H. Huffman, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 548, January 1959.
Cooperative Relations wi th Universities 507
MEMOIR
glrmsftrong Cljinn
Armstrong Chinn, president of the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis,
passed away at Barnes Hospital, St. Louis, August 28, 1958, following surgery.
Mr. Chinn was born in Dallas, Tex. on September 26, 1894, and received his
technical education at Virginia Polytechnic Institute where he earned a B.S. degree in
C.E. in 1915 and a C.E. degree in 1916.
Subsequent to his graduation from V.P.I, in June 1916, he was employed by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, and after serving with the Armed Forces in
France during World War I, rose rapidly to the position of district engineer, main-
tenance of way in 1927. Two years later he became chief engineer of the Alton (now
part of the GM&O) advancing to general manager in 1943, and to chief executive
officer in 1945, the position he held at the time of his election in 1946 to the presidency
of the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis.
Mr. Chinn joined the American Railway Engineering Association in 1920, and was
very active in committee work, giving generously of his time to Committees 4, 5, 11,
13, 22, and 24 over the years. He was elected a member of the Board of Direction
of the Association in 1940 and was President in 1947-1948.
Mr. Chinn achieved outstanding success as a railroad executive, and enjoyed an
excellent reputation for his broad experience sound judgment, and administrative abil-
ity. Members of Committee 24 sincerely regret his untimely passing and will miss
pleasant and friendly association with him. He leaves behind a great circle of friends
and associates who feel deeply the loss in his passing.
A more complete memoir on Mr. Chinn appeared in the November 1958 Bulletin,
No. 546.
598
Cooperative Relations with Universities
Report on Assignment 1
Stimulate Greater Appreciation on the Part of Railway
Managements of
(a) the importance of bringing into the service selected graduates
of colleges and universities, and
(b) the necessity for providing adequate means for recruiting such
graduates and of retaining them in the service by establishing
suitable programs for training and advancement
(c) the use of the best techniques and methods for recruiting college
and university students, these to be set forth in a guide
J. F. Davison (chairman, subcommittee), R. T. Fortin, C. E. R. Haight, W. W. Hay,
W. E. Hiltebeitel, R. P. Howell, W. H. Huffman, S. R. Hursh, Frank Kerekes,
F. J. Lewis, R. W. Middleton, W. A. Oliver, J. F. Pearce, W. T. Rice, R. W.
Ripley, V. J. Roggeveen, P. S. Settle, Jr.
Under Assignment 1 (c), your committee presents as information the following
Student Recruiting Guide — Recommended Techniques to be Used by the Railroads in
Recruiting College and University Students, with the expectation of making it available
in reprint form at a later date.
STUDENT RECRUITING GUIDE
Recommended Techniques to Be Used by the
Railroads in Recruiting College
and University Students
Prepared by the
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
Committee on Cooperative Relations with Universities
59 East Van Buren Street
Chicago 5, Illinois
599
CONTENTS
A. Organization and General Procedure for Conducting a Recruiting Pro-
gram
B. Selecting the Interviewer
C. Training the Interviewer
D. Training in Standard Interview Procedure
E. Methods to Be Used in Selecting Acceptable Candidates
F. Company Policies Which Produce the Most Satisfactory Climate for
Engineering Employment
Appendix:
Exhibits i and 2 — ^^Typical Interview Appraisal Forms
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the preparation of this Guide, the publication of the National So-
ciety of Professional Engineers entitled "Criteria for Professional Employ-
ment of Engineers", and the "Code of Recruiting Practices and Procedures"
of the American Society for Engineering Education, prepared with the coop-
eration of the Midwest College Placement Association, were of valuable
assistance, which is hereby gratefully acknowledged.
600
STUDENT RECRUITING GUIDE
Recommended Techniques to Be Used by the
Railroads in Recruiting College
and University Students
A. ORGANIZATION AND GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR
CONDUCTING A RECRUITING PROGRAM
1. To avoid several different departments making separate arrange-
ments with the same universities, a recruiting coordinator should be desig-
nated, who should have as advisers senior officers representing each inter-
ested department. Top-level understanding and support are essential to
successful recruiting.
2. The recruiting coordinator should be given responsibility to coor-
dinate all university recruiting (for non-engineers as well as engineers).
While there are advantages in having engineers recruit engineering grad-
uates, a good administrator is required whether an engineer or a non-
engineer.
3. The recruiting coordinator should be given assistance (through a
committee) by a senior officer of each department employing university
graduates.
4. All departments should advise the recruiting coordinator of their
needs for university personnel (graduates, undergraduates for summer em-
ployment, cooperative students).
5. In conjunction with departmental advisers the recruiting coordina-
tor should decide which universities will be contacted.
6. The recruiting coordinator should contact the selected universities,
explain the method proposed for recruiting, space requirements, etc., and
request suitable interview dates and scheduling arrangements. Most univer-
sities have a well organized placement office which will cooperate in making
these arrangements, but it should be borne in mind that only a limited num-
ber of companies can interview on campus at a given time and notification
well in advance is usually required. Many companies make their arrange-
ments one year in advance (next year's schedule arranged during current
year's recruiting).
7. The coordinator should inform the placement office concerning the
broad categories of employment available, and the college degrees and other
requirements for each. The submissions should be checked each year to
ensure that the information supplied represents current requirements.
601
602 Cooperative Relations with Universities
8. The coordinator should make personal contact with the placement
officer at least once each year. If this is impracticable, no more than 50
percent of these contacts should be delegated to an associate. A knowledge
of the placement office operation at individual universities can convert an
annual "one-shot" recruiting operation into a year-around activity, as some
students graduate at the end of each semester and frequently alumni use the
university placement service to effect a change of employers.
9. Attractive company literature should be prepared for distribution
to the students. In addition to outlining employment opportunities (avoid-
ing overselling) such literature should state clearly any requirements of
employment, such as medical examinations, union affiliations which may
affect the student, etc.
10. Literature should be sent to the placement office for distribution.
In certain instances arrangements can be made to obtain the addresses of
the graduating class, thus permitting a direct mail contact which is usually
more effective (see Sec. A, Para. 8 above). Contact may also be possible
through interested faculty members or students' clubs and other organ-
izations.
11. By special arrangement with placement offices or through previous
personal contact with students, some element of pre-selection may be
achieved through:
(a) sending employment specifications to placement offices;
(b) posting company bulletins;
(c) correspondence with seniors;
(d) maintaining contacts with deans and professors of civil, elec-
trical and mechanical engineering schools;
(e) providing summer employment for undergraduates.
12. Carefully select the interviewers (see Sec. B). Where suitable in-
terviewers are available from participating departments, they should be
used and given authority to make immediate job offers. Where non-
departmental interviewers are used (such as Personnel Department special-
ists) promising prospects should be referred to the department concerned,
but when this is done the student should be advised of the outcome within
two weeks.
13. The interviewers should be punctual. He should tell the placement
office when he will arrive, and he should arrive no later than the designated
time.
14. No more than two interviewers and preferably only one, represent-
ing the employing department should appear for each interview scheduled.
Arrangements for more than two interviewers should be made well in ad-
Cooperative Relations with Universities 603
vance, and only for reasons w^hich are considered adequate by the placement
office.
15. An interviewer who desires to contact a particular individual at
the time of his interview visit should write that individual at least two
weeks in advance, with a copy to the placement office.
16. The interviewer should not offer a student special payments, gifts,
bonuses, or other inducements, nor should he compensate or favor a third
party to prevail upon the student to accept a particular employment offer.
17. After a student has declined a job offer, the interviewer should
renew his proposal only through the placement office. The employer is
thereby prevented from annoying students who have accepted employment
elsewhere.
18. The employer should invariably engage every student who has ac-
cepted the interviewer's offer. If the interviewer cannot commit his com-
pany, the additional screening requirements should be thoroughly explained
to the candidate (see Sec. E, Para, (e)
19. If the interviewer's organization is unionized, or the department for
which the student is to be engaged is unionized, the interviewer should tell
the student if he will or will not have to join a union. Furthermore, the
interviewer should give the student complete and detailed information as
to how the union will affect his status if employment is accepted.
20. When both a parent corporation and subsidiary or affiliated cor-
porations conduct interviews in the same college, the respective interviewers
should clearly explain their missions and their connections, both to the
placement office and to the students. Interviewers should make clear where,
and by which unit or division or subsidiary corporation, the students are
to be engaged.
21. Interviewers should very carefully follow the interview schedule
agreed upon with the placement office. They should not detain any student
beyond the specified time.
22. The interviewer should not hurry a student into making a decision
concerning employment.
23. Much of the value of recruiting effort is lost unless a company
returns j^ear after year to the same colleges, thereby establishing their name
with the faculty and through them the students. Use of university place-
ment facilities implies a continuing responsibility toward the university. As
a matter of courtesy, the University should be advised of all job offers to
candidates interviewed on their premises, a copy of the letter written to the
candidate usually being sufficient.
604 Cooperative Relations with Universities
B. SELECTING THE INTERVIEWER
There is a tendency to select interviewers who are alumni of the col-
leges concerned, and who are as near the student's age as possible, which is
acceptable, providing the interviewer:
(a) has a thorough knowledge of the company and its policies;
(b) has a thorough knowledge of interview procedure;
(c) can exercise forbearance while retaining control of the interview;
(d) has the ability to recognize the stigmata of various disabilities
(advice should be obtained from company medical officer) ;
(e) knows the working conditions of the positions offered;
(f) has the ability to project his own interest in the company;
(g) does not "over-sell" or distort actual conditions;
(h) can convey that conditions are constantly changing without
creating impression that he is insincere.
C. TRAINING THE INTERVIEWER
For some individuals selected as interviewers, little advance training
is required, but no matter how perceptive the interviewer, familiarity and
practice are essential if a conclusion is to be reached within the required
time (20-30 min). Practice in the peculiarities of university recruiting can
be obtained only through actual participation, but familiarity with some
of the broader problems of interview contacts can be obtained by:
(a) a few days experience in company employment offices interview-
ing applicants for all types of jobs;
(b) consultation with company employment office supervisors;
(c) consultation with student counselors at universities offering such
services to students;
(d) observing techniques used by radio and television interviewers;
(e) attending courses in personnel practices offered by adult educa-
tion organizations;
(f) obtaining professional instruction from specialized management
consultants.
D. TRAINING IN STANDARD INTERVIEW PROCEDURE
The principle of the standard interview is that the candidate's past
history provides the best available measure of his future performance. When
the candidate has had previous working experience, his reactions to the
problems faced provide a basis for his evaluation, but in most cases univer-
sity students being interviewed must be judged on the basis of their academic
achievement, hobbies, sports activities, participation in student's activities,
Cooperative Relations with Universities 60S
etc. A suitable application form should be devised which will elicit a skeleton
of information from the candidate and thus provide a basis upon which the
interview can develop. To standardize this step, many colleges insist on
using the "College Interview Form." If the use of your own form is per-
mitted, make sure that it can be completed by the candidate within 5 min
and that questions not pertinent to the interview are excluded.
The following paragraphs (a) to (h). incl., are a guide to the informa-
tion which should be obtained during a 20- to 30-min interview. The order
in which paragraphs (c) to (h), incl., are presented does not indicate their
relative importance, but may provide a guide to the order in which the
interview might be expected to progress.
(a) The interviewer should introduce himself, welcome the candidate
and offer a chair. A table need not separate candidate and inter-
viewer but does provide a more businesslike atmosphere.
(b) From information on the interview form the interviewer must
find some field on which the candidate is willing to discourse
freely. This is a necessary prelude to more detailed and some-
times personal discussion.
(c) Develop previous work history:
1. Previous jobs and their responsibilities.
2. Any jobs he didn't like and why.
3. Did he leave any jobs; if so, determine reasons (dissatisfac-
tion, pay, working conditions, friction, temper, etc.).
4. Does work experience indicate adaptability, inflexibility or is
he a floater.
(d) Develop personal history regarding maturity:
I. Work after school, etc. (sense of responsibility).
2. Amount of family guidance or domination accepted.
3. Lived or worked away from home.
4. Reason for applying for interview.
(e) Develop personal history items regarding sociability:
1. Participation in community or student organizations.
2. Participation in group sports or recreation.
3. Interested in people as individuals.
4. Ability to get along with others (friendly, sense of humor,
etc.).
(f) Develop personal history regarding leadership:
1. Any elected office in student or community affairs.
2. Prefer elected office of secretary, in preference to president.
3. If leadership offered would he dominate or inspire by example.
606 Cooperative Relations with Universities
(g) Develop personal history items regarding manner and appear-
ance:
1. Mannerisms (use of hands, facial expressions, etc.).
2. General appearance (dress, cleanliness, etc.).
3. Cultural background (parent's occupation and interests).
4. Voice and speech (irritating, high pitched, resonant, etc.).
5. Physical qualifications (any disabilities?).
6. Emotional stability (nervous, high-strung),
7. Aggressiveness, self confidence (forceful speech, positive man-
ner, conversational initiative).
Note: Self confidence is usually reflected by poise, objectivity
and competence, and should be distinguished from over-
confidence w^hich is reflected by overstatement, bluffing,
etc.
(h) Develop personal history regarding emotional stability:
1. Home conditions (parental relationships, privations, etc.).
2. Adolescence (sports activities, etc., or lack of outlets for
energy).
3. Recreational activities satisfactory for balanced life.
E. METHODS TO BE USED IN SELECTING
ACCEPTABLE CANDIDATES
(a) In general, the employer v^^ishes to determine:
(i) the level of aptitude;
(2) general proficiency;
(3) personality.
(b) The screening process may combine one or more of the following
steps:
(i) The initial interview at the university at which a reasonably
skilled interviewer can form a judgment of general proficiency
and personality. For some positions, successful completion of
academic studies is sufficient indication of their level of aptitude,
but some positions may require further screening. In some in-
stances, the universities will release the class standing of indi-
viduals in whom companies show a particular interest.
(2) A second interview (usually confined to individuals applying
for positions requiring special skills), which may take the form
of an off-campus interview with a senior officer of the employ-
ing department, or which may take the form of pencil and paper
tests conducted either on or off campus. In the latter case, spe-
cialists should be used both to select the tests and to interpret
Cooperative Relations with Univ^ersities 607
the results. Large organizations may have suitable specialists
employed in their personnel departments, failing which numer-
ous management companies are available which offer these serv-
ices to the public. The recruiting coordinator can usually ob-
tain guidance in this matter from any university which main-
tains a students counseling service.
(3) A plant visit. While this is frequently regarded as a device for
"selling" the company, to a skilled observer it provides an oppor-
tunity to determine the recruit's reaction to actual employment
conditions.
(c) For the purpose of this guide, it is assumed that railway repre-
sentatives conducting interviews will use standard interview procedure for
the initial interview (all pencil and paper tests being conducted by spe-
cialists) in which case all that is required is an evaluating form and some
training in its use. Typical evaluation forms are presented herewith as
Exhibits i and 2 (See Appendix).
(d) The evaluation form should not be filled out in the presence of
the candidate but the interviewer should reach a conclusion regarding each
factor and record his findings immediately upon concluding the interview.
(e) A copy of the evaluation form should be forwarded to the employ-
ing department for validation in the event a job offer is made, or for selec-
tion (or further interview) in the event no job offer is made.
F. COMPANY POLICIES WHICH PRODUCE THE MOST SATIS-
FACTORY CLIMATE FOR ENGINEERING EMPLOYMENT
I' Recruiting
(a) Prior to exploring outside sources for candidates for higher posi-
tions, presently employed engineers should be evaluated and screened as
potentially qualified candidates.
(b) Advertisements and announcements should state company name,
realistic educational and experience requirements, duties of position and
approximate level of remuneration.
(c) When interviewing prospective employees, a full and accurate de-
scription should be given of the type and scope of work, monetary benefits
(including fringe benefits), training programs, opportunity for advancement,
reason vacancy is being filled, anticipated duration of position, and a descrip-
tion of the engineering organization.
2. Inndoctrination
Some indoctrination is required, the period varying with the type and
level of position being filled. It should cover the nature of the business.
608 Cooperative Relations with Universities
introduction to company or department leaders and associates, organiza-
tional structure, company policies, professional responsibilities in matters
of ethics, registration and membership in professional and technical engi-
neering societies.
3. Technical Development
Additional training should be encouraged in order to broaden the tech-
nical qualifications of the engineer. The company should promote the fullest
use of available courses by its engineering staff and should provide incen-
tives as extensive as possible.
4. Administrative Development
As part of the company team, the engineer should be generally familiar
with the business aspects of the company, and where he shows an inclina-
tion and aptitude to move into the administrative side of company opera-
tions he should be given appropriate opportunities. Good communication
between management and the engineer is essential.
5. Professional Development
The company should provide a climate in which the engineer is recog-
nized as a professional man and should provide inducements for his assump-
tion of full professional responsibility. Registration should be encouraged
and time off provided for refresher courses prior to examinations.
6. Personality Development
Periodic progress reports on individual accomplishments (or failures)
should be provided. Social and civic activities should be encouraged.
7. Company Practices
(a) Working conditions. Clerical and semi- technical assistance should
be provided. Suitable office accommodations and equipment should be sup-
lied. While most engineers do not require private offices, their work demands
a minimum of congestion and noise.
(b) Salaries should be paid monthly (or semi-monthly), and not on
an hourly basis. Salary structure should be comparable with other industry
and community rates for similar positions.
(c) Personnel administration for engineers should be separate from gen-
eral personnel administration and should be in keeping with professional
principles.
(d) Engineering titles should be granted to those who are qualified as
engineers and who are doing engineering work, and to no others.
(e) Termination interview procedure should determine reasons for
leaving employment so that reasons not the fault of the engineer may be
eliminated. If an engineer cannot be retained, the employer should do
nothing to impede his transfer to other employment.
Cooperative Relations with Universities
600
APPENDK
NAME (Sumeune first) AGE.
EXHIBIT 1
Pa/-,a 1
ii:iv"-i.-snY - COURSE &. year
" A "
"A"
App-
lies
Cend- •
3ncy
to"A"
Iver-
age
Cend-
sncy
to"B"
"B"
App-
lies
"B"
1. APPEA-AISE AND BZ.iHIIG
Erect; alert; self-assured; v/all
groomed; neatly dressed.
Awkv;ard; diffident, sloppy and
untidy; listless; slouches
2. AiBITIOIB;
Ambiticus along v;ell defined
lines indicating maturity; not
on;y vfants to get ahead but to
develop as a person; wants to
make a contribution as v;ell as
1 0 be rewarded -
Ambitions axe shallow and vague;
show lack of vision £ind maturityj
his aims are self -centered; he
expects too rapid advancement; he
IS only interested m initial
salary; impresses .-iS opportunist.
3- DTTinZS IS;
His interests are v;ell deYcloped
and are not confined to his im-
mediate occupational or educa-
tional environnent; they should
broaden his perspective: they
suggest maturity for his years.
His interests are few and seem
shallow they are not to his
credit considering his a^e and
opporfrmities.
4. FACILITY AND EXPRSSSIuK:
His diction and enunciaxion are
good, his voice is pleasant and
persuasive: he is able to
organize hl-S thoughts-
It is difficult to get him into
conversation; his diction is
p^or: his '.hoioe of v;ords is
limited; he l.as an uninterest-
ing voice .
5. PEr3c:«arfY.
He Impresses as being of a v;arm
and friendly nature: his outside
interests s-aggest he gets along
well v;lth others; he has an easy,
friendly, yet sincere manner;
his behaviour In interview and
phrasing of answera show tact;
he puts himself in the other
man's shoes -
He seems to lack friendliness;
his approach in being interview-
ed is mechanical and insincere;
his outside activities suggest
he may lack the ability to get
along With others; he appears
taciturn and backward: his
answers to questions show lack
of tact and little resard for
the feelings of others.
6. C0NS0E;,TI^-J3:3SS A:.T) Hv'TiiGRIT
He is straightf or.'/ard and frank
in his answers to questions ; he
can be relied upon to carry out
assignments; he would resp:ot
confidences; would hcno-or agree-
ments and keep his v;ord.
Y:
He is evasive in ansvrers to
questions; there is evidence
he is a slacker; could not be
relied upon to carry out assign-
ments; would be indiscreet in
regard to confidences?.
7. DRm: AlO) DE~.a:E;ATION;
His educational pr;gres3 and
other achievements suggest he is
persistent and can follow througt
he has not alia/zed handicaps or
difficult conditions to prevent
him from achieving his goal
He frequently starts new pro-
jects., particularly interesting
ones, but rarely sees them
tlirough: he has, made poor use
of opportunities:
8. INTELLSC^TJAL ^JALITES;
He is quick to separate the
wheat fron the chaff; he is
(juick to comprehend the meaning
of questions, his interests
suggest intellectual curiosity
and a qiestioning mind; his
academic record is good; he
reasons on a sound logical basis
and has a sense of proporticn-
His attitude is poor; he bases
his judgments on irrelevant and
immature considerations ~ they
disrt\3ard soind logic or the
facts; he lacks intellectual
curiosity; he is prepared to
accept his environment as is;
his interests are escapist and
recreationed only; he lacks
resourcefulness ■
610 Cooperative Relations with Universities
EXHIBIT 1
Page £
AZ£SAi£^-L SUMMARY
1. AT WHAT PIACES WILL APPLICAMT_AC:CKPT aiPLOYMEHT:
(a) Hone tovm onlyV 'b) Out of towuj although reluctantly, or (o) i^uite prepared to go
anywhere ... , . , .. . . ,.
2. IS APPLICANT PREPARED TO TRAVEL:
"(ay"Will not accept any travel" (b) Not too fond of travelling but does not mind occasional
trip, or (c) Likes travelling and v/ould look torviari to frequent trips ,,,,.„....,..,,,
3. ACADEMIC ST^UOIiG:
la) This applicant stood t. out of class of ...,,.....•.■..,. students in his
final examinations in his last complete academic year.
(b) This applicant stooi. . . . -c.c . c .».- ^k cut of class of .................. .students in his
latest examinations in his current school year*
4. S'moroEST..AMDJg/UgSTj;HARAqTOlRB^^^
(a) Vfhat segms to be the outstanding quality about this applicant? (e.g-., his academic standing,
achievements, personality, ability to express himself, ambition and drive, character and
integrity)
(b) What personal quality or characteristic is he least impressive in? (Even though you feel
this may not pxer. lude empl oyment} ,.,.., ^ .,,. ^ .. ........................................... .
5. GMggALj_
Hi'ite a brief -iumnaiy of gtudent'? qualifications, considering, (a) his potentialities,
(b) his real occupational interes-^s, (o) hie ability to adapt to different types of work
and working conditjoru;, and id; the decree of ambition and drive he possesses- Try to
indicate whi-.h xype of asaignments he is best suited to, e^g», research, design, inside-
adminlstratiie, f leid-administrative, operating - supervisory positions, etCc ...,..,..,
6. DID STUDENT SEEM PCBITIVELY INTERESTED IK RAILWAY EMPLOYMENT; 0...0. ..,.-. .0
7o WAS A DEFPIITE OFFER MADE TO STUDENT; ,.........,....,,,..„,. .DTD HB ACCEPT? . , .
8. ir NO OFFER WAS MADE WOULD YOU HEOOMMEND FURTHER CONSIDEHATION~'bE fllVEH STJDENT:
DATE: CO.... .TNTEETIEWER".
TO BE C(MPl£Tm lAvMH^'^p^yEmt
Date confirming offer sent ...
Result of final consideration
Cooperative Relations with Universities
611
APPENDIX
lllL £ h.L. Af fSAiSAL FORM
UNDERGRADUATE, GRADUATE^ AND PROFESSIoiai, APPLICANTS
EXHIBIT 2
Page 1
Appraisal of
Appraised for
( Sumaine )
(First Name)
(Position and Location)
J^y_
(Middle Name)
(Print name)
1. Personal Adjustment
Self-oonf idenoe
passive, lacking in self-
confidence, over-dependent
self-assured, assertive,
a liking for people
/^/ appears > brow-boa ten- overly aggressive /_3^
Snorional maturity
1 2 3 4 5 6 ? 8 9 10
aniious, tense, irresponsible,
irritable, hypersensitive
/ / trying too hard to please
2t Social Adjustnenr
family
overly-dependent on family, or
hostile to family help and guidance
persevering, determined,
stable, anxiety-free, able
to accept responsibility
too rigid /~^/
developing healthy
independence from family
1,0
8
balanced, active campus life
realistic, puiposefil,
'learn by doing'
3. Interest m Railroading
Bnployment
all v/ork, no play,- or
all play, no work, etCt
spasmodic, distasteful,
*only because I have to'
10
none, casual, uninformed,
opportunistic J unrealistic;
but willing and anxious to
/ "/ learn
4o Fitness for a Railroad Career
informed, long-standing,
realisti",
hut 'knovis all the
answers' /"*/
should be a stable,
productive employee
even if uninspired and
/~"/ uninspiring
probably will not adjust,
may quit after short period
but might become
outstanding if we / /
can hold him
612 Cooperative Relations with Universities
EXHLdIT 2
5. Academic Standijjg Page 2
/""/Top Third / / Middle Third f^/ Bottom Third
Hfhat type of assignment v;ould the applicant be best suited to? (More than one
may apply)
r~l research f^ inside-administrative f~ / operating-supervisory
r~/ design r~l field-administrative /""/ staff (advisory)
Other (specify) -"
'*hat prompted this applicant to apply to this company (More than one may apply)
j — I member of Immediate family ^— . university recruitment
—^ a oomoanv emnlovee.. '— /
a company employee.. '— ' programme.
O close friend a company employee- > — •, application solicited by a
'—J company employee.
/~~/ surveying the field, shopping /""/ response to an advertisement
r~/ other (specify)
If this applicant is not to be considered for employment, state exact reason(s)
as concisely as possible
AOOITIOUU. COMMENT:
Cooperative Relations with Universities 613
Report on Assignment 2
Stimulate Among College and University Students a Greater
Interest in the Science of Transportation and Its Importance
in the National Economic Structure, by Cooperating with
and Contributing to the Activities of Student Organ-
izations in Colleges and Universities
B. B. Lewis (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Huffman, W. W. Hay, R. P. Davis,
G. H. Echols, T. R. Klingel, H. S. Loeffier, G. W. Miller, J. F. Pearce, J. E. Perry,
R. B. Rice, W. T. Rice, J. A. Rust, H. O. Sharp, John Stang, R. D. White,
P. S. Settle, Jr.
The activities of your committee on this assignment are indicated by the following
excerpts from letters of committee members:
H. B. Cltristianson, Jr., assistant chief engineer, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
Railroad spoke at an engineering lecture at the University of Illinois.
R. P. Davis, College of Engineering, West Virginia University talked with many
individual students about the future open to engineering graduates in the railroad field.
G. H. Echols, chief engineer, Southern Railway System: "On May 6, 1958, we
entertained the senior civil engineering class at the Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, Ga., beginning at 8 am, with a meeting in the Assembly Room of the Southern
Railway Building in Atlanta. Here we attempted to interest the seniors in adopting
railroading as a career. For this purpose we exhibited several films showing our new
yards in operation, mechanized timbering and surfacing gangs, and much of the
mechanized equipment being used in our bridge work. In cases where the films had no
sound track, a running commentary was made in explanation of the various machines
and the reasons for their use. At the conclusion, a long period of question and answers
was held."
W. W. Hay, professor of railway civil engineering. University of Illinois: "H. B.
Christianson, assistant chief engineer of the Rock Island Railroad, spoke on the subject
'Engineers and the Railroads.' J. C. Jacobs, engineer maintenance of way, Illinois
Central Railroad gave an interesting address and showed a film on continuous welded
rail."
W. E. Hiltebeitel, supervisor methods and cost control, Pennsylvania Railroad has
been in contact with two student groups during the past year.
Frank Kerekes, Michigan College of Mining and Technology, gave two lectures to
college students.
W. S. Kerr, Northwestern University, had eight meetings with student groups and
gave two speeches.
W. Thomas Rice, president and director, Atlantic Coast Line Railroad spoke to a
student group at the University of Florida and a student assembly at Jacksonville Uni-
versity, Jacksonville, Fla. "My topic for discussion on such occasions deals primarily
with the railroad industry and the part played by the young college graduate in this
field."
H. 0. Sharp, professor geodesy and road engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
tute taught a course in transportation engineering during the second term and devoted
several days to railroad engineering.
R. J. Stone, vice president operations, St. Louis-San Francisco Railway: "During
the fall and spring of each year, five members of our engineering department interview
614 Cooperative Relations with Universities
senior engineering students in 20 midwest colleges and universities, explaining what the
engineer can expect in the railroad field. Also, these people have assisted in presenting
programs to student chapters, ASCE, using films obtained from the AREA explaining
track construction and maintenance techniques. These programs have been well received."
B. B. Lewis, professor of railway engineering, Purdue University, taught a class
of 25 in railway engineering. This group visited rail facilities in Lafayette, Ind.
T. D. Wofford, Jr., engineer of design, Illinois Central Railroad: "J. C. Jacobs,
our engineer maintenance of way, addressed the Student Chapter of the American
Society of Civil Engineers at the University of Illinois on May 7, 1958, and showed a
film on the welding of continuous rail. A. L. Sams, principal assistant engineer, addressed
the Student Chapter at Purdue University this year, also."
W. M. Jaekle, chief engineer. Southern Pacific Company gave illustrated talks on
heavy railroad construction projects on the Southern Pacific before student groups
both at the University of Illinois and Stanford University.
Several civil engineering students from nearby schools were guests of Committee 24
and the AREA at the annual banquet in March 1958, and were escorted through the
NRAA Exhibit at the Coliseum.
During the year 1958, the slide sets developed by Committee 24, depicting railway
construction and maintenance operations, were loaned to various railroads and schools
a total of 16 times.
Report on Assignment 3
The Cooperative System of Education, Including Summer
Employment in Railway Service
E. I. Fiesenheiser (chairman, subcommittee), J. B. Babcock, G. Baylor, R. T. Fortin,
G. V. Guerin, W. W. Hay, W. H. Huffman, J. W. Laurent, R. E. Loomis, F. J.
Lewis, E. E. Mayo, R. C. Nissen, R. B. Rice, J. Stang, R. J. Stone, T. D.
Wofford, Jr.
In March 1958, questionnaires were mailed to both railroads and engineering col-
leges throughout the United States in a survey to determine: (1) the extent of coop-
erative work-study programs now in effect as a joint educational effort of industry
and universities; (2) to determine some facts regarding the railroad industry's present
support of higher education; and (3) specifically, the supply and demand with regard
to railroad jobs available to students during the summer of 1958.
The enthusiastic response to the survey by many railroads and colleges is evidence
of the sincere desire for cooperation along some lines. In processing the data concerning
1958 summer jobs, the subcommittee found itself acting as an information clearing-
house for employment information. The deadline date set for return of the question-
naires was April I5th. Data concerning summer jobs available were immediately tabu-
lated and distributed to the engineering colleges on May Sth. As a result, many students
obtained their first introduction to railroad work and, no doubt, some of them have
become prospective future employees. Unfortunately, replies from some of the railroads
were delayed and could not be included in the report to the college students.
Replies from some railroads indicated that, because of the currently existing business
situation, it would not be possible to employ summer student help during 1958, even
though such help was ordinarily needed. Also many applications were received in rail-
road offices remote from the student's home. In the future, it will be suggested that
students apply for positions near their home localities, if work is available there.
Following is a surnmary of replies of the questionnaire sent to both railroads and
Cooperative Relations with Universities 61S
engineering college and universities, and a copy of the report made to college and
university students, through their respective institutions, regarding summer employment
opportunities for engineering students on the railroads.
Replies from Railroads
1. Are engineering college students ordinarily desired for summer work?
Thirty-one railroads answered affirmatively.
2. How many are needed during the summer of 1958?
A total of 137 jobs available was reported. Rephes were also received as to type
of work available and location. Information was also supplied as to responsible rail-
road officials to be contacted by applicants.
3. Salary range.
Salaries offered ranged from $325 to $450 per month. The higher salaries were offered
to applicants having previous railroad experience. Specific salary data were given
under "job information" in the report to students.
4. Other advantages of summer positions.
Among those listed were: expenses paid away from headquarters, commutation passes
furnished, and seniority during the time spent in college.
5. Describe any other student assistance program, in effect or planned.
Of the railroads replying, 13 stated their support of cooperative educational programs
at universities.
Replies from Engineering Colleges and Universities
1. Are cooperative work-study programs maintained at the college?
Of those replying, 38 stated that such are maintained. Practically all engineering
fields are represented.
2A and 2B. Do railroads assist in sponsoring these programs, and what railroads?'
From the replies received, 26 different railroads were listed as sponsoring these pro-
grams.
2C. What total number of students are enrolled in railroad-sponsored cooperative pro-
grams?
From the replies, a total of 160. .
2D. What railroads pay the student's first year's tuition?
Eight railroads.
2E. What railroads assist the student financially, and to what extent, in addition to
providing work opportunities?
One railroad provides 3 four-year scholarships. Two provide one scholarship each.
One railroad maintains scholarships for employees or for their sons.
3. What railroads maintain graduate felloivships at the college, and to what extent?
No graduate fellowships were listed as provided by any of the railroads.
4. Concerning students wanting summer railroad work:
The preliminary tabulation indicated 810 engineering students wanting summer rail-
road employment during 1958. These were in the categories of chemical, electrical,
616
Cooperative Relations with Universities
civil, industrial, mechanical, metallurgical, and general engineering. As compared to
the 127 jobs listed as available, the supply exceeded the demand by about 540
per cent.
Report to College and University Students, May 5, 1958, on Summer Raxlroad
Work Opportunities for Engineering Students
(Salary data have been deleted, but such information was included
in the original report.)
Recently a questionnaire was sent to various railroads to determine their need of
engineering student help this summer. It was discovered that there is a considerable
demand. If you are an engineering student wanting that all-important summer job,
this is your opportunity to work for a railroad. You will not only earn some money
but will gain valuable work experience and will learn something about railroad opera-
tion. You should write at once to one of the officials designated in the tabulation which
follows, in which the railroads needing help are listed alphabetically. If you are suc-
cessful in obtaining a summer job you should find the work both interesting and
profitable.
This information is supplied as a service to university students and railroads by a
subcommittee of the American Railway Engineering Association Committee 24 — Coop-
erative Relations with Universities.
Railroad and Name and Address of Official Job Information
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Civil Engineering Students:
Mr. C. R. Riley, Chief Engineer Maintenance 6 to 8 3rd-year men needed.
B & O Building Work consists of string-lining
Baltimore and Charles St. curves and miscellaneous field
Baltimore 1, Maryland work. Expenses are paid while
Phone: Lexington 9-0400, Ext. 640 away from headquarters.
Bangor and Aroostook Railroad Co.
Mr. P. H. Swales, Chief Engineer
Bangor and Aroostook Railroad Co.
Houlton, Maine
Phone: Houlton 2213
.3 Civils needed (any year).
Work in Houlton, Maine. New
track layout, general surveying,
general office work.
Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad Co.
Mr. I. A. Moore, Chief Engineer
Chicago and Eastern Illinois R. R. Co.
Danville, Illinois
Phone: 4922, Ext. 62
. 2 Civils needed (any year)
General engineering maintenance
and construction. Expenses paid
away from headquarters.
Chicago and North Western Railway
Mr. W. H. Huffman, Assistant Chief Engineer
Chicago and North Western Ry.
400 W. Madison Street, Chicago
Phone: DE 2-2121
Civils needed (2 second and 3
3rd-year men). Surveying, draft-
ing, field work, at various divi-
sion headquarters. Expenses paid
if away from headquarters.
Cooperative Relations with Universities
617
Railroad and Name and Address of Official Job Injormation
Denver & Rio Grande Western Civils: 2 third and 1 4th-year
Mr. E. B. Herdman, Director of Personnel man;
1531 Stout Street Industrials: 1 3rd and 1 4th-
Denver, Colorado year;
Phone: AC 2-5533, Ext. 345 General: 3 3rd and 1 4th-year
man. Various locations Col. and
Utah. Track and bridge-buildinj;
gangs.
Detroit, Toleda and Ironton Railroad Co Normally 2 to 4 Civils employed
Mr. C. L. Towle, Chief Engineer Field survey crew in Michigan
4921 Calhoun Street or in Ohio. Rodman, instrument
Dearborn, Michigan man, or engineering draftsman.
Phone: LU 4-9000, Ext. 281 Expenses paid away from head-
quarters.
Illinois Central Railroad
Mr. A. L. Sams, Principal Assistant Engineer
135 East 11th Place
Chicago, Illinois
. Civils: 21 needed (5 Ist-year,
8 2nd-year, and 8 3rd-year
men).
Electricals: 4 3rd-year men.
Work in Chicago, Champaign,
Clinton, and Carbondale, 111.;
Waterloo, Iowa; Jackson and
Memphis, Tennessee; Jackson &
Vicksburg, Miss.; New Orleans,
La.; and Paducah, Ky. Field and
office work in Bridge, Building,
Signal, Communication, Elec-
trical, Maintenance Departments.
Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad Line
Mr. T. S. Carter, Chief Engineer
Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad Line
701 Commerce Street
Dallas 2, Texas
Phone: RI 7-0311
Civils: 5 needed (1 Ist-year, 3
2nd-year, 1 3rd-year man).
Mechanical: 1 3rd-year man.
Work in Dallas, Texas and
vicinity. Survey work.
Reading Company
Mr. Harry F. Smith, Chief Engineer
Reading Terminal
Philadelphia 7, Pa.
Phone: Walnut 2-6100, Ext. 317
Civils: 2 2nd-year men desired.
Field work, such as surveying,
in vicinity of Reading & Phila-
delphia. Commutation pa.ss fur-
nished.
Northwestern Pacific Railroad Company
Mr. C. E. Neal, Division Engineer
San Rafael, California
Phone: Glenwood 4-9100, Ext. 3,2
Specific work opportunities aic
unknown at this time. However,
inquiries are invited.
618
Cooperative Relations with Universities
Railroad and Name and Address of Official Job Information
Southern Pacific Company Normally about 10 new men
Mr. W. M. Jaekle, Chief Engineer are employed each year, prefer-
65 Market Street ably first or second-year stu-
San Francisco, California dents. Work out of San Fran-
Phone: DO 2-1212, Ext. 21178 cisco, Oakland, Sacramento, or
Dunsmuir, California; Portland,
Oregon; Ogden, Utah; Bakers-
field or Los Angeles, Cal.; Tuc-
son, Arizona; or El Paso, Texas.
Texas and New Orleans Railroad Company
Mr. L. A. Loggins, Chief Engineer
Texas and New Orleans Railroad Company
913 Franklin Avenue
Houston, Texas
Phone: CA 2-1121, Ext. 320
Civils: 7 needed, with 2 or more
years of training in college.
Mechanicals: 7 needed, with 2
or more years of college train-
ing. Work out of various cities
in both Texas and Louisiana.
General engineering work and in
civil engineering. Personal ex-
pense account when away from
headquarters.
The Western Pacific Railroad Company
Mr. J. F. Pearce, Office Engineer
The Western Pacific Railroad Company
526 Mission Street
San Francisco 5, California
Phone: Yukon 2-2100, Ext. 269
Civils: 6 sophomore and junior
students needed. General field
surveying and office drafting
work first year. Expense paid
on field-party work.
Grand Trunk Western Railroad Co.
Mr. C. J. Morris, Chief Engineer
131 W. Lafayette Blvd.
Detroit 26, Michigan
2 Civil Engineering Students
with 3 years. Work in various
cities in Michigan with field en-
gineers on yard and grade sepa-
ration projects. Expenses paid
away from headquarters.
Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad Co. . . .
Mr. H. B. Christiansen, Assistant Chief Engineer
403 LaSalle Street Station
Chicago 5, IlHnois
, 8 Civil or General Engineering
Students (4-3 year, 4-2 year)
for Engineer Aides in various
division headquarters includi ig
Chicago, Rock Island, Des
Moines, Kansas City, Little
Rock and Ft. Worth. Expenses
paid away from headquarters.
Some positions now filled.
Cooperative Relations with Universities 619
Report on Assignment 4
The Role of Engineering Technicians in the Railroad Field
D. W. Tilman (chairman, subcommittee), W. S. Autrev, George Bavlor, W. W. Hav,
W. H. Huffman, S. R. Hursh. A. V. Johnston. T. R. Klingel, N. W. Kopp, E. C.
Lawson, H. S. Loeffier, J. A. Rust, \V. C. Sadler, R. J. Stone.
In 1956, 3'our committee made a study of the role of engineering technicians in the
railroad field. The report is recorded in the Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, pages 664-667.
In a continuation of that study, a questionnaire was sent to 94 railroad chief
engineers and maintenance officers and to 125 engineering colleges and universities to
analyze the over-all effect of the engineering technician program and to determine the
present and potential use of technicians by the railroads.
Of the 94 railroads, 48 or 51 percent responded, and of the 125 schools, 89 or 71
percent answered the questionnaire.
Colleges and Universities
(89 responses from 125 questionnaires)
The first four questions were designed primarily to determine what the colleges
and universities think of the impact of engineering technicians upon the development,
standards and outlook of the engineering profession and on employment of engineering
graduates. With only a few exceptions or qualifications, the school respondents indicate
agreement that engineering technicians have no adverse effect on the engineering pro-
fession or employment.
Railro.ads
(48 responses from 94 questionnaires)
1. Is the program of utilizing engineering technicians detrimental to the development
of the engineering profession?
Yes — 5 or 11 percent No — 42 or 89 percent
2. Will the hiring of technicians for certain types of railroad work eventually lower
the standards of railroad engineering employment ?
Yes — 9 or 19 percent No — 38 or 81 percent
3. Will the hiring of technicians eventually develop a discouraging or frustrating environ-
ment for other engineering employees who have college degrees?
Yes — 7 or 15 percent No — 40 or 85 percent
4. During the current period of renewed interest in progressive corporate research, and
in view of the strenuous efforts of educational circles to promote more advanced
thinking, do you consider it a backward step for corporations to establish a policy
of hiring engineering technicians for certain types of work?
Yes — 3 or 7 percent No — ^2 or 93 percent
5. We employ only college graduates for engineering work and do not plan to depart
from that policy.
Yes — 5 or 11 percent No — 40 or 8^ percent
6. Does the employment of engineering technicians for certain types of railroad work
present an opportunity to secure needed qualified men?
Yes — ^5 or 94 percent No — 3 or 6 percent
620 Cooperative Relations with Universities
7. Have you made use of engineering technicians, or engineers with less than a degree,
in the past?
Yes — 44 or 96 percent No — 2 or 4 percent
a. If yes, in what specific capacities have they been employed? Work listed includes:
Structural draftsmen
Inspectors
Chainmen
Cost estimating
Draftsmen
Tracers
Track supervisors
Surveying
Layout
Investigations
Blueprinters
Rodmen
Instrumentmen
Map filing
Detailers
Statisticians
b. Has their performance been satisfactory?
Yes — 45 or 98 percent No — 1 or 2 percent
c. How many of these men have progressed in a reasonable time to positions of
leadership and responsibility?
Many — 4 or 9 percent Some — 28 or 67 percent Few — 10 or 24 percent
d. What was the starting salary differential between college graduates and those
employed without a college degree?
None 8 $7S-$125 monthly 1
10%-20% 2 $7S-$1S0 monthly 1
25% 2 $100 monthly 3
$15-$25 monthly 2 $100-$1S0 monthly 1
$3S-$75 monthly 12 $150 monthly 1
$75-$100 monthly 5
8. If your answer to Question 7 is "No", do you believe the employment of engineering
technicians is worth a trial for your railroad?
The two railroads which answered this question indicated their forces are too small
to employ technicians if college graduates are available.
9. What effect would the employment of engineering technicians, as recommended by
AREA Committee 24, have
a. On your efforts to employ (or advance) college graduates in railroad work?
None — 40 Some — 5
b. On the quantity and quality of work under your jurisdiction after an adequate
period of training?
None — 26 Improved — 10 Reduced — 3
SUMMARY
The responses indicate that most of the colleges and universities are in agreement
that the engineering technician program has no adverse effect on the engineering pro-
fession or the employment of college graduates. Most of the railroads report the same
conclusion.
Only 11 percent of the railroads have a practice of hiring only college graduates.
About 96 percent of the railroads have used engineers with less than college degrees
and conclude that the employment of engineering technicians presents an opportunity to
secure quahfied men.
The railroads report that engineering technicians are used for many types of work
in support of graduate engineers. The technician performance has been satisfactory and
their progress meets reasonable expectation.
Cooperative Relations with Universities 621
Eight railroads have been securing college graduates at the same rate of pay as
technicians, but 30 railroads report starting salaries for college graduates from $15 to
SI 50 monthly above those for technicians.
Most of the railroads believe the technician program has no adverse effect on
efforts to employ college graduates, and after adequate training the performance of
technicians has no adverse effect on the quality and quantity of railroad engineering
work.
Report on Assignment 5
Revise the Brochure "The Railroad Field — A Challenge
and Opportunity"
H. E. Kirby (chairman, subcommittee), J. B. Babcock, H. B. Christianson, Jr., G. H.
Echols. E. I. Fiesenheiser, W. W. Hay, W. H. Huffman, A. V. Johnston, G. A.
Kellow, F. J. Lewis, \V. A. Oliver, H. O. Sharp.
This is final report, presented as information.
Prepared in 1955 to present railroad engineering to undergraduate engineers in a
highly competitive field, the first edition of this brochure is believed to have served its
purpose efi'ectually.
In carrying out its assignment to revise the original edition, your committee recog-
nized that:
1. The four-year interval between publication of the first brochure and the cur-
rently proposed second edition has seen the competitive situation intensified,
thus requiring that
2. The railroads present their case in a most forceful manner.
3. In this general situation, the subcommittee should construe its assignment as
requiring comprehensive treatment.
With this concept, the committee proceeded in the firm conviction that the text of
the revised brochure should be not only definitive and informative but also emphatically
convincing. Accordingly, the following proposed revised text was prepared, and along
with a number of suggestions for changes in the general format of the brochure, and in
specific illustrations, was approved by Committee 24. Subsequently, the revised text and
other suggested changes were submitted to the Board of Direction of the Association at
its meeting on November 7, 1958, with the recommendation that they be incorporated
in a second edition of the brochure, to be published early in 1959, in sufficient quantity
for distribution to the engineering colleges and universities of the United States and
Canada over a three-year period. This recommendation was approved by the Board,
which authorized the printing of 18,000 copies for distribution by the AREA, plus
2000 copies to be turned over to the School and College Service of the Public Relations
Department of the Association of American Railroads in repayment of this number of
copies of the first edition of the brochure purchased by that Service for its own dis-
tribution, and subsequently returned to the AREA, upon request, in order to permit the
ARE.A to complete its 1957 distribution, .\dvised of this action on the part of tht
Board, and invited to participate in the distribution of the 1959 edition as it did in the
case of the 1955 edition, the School and College Service of the AAR ordered 8000 addi-
tional copies of the new second edition. Thus, the total press run of the new edition
of tho brochure, as this report is submitted for publication (Dereml)er 1), is experted
to be 28.000 copies.
622 Cooperative Relations with Universities
A Challenge and Opportunity for Engineering Graduates
THE RAILROAD FIELD
Railroads are the lifeline of the nation, indispensible in peace and in
war. Almost no other industry has such a profound effect on the American
industrial scene as the railroads. The railroad industry has a history of
dynamic improvement.
Some of the more recent steps in this march of railroad progress in-
clude the wide application of electronic computers and integrated data proc-
essing; automatic control of trains in operation and in yard classification
and assembly; microwave and carrier communications ; television and radio
in line, terminal, yard and marine operations; and the use of photogram-
metry in location, construction, and industrial site planning. Many similar
technical improvements still lie in the future.
Equal progress has been made in areas of human engineering and in
dealing with the industry's most valuable asset — its personnel.
Your future —
is in your hands
The railroad industry offers a challenge and opportunity to the engineering
graduate.
You as an undergraduate engineer must mafce a decision. This decision is one
of the most important of your Mfetime. It sets the course for your future.
Although many fields of engineering practice may interest and appeal to you, in
planning your future you should also look closely at the railroads. For here is an
industry that has grown with our country and likewise has become more vigorous and
far-reaching with the years.
Experience, knowledge and alert management have provided the strength and
stabiUty which form the foundation for the railroads. This heritage has produced an
industry with firmness of character, progressive in concept, with a constant challenge
of new problems and new ideas to serve the nation better, faster, safer and more
economically.
For this industry the past is only a prologue to continued progress; it will continue
to forge ahead, with its only limitation — and yours — being the imagination and
ingenuity of the men associated with it.
Here is the story briefly, of this great basic industry and some of its engineering
aspects. Let us now introduce you to fascinating career opportunities — and challenges.
Where engineers are
in the railroad industry
Foremost in all railroad operations are the large group of engineering graduates
whose backgrounds embrace practically every branch of technical activity.
To these men the railroads offer careers, both challenging and interesting — more
challenging because of the diversity of the field and the complexity of problems con-
stantly confronting them; more interesting because of the broad areas for creative
work and self-expression.
Cooperative Relations with Universities
623
Engineers are placed in all categories of design, research, supervision, operation and
top management. Theirs is the responsibility for planning, construction, installation and
maintenance of the properties that make up an investment of some .'^iS billion in plant
and equipment. Applied research and design for constant improvement are in their
hands.
These men enjoy their work; they are respected by their associates; they have
prestige in their communities; and they are substantially rewarded, materially and
intangibly, for their efforts.
A graduate engineer's fields
of participation in a railroad career
This chart will be a helpful guide toward choosing a career that will reward both
your educational effort and the personal requirements that are important to you, a
career satisfying in progress as a part of a progressive industry, and satisfying in creative
opportunity.
Are.^vs of Railro.ad Activity in Which Exgineering Graduates Have Interesting
AND ReMUNER.ATH'E WoRK
Arch.
Chem.
Civil
Elec.
Indus.
Mech.
Min-
ing
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
'x'"
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
" x"
X
X
X
X
X
X
-----
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Automatic Yard^Design, Construction and
Automotive .Supervision and Maintenance _
Bridges — Design, Construction and Maintenance
Buildings — Design, Construction and Maintenance .
Communications — Design, Construction and
X
X
Cost Analvsis and Control
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
~"x "
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
"x"
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Electronic Computer Applications ..
X
X
Heavv Equipment and Roadwav Machines
Industrial Development
Locomotives and Cars — Design and Maintenance __
Marine Facilities — Design and Maintenance
X
"x '
X
X
X
X
X '
Materials Reclamation and Conservation. .
Materials Testing
Methods and Work Simplification _
X
X
X
X
X
Operations Research
Public Works Coordination
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Railwav Operation __
X
x"
X
X
Real Estate
X
X
"x"
X
Research, Applied
."signals — Design, Construction and Maintenance
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x"
X
X
X
Utilities — Design, Construction and Maintenance ,
Water .Service and .Sanitation
X
"x "
X
X
X
Engineering
Engineering in the railroad industry is a complex field embracing all activities
involved in the design, construction, maintenance and administration of roadbed, track,
bridges, tunnels, buildings, docks, signals, communications, lighting, \ards, terminals,
utilities, shops, locomotives, cars, materials-handling and other facilities.
624 Cooperative Relations with Universities
Construction
The engineering staff of a railroad is responsible for making surveys, preparing plans
and supervising construction, modification or improvement of the physical plant and
equipment. This includes new automatic classification and assembly yards, and the
modernization of existing j'ards to meet increased traffic requirements or to take advan-
tage of current developments for economy of operation. The staff is required also to
locate, design and build tracks and other structures to serve additional industries.
Maintenance
One of the major activities of the railroad industry is maintenance of roadbed,
track, locomotives, cars, bridges, buildings, tunnels, communications, signals, conveyors
and marine facilities. Many new machines are being developed to improve quality of
work, accelerate production, and to minimize costs of maintenance operations.
The maintenance staff of any railroad is an organization of specialists equipped
to do a tremendous engineering job under all conditions. Railroads must of course
build and maintain tracks in almost every conceivable location — from coastal plains
to rugged mountains — which are crossed or bored — across prairies and swamplands,
over or under rivers and lakes, to great centers of commerce with intricate networks
of all forms of surface transport. The maintenance engineer constantly is finding better
ways to do the job.
The maintenance engineering staff is concerned primarily with maintaining and
improving the roadbed, track, bridges, buildings and the other facilities used with these
basic components. In many locations cuts and fills must be stabilized, employing the
principles of soil mechanics and requiring studies as to best procedures. Engineering
and economic studies of the many factors are necessary to reduce curves or grades, to
"daylight" tunnels, and to effect grade separations.
Main-line high speed track, including its superstructure of rail, ties and ballast,
must be constructed to highest standards and maintained for the safest operation of
passenger and freight trains, with maximum passenger comfort and minimum damage
to freight. Railroads usually employ two groups of forces to carry out this work — one
to handle the many maintenance operations, the other to carry out new or rebuilding
work.
A railroad engineering staif is responsible for design, construction and maintenance
in accordance with established standards, and also for the programming, supervision
and inspection of the work of all these forces. Industrial engineering and methods
studies are essential to the solution of many problems, including that of acquisition of
labor-saving machinery and adoption of mass-production to speed up work, improve its
uniformity and quality, and to reduce costs. Engineers on several railroads have designed
entirely new labor-saving machines and reorganized work methods to minimize hand
labor.
Bridges
Equally important as a responsibility of the engineering staff is the design, con-
struction and maintenance of drainage structures, viaducts, trestles, piers, docks and
projects involving grade separations from other surface transport lines. Essential to
railroad operations, these structures must be engineered to function as planned, with
safety and economy.
Bridges and culverts of every type are used by railroads. Thus all phases of such
work are the responsibility of the engineer — from preliminary survey to determine
proper location, size and type of structure, through design, construction, inspection, and
Cooperative Relations with Universities 62S
maintenance. Studies involving soil mechanics must precede the design of sub-structures.
Analyses are required to .select materials and methods which viill result in economical
construction and minimum maintenance costs. In some instances simple pile and timber
trestles may be required, in others long, multiple through-truss spans will be necessary.
Existing bridge structures must be maintained in good condition. Field inspections
are needed to determine what repairs may be required. The work of repair crews must
be programmed, materials and equipment assembled, and the work supervised and
inspected. New methods and labor-saving machines must be developed constantly to
provide practical and economical methods of carrying out such maintenance programs.
Buildings
The problems of the design and construction of new buildings of all types for
many purposes are handled by the Engineering and Architectural Staffs. New and
modernized passenger stations are but one of the many responsibihties of the architect
and building engineer.
For properly maintaining locomotives, modern locomotive shop buildings must be
provided.
Passenger and freight car shops must be designed to handle all types of con-
struction and repair to all classes of cars, while other shops are needed for rebuilding
and modernizing existing rolhng stock.
Storehouse facilities are required at many locations where thousands of kinds of
materials, parts and supplies must be readily available daily.
Warehouses and freight-handling facilities must be provided in railway terminals
to handle large volumes of less-than-carload freight with power equipment, including
tractors and trailers, fork-lift trucks, conveyors, and other modern materials-handling
devices.
Office and welfare facilities are needed at many key points to house personnel
engaged in countless railroad activities.
Many other types of on-line and terminal structures, such as locomotive fueling,
watering, sanding and cleaning facilities, and car loaders and unloaders, are required in
connection with railroad operation.
The technical staff of a railroad must design and supervise the construction of all
these facilities. Equally important, they must plan and carry out their maintenance.
Signal
The Signal Engineering Staffs of the railroads have the responsibility of providing
and maintaining safely engineered systems of signaling capable of controlling the move-
ments of a large number of trains at various speeds. These systems include centralized
traffic control (CTC), wherein both signal lights and power switch machines over
.several hundred miles of busy tracks are controlled remotely from a single panel type
control machine.
Electrical engineers of the signal staff design and install interlockings to control
the movement of trains at busy railroad terminals and crossings. The control of a
number of these interlockings may be consolidated under one operator seated at a con-
sole desk type control machine equipped with a miniature facsimile of the track layout.
The various routes are controlled by push buttons or desk levers, and the train move-
ments are indicated by miniature lights and automatically recorded by a train graph.
Signal engineers also design and install controls for automatic car classification
yards. In these yards a train is pushed up an incline over a "hump"; from the apex
of the hump the cars roll individually by gravity onto the various selected classification
626 Cooperative Relations with Universities
tracks. The control operator merely pushes a button numbered to correspond to the
track destination. The procedure then is competely automatic: Switches are positioned
as cars advance to proper tracks; characteristics of tracks, car-rolhng and distances are
measured electronically; a computer instantly determines retardation required and effects
the automatic control.
The signal engineering staff also has responsibility for the design, construction,
maintenance and operation of the automatic train control systems, where the actual
operation of a train may automatically be controlled to conform with signal indica-
tions. All highway-railway grade crossing gates and signals, and special devices such as
rock slide warnings, hot box detectors and indicators, also are under the jurisdiction
of the signal engineers. They are likewise called upon to make operational studies to
determine the economics of new and improved signal systems.
Communications
An integrated system of dependable communications is vital to the operation of
any railroad. Communication services provided must be economically justified through
savings in operating costs, or through increased sales of a railroad's only commodity —
transportation. Communications engineers are responsible for the evaluation of service
requirements, design of faciUties, and appHcation of circuits and equipment to meet a
railroad's ever expanding communication needs.
Communication services must be maintained in a condition that will assure con-
tinuous operation. In this fast-developing field, obsolescence cannot be tolerated. Com-
munications engineers constantly are alert for the development and application of
improved equipment and methods.
Railroad communications services include:
Voice communication channels to direct train operations, coordinate and effect
supervisory control in yards, freight houses and offices.
Printing telegraph networks, to transport in addition to the usual intra-company
messages, information of record on train movement from terminal to terminal
for operational purposes, to traffic representatives for customer services, and
providing as a by-product a punched tape for some forms of mechanized
accounting.
Microwave and carrier telephone terminals, to provide numerous communication
channels between important operational locations, divisional, regional or
system headquarters.
Integrated data processing (IDP) communication channels of various capacity
to handle slow, medium or high speed transmissions of data in digital form,
for eventual use in accounting machines or electronic computers.
Radio in main Une, terminal and yard operations, to enhance safety of operations
and promote efficient use of motive power; in marine services on tugboats
and ferries; on mobile equipment in shop areas and storerooms, and in
miniature form in the pocket of car inspectors on routine duty, wherever
efficiency can be improved through better methods of communications.
Television for remote checking of passing trains, surveillance of yard areas, ob-
servation of equipment operation, ticket reservation systems, and where
extension of supervision's field of vision can provide improved operations.
Recording devices to store voice transmissions, for future use in compiling train
lists, to provide continuous telephone attendance where nature of work may
require personnel to be away from assigned location.
Cooperative Relations with Universities 627
Mechanical
Mechanical engineers are confronted with a broad challenge. Theirs is the responsi-
bility for the design, construction, maintenance and servicing of all types of rolling stock,
and many features of the fixed plant.
The Diesel-electric locomotive today is the economic and efficient backbone of
railroad motive power. Tomorrow it will probably be the gas or steam turbine, or
atomic-power. Responsibilities and opportunities of the mechanical engineer include:
Developing improved means of keeping Diesel-electric locomotives in serviceable
condition under many different and difficult operating conditions.
Devise and supervise better methods of servicing motive power at outlying points.
Improve shop practices; make more efficient use of plant and equipment.
Participate in new developments in modern high-speed locomotives and their
many important components.
High-speed passenger and freight train operations over modern tracks and terminals
have multipHed and changed the mechanical engineers' problems. New designs of cars to
supply the special types required by shippers constantly are being developed. These
include special flat cars to transport highway trailers in quantity (operation piggy
back), fiat cars for giant turbines and electrical fixtures, flat cars with fixed ends for
several commodities requiring special design, mechanical refrigerator cars and many
others now in process of development.
Mechanical engineers also are closely associated with the design of passenger cars
capable of operating at speeds in excess of 100 mph. They must also assure that all air-
conditioning, lighting and safety equipment function properly under all conditions, and
that wheels, trucks, and electric and air-brakes meet the highest standards of safety
and comfort.
The work of mechanical and industrial engineers is directly applied to work sim-
plification, materials handhng, and methods of building, rebuilding and modernizing
cars ; in devising best methods for servicing, inspecting and repairing cars in trains at
terminals without delay; develop and approve bearings, brakes and safety appliances,
and improve methods for their application; establish loading methods and rules to avoid
derailments; and develop improved practices and more durable materials.
Electrical
The electrical engineer performs an important service in several railroad depart-
ments, including Mechanical, Signal, Communications, Maintenance of Way and Struc-
tures, and Engineering. With the ever expanding use of electricity in practically every
phase of railroad operation, the opportunities become wider than ever before.
The railroad electrical engineer is responsible for the design and maintenance of:
Generators, traction motors, auxiliaries, and control equipment on Diesel-electric
locomotives, all of primary importance on railroads today.
Power supply, air-conditioning equipment, lighting, inter-communication systems
and other modern electrical conveniences on passenger cars.
Electric features of the fixed plant, which include lighting, power distribution,
transmission lines, power substations, shop tools, electronic controls, clectro-
Ivsis .studies, and others.
628 Cooperative Relations with Universities
Electronic computers, which are of increasing importance in data processing, ac-
counting, and in the solution of a variety of engineering problems.
Catenary, transmission lines, substations and supervisory control, together with
many problems of the electric locomotive and of multiple unit cars on elec-
trified lines.
All of these responsibilities call for ingenuity, resourcefulness, and versatility on the
part of the electrical engineer.
Research and Development
Engineering graduates in several branches of the profession whose primary interest
is in the area of applied research will find interesting opportunities in railroad service.
Many railroads maintain staffs and modern laboratories, physical, chemical and
metallurgical, fitted with up-to-date equipment. In addition, the railroads collectively
operate ultra-modern laboratories in their own three large buildings situated on the
campus of Illinois Institute of Technology at Chicago.
The work of these research engineers and scientists is of tremendous economic value
to the several purchasing and consuming departments of the railroads in:
1. Quality control and utilization of the many thousands of commodities and
types of materials.
2. Check design stresses in locomotives, cars, various types of bridges, buildings
and track structures.
3. Analyze failures in structural materials, track fastenings, and locomotive and
car components.
4. Development of more durable and damage-free shipping containers for liquids,
solids and gases, of synthetic and natural materials.
The foregoing represents only a minute fraction of the total activities of this group.
Thousands of such projects have been completed; hundreds of others currently are
under way.
One of the most interesting of these current developments is in the field of nucle-
onics. The railroads are alert to developments in this and other subatomic physical
processes.
For example, the installation of radioactive switch lamps which provide a safe,
self-contained source of light for red, green and yellow signals. This light is expected
to furnish a satisfactory signal indication, through radioactive Krypton 85, for IS years
with no maintenance expense.
Additional products of modern research include the use of other radioactive isotopes
to trace wear of engine parts of locomotives to ascertain proper lubrication proce-
dures. These investigations already have resulted in substantial cost reductions and
increased railroad operating efficiency.
Studies of nuclear reactors, their shielding and adaptation to railway motive power,
give promise of feasibility.
Other Opportunities
in the Railroad Field
We have seen that in the several railway engineering departments, because of the
nature of their work, the personnel necessarily consists almost entirely of engineers.
There are also many other areas of railroad work in which engineering graduates find
Cooperative Relations with Universities 629
a wide field of opportunity. Most of these are listed in the chart on page 623.
This chart does not, however, include all of the activities open to the graduate
engineer. For those with specialized interests there are several additional fields which
offer challenging opportunities. Specifically included are:
The Operating Department
which is responsible for providing safe, efficient, economical and on-time transportation,
naturally offers some of the most difficult and challenging problems, and at the same
time a most gratifying sense of accomplishment. All other departments, including all
branches of engineering, really function as supporting elements that enable the operating
department to provide transportation. In this department an engineering background is
a decided asset. Engineers are placed in responsible positions throughout the range of
railway operation from trainmaster to top management. Many railroad presidents began
their careers as engineering subordinates.
The Accounting and Traffic Departments
offer increasing opportunities to engineers, as railroad accounting and cost controls,
utilizing newest electronic equipment and methods, assume constantly increased impor-
tance, and as freight traffic solicitation in the present competitive era becomes more
than a matter of rate structure and routing.
The Purchasing Department
is an organization in which men schooled in chemical, civil, electrical and mechanical
engineering naturally find an interesting field of endeavor in securing for the railroads
the many thousands of items of material of the right quality and design needed for
their efficient operation.
The Real Estate Department
is using to great advantage the knowledge of the civil engineer in the appraisal, sale
and purchase of property and the management of their extensive holdings, whether used
for railroad operation or for industrial purposes.
The Inditstrial Development Department
of railroads offers opportunities for civil, industrial, architectural and other engineers
to assist manufacturers in plant location, layout, and service trackage; to promote indus-
trial growth and traffic through studies of natural resources in the territory served ;
and to foster agriculture, mining, forestry, stock raising and other enterprises in areas
contiguous to railroad lines.
Most graduate engineers entering railroad service will begin under a formal or infor-
mal rotative plan designed to provide them with well-rounded basic training. Such a
plan has several advantages. It permits early mutual acquaintance; it enables the engi-
neer starting his career to learn about the manifold areas of railroad activities and
interests; and it permits the company to observe the man, his actions and reactions in
different situations.
This procedure enables the company to make the most effective use of his capabil-
ities among the technical specialists of the railroad team.
Thus it follows that after mutual acquaintance and demonstration of qualifications,
enterprising graduate engineers find wide opportunity for advancement in practically
every field of railroad activity leading to executive positions in almost every department.
630 Cooperative Relations with Universities
Special Advantages
In addition to the large and varied field of opportunities offered to the graduate
engineer, the railroads also provide attractive direct compensation and many other
indirect benefits, some of which are:
1. Recognition for work.
2. Interesting and diversified experience.
3. Encouragement for ingenuity and ideas.
4. High degree of job security.
5. Free transportation or reduced fare travel.
6. Professional association participation.
7. On most railroads free or low-cost group insurance and hospitalization are
available.
8. Annuity benefits after retirement through the Railroad Retirement Board, and
supplemented on many railroads by individual retirement plans.
9. Training plans, as discussed on page 629, by which casual treatment during
early employment periods is avoided. These plans provide a formal, orderly
and comprehensive procedure. Such training courses give participants an im-
portant start on the experience helpful in realizing the maximum from their
technical education. Likewise, they provide the young engineer with a basis
for determining his preferred area of activity.
What does a railroad career require
of an engineer?
Railroading has entered a dynamic, new era of growth. Engineering talent is
needed to develop and mold the procedures which will increase this growth, and provide
for the railroads of tomorrow. Modern technology has opened new vistas of opportunity
to the graduate engineer, presenting him with a challenge limited only by the limits
of his own resourcefulness and initiative. The railroad field offers ample scope within
which to apply his knowledge and to engage his thinking in creative productivity, to
the end that, within his capabilities, he has an opportunity to make a significant
contribution to railroads and science.
A high degree of specialization in one or more branches of the profession is not
generally necessary for the engineer entering railroad service.
There is no inflexible specification, nor set formula, to describe precisely what
attributes a young engineer shall bring to the railroad. In acquiring an engineering
degree from an accredited school, he will have exercised personal disciplines and devel-
oped patterns of habit, thought and personality which should be of much benefit as he
approaches and continues his professional career.
In addition to this background, professional advancement also will depend upon
character, diligence and ability to work in harmony with associates. And, if the element
of enthusiasm is added to these, no man can set a limit on the heights of achievement
possible of attainment.
The Challenge and Opportunity of a Railroad Career can be Yours. To learn more,
communicate with the Chief Engineers or Chief Mechanical Officers of the many railroad
companies; or meet the railroad representatives interviewing students at your school,
or call at any railroad division office or system headquarters.
Cooperative Relations with Universities 631
Report on Assignment 7
Stimulate Greater Interest by College and University Staff
Members in Current Railroad Problems and Practices,
Including AREA Membership
W. W. Hav (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Huffman, M. B. Allen, J. B. Babcock,
T. A. Blair, R. P. Davis, G. V. Guerin, W. E. Hiltebeitel, R. P. Howell, J. E. Perry,
V. J. Roggeveen.
Your committee submits the following report of progress.
The subject as assigned seems to pre-suppose a certain lack of interest in railroad
matters on the part of college and university staff members. This may or may not be
true. The committee believes that the first step should be to determine the attitudes
of academic staffs and the reasons for those attitudes. With that data in hand the
committee will be better prepared to suggest ways of stimulating interest. A ques-
tionnaire for this purpose is being mailed to the accredited engineering schools of the
United States and Canada.
As a result of preliminary opinion sampling the committee feels qualified to make
a few tentative suggestions as to how greater interest in current railroad problems and
practices might be stimulated among college and university staff members, even before
the questionnaire results are analyzed. These are as follows:
1. Prepare list of varied thesis topics related to railroad problems and suitable for
bachelors, masters, and doctoral levels, to be made available to students and academic
staffs. These topics should be realistic ones that would make a genuine contribution
to the railway industry. There is no better way than by active participation to get
people interested in something, and the beneficial effect in this case would be not only
on the students, but also to their instructors and possibly on the railroads too. The
committee will undertake to prepare and make available such a list.
2. Financial support, while not a necessary part of the foregoing suggestion, would
aid in its effectiveness. The committee is not thinking in terms of large sums at this
point — some really good experimental theses have been prepared in university labora-
tories at total expenditures for materials and equipment of $25 to $100 — others of
course cost thousands, still others involve only the supply of stamps necessary to secure
information. Many universities have ample funds to finance almost any thesis topic
related to highway research but none is available for railroad topics.
3. Every university staff member thus far contacted has recommended railroad
participation in sponsored research, including a share of so-called "pure" research, as a
means of keeping the railroads within the range of academic interest. It has been sug-
gested that a certain amount of this would be valuable for publicity purpose even if
no other benefits were to accrue. AREA members know that the railroads are spon-
soring some university research projects. The reaction to this effort by university staff
will, it is hoped, be seen in the replies to the questionnaire.
A further report will be made after the questionnaire data have been processed
and the findings studied by the committee.
Report of Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail
C. E. Weller,
Acting Chairman,
F. L. Rees,
Vice Chairman,
R. E. Dove, Secretary,
Frank Airman, Jr.
J. D. Anderson
S. H. Barlow
C. N. Billings
T. A. Blair
Blair Blowers
C. B. Bronson
E. J. Brown
J. A. Bunjer
J. E. Campbell
J. D. Case
H. B. Christianson
C. O. Conatser
W. E. Cornell
L. S. Crane
F. W. Creedle
W. J. Cruse
R. H. Egbert
A. G. Ellefson
D. T. Faries
W. H. Freeman*
R. J. Gammie
W. E. Gardner
H. F. GiLzow
B. J. Gordon
E. P. Hackert
W. F. Hanna
J. B. Hartranft
R. A. Hostetter
S. R. HURSH
T. B. HUTCHESON
W. J. Jones
A. B. Lewis
C. P. Martini
Lee Mayfield
C. R. Merriman
B. M. Monoghan
Wm. Nuetzel
T. P. Polson
E. F. Salisbury
R. A. Sharood
T. C. Shedd
H. A. Siravo
R. P. WiNTON
Edw. Wise, Jr.
Committee
* Chairman until his resignation on October 21, 1958.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Fabrication.
Progress in study, but no report.
2. Laying.
Progress report, presented as information page 634
i. Fastenings.
No report.
4. Maintenance.
No report.
5. Economics.
Progress report, presented as information page 637
Special report on welding rails at or in vicinity of rail mills, presented as
information page 640
Special report on field tests on continuous welded rail on Great Northern
Railway, presented as information page 642
The Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail,
C. E. Weller, Acting Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 549, February 1959.
633
6.U Continuous Welded Rail
Report on Assignment 2
Laying
E. J. Brown (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Freeman, H. F. Gilzow, R. A. Hostetter,
T. B. Hutcheson, A. B. Lewis, C. R. Merriman, B. M. Monaghan, F. L. Rees,
C. E. Weller.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
The total mileage of continuous welded rail laid by the railroads of the United
States and Canada as of the end of 1958, by years, is as follows:
Track Track
Year Miles Year Miles
1933 0.16 1949 33.05
1934 0.95 1950 50.25
1935 4.06 1951 37.25
1936 1.52 1952 40.00
1937 31.23 1953 80.00
1939 6.04 1954 87.00
1942 5.48 1955 266.50*
1943 6.29 1956 461.43*
1944 12.88 1957 550.12*
1945 4.81 1958 460.24*
1946 3.91
1947 18.70 Total 2191.80
1948 29.93
* 1955 — 72 miles were electric-flash butt welded.
* 1956— 89.10 " " "
* 1957—159.65 " " " "
* 1958—312.13 " " " " " "
The techniques of laying continuous rail have changed very little in the past several
years, and the same is true of the organization of the rail laying gangs.
Picking Up Long Strings of Rail
For Laying in Another Location
During the early years of laying continuous welded rail on railroads, many were
apprehensive as to how the long lengths of rail could be removed from where they
were laid originally and transported to other locations, should such become necessary or
advisable. A solution of this problem is seen in the experience of one large railroad —
the Great Northern — which, because of a change in plans, found it necessary to reload
i2 strings of continuous welded rail for movement to another location about 225 miles
away. These strings of rails, each approximately J4 ™ile long, had been distributed
along both sides of the track in single-track territory.
Several days in advance of the loading of the rail, an off-track machine, fitted
with a rail threader, was used to move the welded rails close to the ends of the ties
on each side of the track, to facilitate loading them onto a string of flat cars. A fore-
man and two laborers assisted in this operation. The work train consisted of 25 flat
cars (24 equipped with rollers, and the center car equipped with anchors to hold the
welded rail), and a threader car which was fitted up with a rail guide on each side
of the car, securely bolted to the floor. The threader car was located at the opposite
end of the train from the diesel locomotive used to propell the train, which pushed
the string of flat cars under the rail.
Continuous Welded Rail
635
Looking toward the end of the threader car as the pick-up train is
pushed under two lengths of rails simultaneously. Note roller guides on
opposite sides of the threader car; also threader truck immediately beyond
car.
The threader truck, showing the adjustable rail threaders on opposite sides,
in extended position, guiding two lengths of rails to the rail threader car.
636
Continuous Welded Rail
Steel shoes, bolted to the ends of the long rails, guide the rail ends
through the rollers on each car.
Directly ahead of the threader car was a freight car truck, equipped with a rail
threader fastened to each side of the truck bolster and arranged to permit its being
moved in or out to fit the position of the welded rail located at the ends of the ties.
The car truck was coupled to the string of flat cars by a 39-ft rail, which served as a
draw bar. A diesel locomotive crane was used to handle the car truck on and off the
track and to lift the ends of the welded rails preparatory to guiding them through
the rail threader and onto the threader car.
After the ends of the two welded raUs, one on each side of the track, were picked
up and passed through the threaders of the threader truck, and were resting on the
end of the threader car, the rail ends were fitted with steel shoes to guide them into
the rollers on the flat cars. The train moved at a slow speed — approximately 2 mph —
until 1100 ft of the welded rails was on the flat cars. It was then necessary to connect
the overhang of the rails — ^approximately 224 ft — to the ends of the next welded rails
on the ground by means of special splice bars, and then continue moving the train
until the full lengths of both ^-mile strings were on the flat cars.
The splice bars were then removed and the next two strings of welded rail, from
opposite sides of the track, were fitted with steel shoes and guided into place by
shoving the flat cars under them. This process was continued until 12 strings of welded
rail were on the cars, which comprised a full load. After the train was loaded, the
splice bars on the last two strings of rails loaded were disconnected on the cars and
the train was moved in the opposite direction, allowing the overhanging rail to be
pulled away from the threader car, and back through the threader truck onto the
ground. This same procedure was used when it was necessary to go into the clear for
Continuous Welded Rail 637
main-line traffic. The overhanging ends of the last two rails picked up in completing
the job were pulled onto the flat cars with a diesel locomotive crane. All of the 32
strings of welded rail were picked up in 4 days, averaging approximately S hr and
20 min loading time per day.
The personnel used to load the rail consisted of a foreman and three laborers
on the cars to guide the rails through the rollers, and a foreman and eight laborers
on the ground to work with the crane guiding the rail ends through the threader truck
and threader car, and also to connect and disconnect the rail ends and line the rail
with bars behind the threader truck to prevent rail kinks. The equipment used, other
than that already mentioned, included a radio on the engine, a walkie-talkie unit used
by the roadmaster, and a second walkie-talkie unit used by a member of the train
crew who walked alongside the laborers guiding the rail through the rollers on the flat
cars, so that movement of the train could be stopped if any difficulties arose.
The approximate cost of loading the 4 miles of rail by the method described was
$1475, which covered all expenses, including work train.
Report on Assignment 5
Economics
T. A. Blair (chairman, subcommittee), Blair Blowers, W. J. Cruse, D. T. Fairies,
R. J. Gammie, T. P. Poison, T. C. Shedd, Jr.
This is a progress report, submitted as information, and is based on replies to a
questionnaire sent to the various railroads. Replies are tabulated in Table 1 and Table 2
of this report. Previous reports of the committee, page 1170, Vol. 54 and page 1064,
Vol. 58 contain data for historic comparison and other basic data.
Of the 11 roads reporting complete cost data for rail in place, 4 roads show welded
rail more expensive than jointed rail, 4 show no significant difference and 3 show welded
rail less expensive than jointed rail. The average cost for welded rail in place was
$40,099 per track mile and for jointed rail in place, $39,824 per track mile. Thus, the
difference in average cost per mile was $275 or less than 0.7 percent. Also, it will be
noted, this is slightly more than $1 per weld, assuming about 260 welds per mile of
track.
Table 1, facing page 1066, Vol. 58, shows the cost of a weld to be $10.16 to $24.51,
with an average cost of $14.80 for work done in the years 1948 to 1955 by the various
roads; this may be compared to $5.89 to $20.00, with average cost of $12.51 shown
in Table 1 of this report for work done in the years 1953 through 1958. It is evident
that economies are being found in both welding and laying of welded track as the roads
gain experience with continuous welded rail.
It is interesting to note that the low figure on cost per weld submitted by the
Santa Fe was based on welding done in a new railway company owned plant acquired
in 1958. This figure includes amortization of investment, plant upkeep and expense
and all welding costs.
Averages from Table 2
Annual savings on maintenance with welded rail, per mile $568
Life of welded rail in track, years 32.3
Life of rail in jointed track, years 24.4
Time cycle, out-of-face surfacing welded track, years 9.8
Time cycle, out-of-face surfacing jointed track, years 6.8
638
Continuous Welded Rail
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640 Continuous Welded Rail
Probably almost all of the general lengthening of rail life and surfacing cycles
over previous figures can be ascribed to improved maintenance practices and machinery.
With the current price of rail at about $130 per gross ton, depreciation per mile
of new 132-lb rail would be at least $75 per gross ton or $15,500 per mile (207.4 gross
tons). The annual investment at 5 percent to accumulate $15,500 in 24.4 years (jointed
track) is $339 and for 32.3 years (welded track) is $202, giving a difference of $137 per
year in favor of welded track. Since there is now no significant difference in the average
costs of jointed and welded track in place, we may consider the maintenance savings
to be net.
Savings based on current data from Tables 1 and 2 may be summarized as follows:
Average annual maintenance savings $ 568
Annual savings account longer life of rail 137
Savihgs due to extended out-of-face surfacing cycle from 6.8 to 9.8 years at $7500
per mile per surfacing 338
Total annual saving per mile $1043
There is again a large variation in the data reported by the various roads, and
the statements made in the last two paragraphs on page 1065, Vol. 58, are still relevant.
Special Report on Welding Rails at or in the Vicinity of Rail Mills
Last year the president of one of the smaller (in mileage of track) midwestern
railroads of the country suggested that it might be feasible for rail welding companies
to set up their equipment at the different rolling mills in order to be in a position
to make available to any railroads interested 78-ft rails or long strings of continuous
welded rail, directly from the mills.
This suggestion has been considered by both the AREA Special Committee on
Continuous Welded Rail and Committee 4 — Rail, to which committees it was referred.
A canvass of the railroads represented on the Committee on Continuous Welded Rail
brought out the relative interest of these roads in the proposal and its advantages and
disadvantages — and problems — which are summarized in the following:
Advantages
1. Many of the smaller railroads are interested in welded rail, but do not have the
volume to justify the cost of establishing a welding plant on their own lines, either on
a lease or purchase basis.
2. Several railroads which have not adopted the practice of using continuous welded
rail are interested in securing 78-ft and 117-ft rails, which they feel might be purchased
on a practical basis from a welding plant at or near a rolling mill.
3. Some railroads having their own welding set-up indicated possible interest in
securing 78-ft or shorter lengths of welded rail at welding plants at or near rail mills
to preclude intereference with the production of continuous welded rail at their own
welding plants.
Problems and Disadvantages
The more important problems and disadvantages cited to the proposal were the
following:
1. Car supply would be a major problem. If lengths in excess of 78 ft are required,
cars would have to be specially equipped to handle them. This equipment is expensive,
I
Continuous Welded Rail 641_
and if the cars are not furnished by the individual purchasing roads, some pool arrange-
ment would have to be worked out. Due to the necessity to remove or revise brake
staffs and to practically eliminate slack action between cars in the handling of con-
tinuous welded rail, it is expected that present interchange rules would have to be
revised if the cars are to be used in interchange service. Unless the purchasing road
directly serves the welding plant site, foreign line freight charges could be expensive,
and experience has shown that car delays would be excessive. Some roads have severe
speed restrictions on the movement of continuous welded rail, and many insist that it
be moved only in work-train service and under the supervision of representatives of the
maintenance-of-way department.
2. The necessity for some standardization at such a welding plant to hold down
production costs would present problems. Purchasing roads have to accept the method
of welding established at any plant and, in all probability, would have to accept certain
rail sections and certain lengths of continuous welded rail or shorter lengths.
3. Any lack of adequate volume at such a plant would increase the cost, and
perhaps make the pooling of orders necessary.
Despite the problems and disadvantages mentioned, the committee's investigation
showed that practically all of the smaller railroads contacted were interested in the
proposal, and that one major railroad showed interest. On the other hand, the investiga-
tion indicated clearly that those roads which have their own welding plants, or which
can justify having welding done on their own lines under a lease arrangement, feel
they can take care of their requirements more cheaply and satisfactorily under these
arrangements than under the proposed method.
Attitude of the Rolling Mills
To ascertain the attitude of the rail rolling mills concerning the railroad president's
suggestion, the Rail committee of the AREA, through its chairman, took the matter
up with the chairman of the AREA-AISI Joint Contact Committee, who, following a
meeting of the American Iron and Steel Institute Technical Committee on Rails and
Joint Bars called to consider the matter, advised the chairman of the Rail committee,
in part, as follows:
"This welding of rail would come within the category of fabricating rather than
within the scope of a rolling mill, and it developed in the discussion at our meeting
that probably none of the rail manufacturers was physically equipped for this job
of fabricating long rail. The conclusion, therefore, was that perhaps the best procedure
toward helping some of the smaller railroads, which I understand are not in a position
to provide equipment to do this work themselves, would be for them to approach
individually their particular supplier of rails. In fact, I was instructed to report along
this line to you . . ."
While the foregoing comments indicated clearly the final feeling of the mills toward
any arrangement for the butt welding of rails at the mills, either by themselves or
welding contractor, the subject was subsequently brought up at the meeting of the
Joint Contact Committee held in Chicago on August 21 and 22, 1958. However, con-
sideration of this matter was confined to brief reference to the fact that the rolling
mills were not interested in rail welding at the mills, and to an announcement that one
welding company had indicated its intention to set up a rail welding plant in the
Chicago switching district, and had circularized a number of railroads to ascertain
their probable interest in having rails but welded at this plant.
642 Continuous Welded Rail
Interest of Welding Companies
There are (as of November 1958) three major companies involved in the butt
welding of rails. A fourth company, recently organized, also plans to offer this type
of rail welding to the railroads. In addition, a fifth company is promoting a type of
weld to produce multiple lengths of rails, but since the type of weld it employs is
designed to be made in track, this company is not involved in the proposal for setting
up equipment for welding at or near rolling mills.
One of the three major companies referred to definitely expressed itself as not
being in a position to set up and operate the type of plant in question, pointing out
that it is concerned primarily with the manufacture and design of welding equipment
and the sale of such, and of the materials used.
Another of these companies indicated a definite interest in the possibilities of setting
up a stationary welding plant, and maintains an open mind on the matter, but cog-
nizant of the problems inherent in such an arrangement has no present plans to estab-
lish such a plant.
The third of these companies sent a letter during the past summer to various
railroads in the Middle West stating that it was seriously considering setting up a
stationary welding plant in the Chicago switching district, and inquiring of those
addressed as to their interest therein and as to any potential business that might be
secured from them.
The fourth company previously referred to as recently organized to offer a rail
butt welding service is contemplating, it is understood — under an arrangement with one
of the railroads— setting up a fixed welding plant in the Chicago area to offer its
service to any railroads interested.
The foregoing, which is presented as information, summarizes, as of November 1958,
the situation with respect to the railroad president's suggestion.
Special Report on Field Tests on Continuous Welded Rail
on Great Northern Railway
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Acknowledgement
The tests reported below were made through the cooperation of the Great Northern
Railway which iurnished without charge motive power, cars, track and other facilities.
The various arrangements on the railway were handled both by the Engineering
Department, G. V. Guerin, chief engineer, and the Mechanical Department, J. H. Heron,
chief mechanical officer.
The test work was done by the staff of the Research Center under the general
direction of W. M. Keller, vice president, and G. M. Magee, director of engineering
research. The tests were under the direct charge of Randon Ferguson, electrical engineer,
and M. F. Smucker, assistant electrical engineer. This report was prepared by Mr.
Ferguson and Ralph Schinke, stress analyst, and Louis W. Leitze, engineer of track
of the railway.
2. Early Tests, Instrumentation and Test Methods
The accelerated rate of installation of continuous welded rail on the railroads of
the country has brought up some further need for information in some phases of its
action that were not taken up in earlier te;sting programs. The iirst large scale installa-
Continuous Welded Rail 643
tions of welded rail other than by street railways were on the Delaware & Hudson
Railroad in the early 1930's. A mile-long stretch was also put in on the Bessemer &
Lake Erie Railroad in 1936. Special tests to determine the temperature stresses and
strains and track movements were started on these railroads in the summers of 1935
and 1936, respectively, and continued semi-annually until 1939. These tests were con-
ducted by the staff of the Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track. A report on
a half-mile installation on the Central of Georgia Railway was also made by Sub-
committee 4 of Committee S — Track, in 1939.
The special techniques and instrumentation required for these tests were worked
out at that time and the results published as discussions by Dr. A. N. Talbot (Refer-
ence 1). The manner of action under temperature variations and requisite anchorage
were determined as well as the holding power of the tics.
Recently the question arose as to the effect of braking applications on the longi-
tudinal forces in the rails as possibly affecting lateral stability. Through the cooperation
of the Great Northern Railway, facilities for field tests were made available during
the summer of 1958. At the same time it was also decided to make readings on a
"free" rail so that later changes in the longitudinal forces could be referred to an
unrestrained rail basis. This "free" rail condition was obtained by loosening all anchors
on a J4~roil6 stretch, removing the jointed rail at the end and placing rollers at intervals
between the rail base and the tie plates, as shown in Fig. 1.
Since the readings must be carried on over a period of years over wide ranges
of temperatures, considerable research was done at the time of the original tests on
developing proper methods, instrumentation, and information not previously available.
Berry type strain gages were selected as the prime method of measuring the strains
because of their portability and stability. The Berry gage is a simple dial-and-lever
arrangement with a point on the end of the lever that can be inserted in a drilled hole
in the specimen and indicates a change of length with reference to a point fi.\ed with
reference to the dial and inserted in another drilled hole placed at a suitable distance,
in this case 8 or 10 in. It was necessary to have reference readings, and these were
taken on an invar standard bar, a short section of rail and a specially designed tem-
perature-compensated standard bar. In the compensated bar the changes in length
between the gage holes was negligible over the ambient range. As part of this program
it was also necessary to determine the temperature coefficients of the invar and rail
steel. A further check on the method was obtained by calibrating the strain gages to
obtain their temperature factor.
The rail temperatures were measured by use of a copper constantan open-point
thermocouple and a portable potentiometer calibrated directly in temperature. The
points reduced the volume of the couple junction to be heated and gave a reading
quite quickly.
No more suitable method has been developed for this type of measurement, so the
same gages and other instrumentation were used for the static part of the tests here
reported. A view of the strain gage being so used is shown in Fig. 2.
The braking tests, which were, of course, under dynamic conditions, required the
use of resistance-type electrical gages and electronic amplifying and recording equip-
ment. Since the cross section of the rail is relatively large for the forces involved,
the stresses due to braking action were quite small. Gages were applied to both sides
of the web of the rail at the neutral axis to give increased output and to reduce the
effect of the vertical and lateral flexure. A long gage length (6 in) was used to reduce
644 Continuous Welded Rail ^__
the localized effect of the direct bearing pressure stresses in giving a strain in the longi-
tudinal direction in proportion to Poisson's ratio. This localized effect was still present
directly under the wheels, but the general slope of the trace given by points between
wheels indicated the general change of longitudinal stress due to braking. The values
for braking force reported below were obtained in this manner. Diagrams of the test
sites and gage locations are shown in Fig. 3.
B. TEST RESULTS
1. Temperature Stresses
Results of the Berry strain gage measurements at different temperatures are shown
in Figs. 4 and 5. Fig. 4 shows the temperature stresses measured at the Casselton test
site. This location was laid with welded rail in 1957 and was ballasted with processed
gravel. The average maximum temperature stress measured on the north rail was
10,700 psi, at a rail temperature of approximately 112 deg, while the average maximum
temperature stress measured on the south rail was 10,000 psi at approximately the same
rail temperature.
Fig. 5 shows the temperature stresses measured at the Nolan test site. This section
of track was laid with welded rail in 1957 on crushed rock ballast from Granite Falls.
Slightly higher rail temperatures were recorded at this location. The average maximum
temperature stresses on the north rail was approximately 13,000 psi at a rail tempera-
ture of approximately 126 deg. For the south rail the average maximum stress was
approximately 13,300 psi. It should be noted that there is less drop-off of stress on the
end sections at the Nolan site than at the Casselton site. This shows that there is
probably less restraint at the end sections at Casselton.
2. Braking Tests
The results of the braking tests are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The results obtained
from these tests indicated very little longitudinal compressive stress was developed
ahead of a 5000 ton train under full service application of brakes. The maximum com-
pressive force at Casselton was 12,800 lb., which is equivalent to a stress of 1140 psi.
The maximum compressive force recorded at Nolan ahead of the train was 16,200 lb.,
which is equivalent to a stress of 1440 psi. Compressive forces under the train were
slightly higher, the maximum being 19,400 lb., which is equivalent to a stress of 1380
psi. The tensile stresses which occurred after the train had passed were very small,
not exceeding 1110 psi.
3. Jackknifing Tests
Longitudinal forces were also measured in the rail during the jackknifing runs.
These results are shown in Fig. 8. The maximum compression behind the train was
16,500 lb force. The maximum tension force occurred under the train between the
cars and the first pushing unit and was 35,100 lb., which is equivalent to 3120 psi stress.
4. Bending Stresses
The bending stress on the bottom surface of the base of the rail was measured
at Nolan on the braking and jackknifing runs. These results are shown in Fig. 9. On
the braking runs the maximum stress was 17,700 psi. For the jackknifing runs the
maximum stress was 27,300 psi. It should be noted that the jackknifing stresses were
considerably lower on the units which had either the National Malleable M380 coupler
Continuous Welded Rail 645
alinement control or the GN modified coupler aiinement control, the maximum stress
recorded with the M380 being 23,100 psi. The maximum stress recorded with the GN
modified was 21,300 psi.
C. CONCLUSIONS
It appears from these measurements that the maximum stress developed in the rail
due to temperature, bending and braking of the train will be well below the yield
strength of the rail steel. Its average yield strength is approximately 70,000 psi. The
temperature stress measurements show the maximum compressive stress averages 13,300
psi at a rail temperature of 126 deg. This occurred with the rail temperature approxi-
mately 65 deg above the laying temperature. With the rail at 40 deg below zero, it
may, therefore, be anticipated that the temperature stress would be approximately
20,000 psi tension. Adding to this a bending stress in the base of the rail of 27,300 psi
and a longitudinal tensile stress of 3,120 psi developed in the rail under jackknifing
locomotives, gives a maximum combined tensile stress of 50,400 psi, which is well
within the yield strength of 70,000 psi previously stated. Arrangements have been made
to measure the anticipated tension at low temperatures by taking the Berry strain gage
readings at below zero temperatures this winter.
There are no experimental data available on the amount of compressive forces
necessary to buckle a section of track. However, it appears that the buckling forces
that were measured due to braking were very nominal. Some theoretical studies of this
buckling force problem have been published (References 2 and 3).
D. REFERENCES
1. Discussions by A. N. Talbot, Procedings, AREA, Vol. 32, page 954; Vol. 38, page
674; Vol. 39, page 857; Vol. 40, page 549; Vol. 41, page 659.
2. R. Levi, "Influence of Transverse Rigidity of the Track on the Risk of Deformation
Due to Longitudinal Compression", Bulletin, International Railway Congress Asso-
ciation (English Edition), July 1958, page 1115.
3. M. Numata, "Buckling Strength of Railway Track (Report 1)" (Japanese), Journal
of Railway Engineering Research, August IS, 1957, page 343.
646
Continuous Welded Rail
Fig. 1 — Roller placed under freed rail to eliminate longitudinal restraint
for temperature stress measurements.
Fig. 2 — Berry strain gage for measuring temperature strains.
Continuous Welded Rail
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Report of Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast
G. B. Harris, Chairman,
J. E. Chubb,
Vice Chairman,
F. H. McGuiGAN,
Secretary,
W. T. Adams
R. A. Anderson
E. W. Bauman
G. W. Becker
R. H. Beeder
F. N. Beighley
C. R. Bergman
D. W. Blair
L. H. Bond
J. G. Campbell
H. W. Clarke
M. W. Cox
T. W. Creighton
B. H. Crosland
A. P. Crosley
J. P. Datesman
H. F. Davenport
M. B. Davis
T. F. DE Capiteau
L. J. Deno
W. G. Dyer
C. E. Dysart
W. P. Eshbaugh
J. B. Farris
J. S. Felton, Jr.
J. K. Fisher
J. G. GiLLEY
A. T. Goldbeck
F. W. HlLLMAN (E)
H. O. Ireland
H. G. Johnson
L. V. Johnson
H. W. Legro (E)
R. R. Manion
P. G. Martin
G. D. Mayor
E. W. McCuskey
R. L. McDaniel
Paul McKay (E)
F. R. Naylor
G. F. Nigh
J. A. Noble
S. J. Owens
A. J. Pacelli
A. C. Parker, Jr.
G. W. Payne (E)
W. F. Petteys
J. W. Poulter
J. W. PURDY
C. W. Reeve
L. G. Reichert
K. W. Schoeneberg
R. W. Scott
G. E. Shaw
L. D. Shelkey*
G. S. Sowers
C. E. Stoecker
J. W. Thomas
J. M. Thomson
W. O. Trieschman
Stanton Walker
C. E. Webb
A. J. Wegmann
Charles Weiss
C. E. Whitmore, Jr.
Committee.
(E) Member Emeritus.
* Died November 6, 1958.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report (See reports on Assignments 4, 8 and 10)
2. Physical properties of earth materials:
(a) Roadbed. Load capacity. Relation to ballast. Allowable pressures.
(b) Structural foundation beds, collaborating with Committees 6 and 8.
Progress in study, but no report.
3. Natural waterways: Prevention of erosion.
Progress report, presented as information page 657
4. Culverts:
(a) Conditions requiring head walls, wing walls, inverts and aprons and
requisites therefor.
Final report, submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual .... page 665
5. Specifications for pipe lines for conveying flammable and nonflammable
substances.
Progress report, presented as information page 668
655
656
Roadway and Bal last
6. Roadway: Foundation and protection:
(a) Roadbed stabilization.
Report on soil engineering problems on the Quebec, North Shore &
Labrador Railroad, presented as information page 668
(b) Slope protection by use of additives.
Progress in study, but no report.
7. Tunnels:
(a) Ventilation; changes necessary for operation of diesel power.
(b) Clearance; methods used to increase, collaborating with Committee 28.
Progress in study, but no report.
8. Fences
Progress report, with recommendations for revisions to Specifications for
Right-of-Way Fences page 688
9. Roadway signs:
(a) Reflectorized and luminous roadway signs, collaborating with Com-
mittees 5 and 9, and with the Signal Section AAR.
Progress report, presented as information page 69.5
(b) Develop standard close clearance warning sign, collaborating with
Committee 28.
Progress in study, but no report.
10. Ballast:
Recommendations for revisions to Specifications for Prepared Stone, Slag
and Gravel Ballast page 710
(a) Tests.
Progress report, presented as information page 711
(c) Special types of ballast.
Progress report, presented as information page 712
(d) Specifications for sub-ballast.
Progress in study, but no report.
11. Chemical control of vegetation, collaborating with Signal Section and
Communications Section, AAR.
Progress report, presented as information page 714
Part 1 — Vegetation Control on Iowa Roadbeds page 715
Part 2 — Railroad Weed Control, North CaroHna State College page 723
Part 3— Chemical Control of Vegetation— 1958 AAR Report page 732
Part 4 — Cost of Developing a New Herbicide page 782
The Committee on Roadway and Ballast,
G. B. Harris, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 549, February 1959.
Roadway and B alias t 657
MEMOIR
Itlopb lietoaine ^Ijclkep
Lloyd Dewaine Shelkey, assistant engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad Com-
pany, Greenville, Pa., was instantly killed in an automobile accident, November 6,
1958, while returning to Greenville from an assignment at the south end of the
railroad. He is survived by his wife Dorothy Melvin Shelkey; his son, Larry D. Shelkey
of Columbus, Ohio; his step-son, William Broadbent of Greenville; his father William
C. Shelkey, and sister, Mrs. William Chalfant, both of Uniontown, Pa.
Mr. Shelkey was born December 3, IQll, in Perry Township, Westmoreland
County, Pennsylvania, the son of William C. and Irene Livingston Shelkey. He received
his education in the Uniontown public schools and the University of Pittsburgh,
graduating in 1933 with a B.S. degree in Civil Engineering.
Mr. Shelkey entered railroad service in 1934 with the engineering corps, Pennsylvania
Railroad and in 1936 was promoted to assistant super\-isor track. On May 7, 1941, he
joined the service of the Bessemer & Lake Erie as assistant supervisor track, subse-
quently being promoted successively to super\nsor track, office assistant to chief engineer
and, on June 1, 1955, to assistant engineer, which position he held at the time of his
death.
He was a member of the First Methodist Church of Greenville and held member-
ship in the B.P.O.E., Railway Club of Greenville, and Pittsburgh Railway Club.
Mr. Shelkey became a member of the American Railway Engineering Association
in 1949 and of Committee 1 in the same year. His interest in and his continuous and
generous contributions to the work of the committee, as well as his humor and friend-
liness among its members, will long be remembered. The Association and Committee 1
have lost a valuable and outstanding member and those with whom he was closely
associated have lost a sincere friend.
Report on Assignment 3
Natural Waterways : Prevention of Erosion
F. R. Navlor (chairman, subcommittee), R. A. Anderson, G. W. Becker, B. H. Cros-
land, J. K. Fisher, F. H. McGuigan, J. A. Noble, J. M. Thomson.
In 1955, your committee presented, as information, a report on the prevention
of bank erosion in natural waterways of the alluvial type by the use of steel jetties
(Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, pages 679 to 687, incl.) In 1957 a supplemental report
was submitted covering various other types of stream-bed and bank-protection installa-
tions (Proceedings, Vol. 58, 1957, pages 717 to 734, incl.).
The following report cov-ers an additional method for preventing erosion, the
results obtained under flood conditions from previously described installations, and
the effects of the floods on the various installations. It is presented as information.
658 Roadway and Ballast
Gabions
Gabion structures have been widely used in various European countries, Canada,
and to a lesser extent in the United States for preventing erosion. They are now readil\'
available for use in this country but are protected by patent rights.
Gabions may be described as large wire-mesh boxes made from high-grade steel
wire specially coated to resist corrosion from fresh, polluted or salt water, or weather-
ing, in permanent structures. They are filled with small rocks or stones to insure
maximum permeability and flexibility. In river, torrent and stream works, and lake
or seashore works, small river boulders, waste rocks, or quarry stones from 5 to 8 in.
in size are the most suitable. Smaller sizes than S in can be used advantageously for
the core of the structure but the rocks in contact with the external mesh must be 5 in
or over.
Gabion structures are designed to form stepped or vertical walls, permeable dikes
and dams, groins, jetties, weirs, breakwaters, sea walls and retaining walls of any
height and thickness and are used for protecting structures or areas endangered by
erosion. In constructing gabions, hcensor's directions and specifications must be carefully
followed.
In filling gabions only clean rocks must be deposited in the gabions. To facilitate
this operation devices such as rock forks, scoops and buckets in the form of sieves
can be used advantageously. The deposited rocks must be arranged in a manner to
prevent undue voids.
An outstanding advantage of gabion structures over conventional rigid or semi-
rigid structures is their flexibility when subjected to pressure or when the base course
subsides through scouring of its bed. This flexibility prevents loss of static and protec-
tive efficiency and permits their adaptation during adverse conditions until they achieve
the desired stability. Gabion structures must never be grouted to form a solid mass.
(Typical gabion structures are shown in Figs. 1 through 4) .
The purpose of the platform or base course, which is the most important feature in
river, torrent, stream bank and seashore works, is to counteract the undercutting action
of the water. This is effected by the folding down of the platform of its own accord
when bed erosion occurs.
A gabion structure is a fixed mass, as the gabions are tied to each other, and
because of its weight, it has great static resistance. It is permeable; water flows through
the structure easily without under pressure or counter pressure and without damage
to the structure. It is always possible to increase or reduce the size of the structure.
Gabion structures are designed to:
a. Withstand and control violent currents and hydraulic pressures in torrents,
small streams and rivers.
b. Dissipate and absorb wave energy on sea and lake shores.
c. Expel water from porous soil, functioning as strong retaining walls to prevent
land slides and to reinforce unstable slopes and banks.
d. Remain intact when placed on mud, silt, sand and soil subject to frost, heavy
rains or other situations where there is lack of soil bearing strength.
Gabions have great capacity to expand without bursting. If one or more links
should break, the gabion remains integral and can be easily repaired. If found desirable
gabion structures can readily be enlarged or altered. The gabion method is very simple,
and common laborers after brief experience learn the technique quickly.
Roadway and Ballast
659
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
660
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 3.
•^•^^"^SNV-
Fig. 4.
Roadway and Ballast 661
When an attractive appearance is desired, especially for structures built on high-
ways, public parks and other public places provided they are not attacked by waves
or currents), the facade can be made with square concrete blocks, old bricks, square
stones or granite of a minimum thickness. The quantity of this material required is only
the verj' small portion needed to cover the external surface of the structure. Random
waste rocks or river boulders must be used for the mass filling of the structures core.
To insure the maximum permeability and flexibility, it is obvious that a square
facade should be avoided for structures exposed to water attack in torrents, streams,
rivers, lakes, canals, and ocean shores. In these cases, if an attractive appearance is
desired, it is preferable to rearrange the deposited rocks by hand for the front face.
Gabions can be used for emergency defense works during floods. They are sunk,
already filled, in the dangerous areas.
Steel Jetties
The report published in Vol. 56 deals with installations of steel jetties and their
function in preventing erosion by causing a deposition of water-borne materials.
Any failure of jetties, especially those having a history of long, satisfactory service,
can be of great concern to those responsible for their installation and performance.
One type of failure has been noted where silt built up by the jetties through the years
is again picked up by the river, leaving jetty units uncovered and isolated. Where such
failures are located downstream from a flood-control reservoir, the de-silting action of
the storage facilities may become suspect.
A jetty's ability to accrete new fill is dependent on its ability to reduce river
velocities to a point where silt-laden water will drop a portion of its load. It appears
reasonable to assume that water which has already been de-silted while passing through
a reservoir will contain less material to be dropped by the action of a jetty located
downstream.
In addition to the reduction of the silt-dropping characteristics of jetties perform-
ing in cleared water below a reservoir, a secondary action may occur to further reduce
the effectiveness of these units, based on the tendency of a stream to maintain a con-
dition of equilibrium. Thus, with some of its silt removed at the reservoir, an accelera-
tion in erosion of streambed and banks may be expected below the flood-control struc-
ture. It is reasonable to believe, then, that accretion formerly deposited by the installa-
tion of jetties wifl again be picked up by the river, leaving them uncovered and exposed.
It is expected that further study will be made to determine more fully the action
of clear water on steel jetty layouts, and the probable eff^ect of having flood-control
reservoirs located upstream from them.
Pile Dikes, Fascine Boxes and Revetments
The report published in the Proceedings, Vol. 58, describes timber pile dikes, fascine
boxes and revetments. Installations of each type have been made at various locations
on the Red River in Louisiana during the past several years.
During May and June 1957 and again during May 1958, this river, the banks of
which are subject to rapid erosion, was in flood with very high gage readings. After
these floods receded and water had reached normal stage, inspections were made to
determine the effect of these floods on the various bank protection installations and the
banks they were installed to protect. Locations are referred to by number.
No. 1, a pile dike installation (Vol. 58, Fig. 10) protecting a long, easy, bend was
in excellent condition and has functioned as planned in protecting this bank against
662
Roadway and Ballast
erosion. There has been no loss of bank since these dikes were driven many years ago.
No. 2, a fascine box installation (Vol. 58, Fig. 3) protecting an easy bend in the
river, limited bank erosion to a minimum. The boxes were damaged by a heavy flow
of drift, and expensive repairs must be made to maintain their efficiency. This installa-
tion, which now protects approximately one mile of bank, was begun in 1934. At various
times during succeeding years, the boxes have been renewed and the bank coverage
extended. Up to the present time the total cost for installation and maintenance is
.'5236,400, or slightly less than $50 per foot of bank protected.
No. 3, another fascine box installation (Vol. 58, Fig. 4) protecting a "horse-shoe"
bend, has functioned as planned. There was no bank erosion and very little damage
to fascines by drift. The additional deposit of sand and growth of vegetation in this
bend indicates desired stabilization.
No. 4, a pile dike installation (Vol. 58, Fig. 8) was seriously damaged by drift
and scour. The upper trail dike and dike number one remained intact, building sub-
stantial bars. The remaining dikes were badly damaged or completely destroyed,
requiring their replacement by new dikes, which has been done. The loss of bank
where dikes were destroyed was small, indicating that they afforded some protection
against erosion. A natural cut-off in the river channel has occurred a short distance
upstream from these dikes. This has resulted in a change in current direction, moving
the point of attack and causing much loss of bank downstream from the dike-protected
bank. Fig. 5 shows traces of the old and the replacement dikes.
No. 5, another pile dike installation was damaged, requiring reinforcement and
extention, but gave adequate protection to the bend. Between dikes, along what had
been an eroding bank, heavy deposits of sand have reinforced the bank slope, affording
proper stabilization. Fig. 6 shows a heavy deposit of sand ahead of and behind the
new trail dike. Traces of the old dike appear above the new. Fig. 7 shows the build up
between dikes along what had been an eroding bank.
No. 6, a long bend protected by revetment, pile dikes and fascines "(Vol. 58, Fig.
13) had negligible loss of bank as a result of the floods, although the long trail dike
was severely damaged and has been repaired and extended. The portion of bend pro-
tected by revetment has also been extended to prevent undercutting. Fig. 8 shows the
new and extended trail dike. Fig. 9 shows the upper end of the new trail dike and,
above it, sections of bank protected by revetment.
No. 7, a pile dike installation protecting a short, sharp bend, was completely
destroyed, with bank erosion approximating 200 ft. This installation has been replaced
with additional dikes added in an effort to prevent further erosion and loss of valuable
land, including a paved road.
Inspections made show that, due to various factors, particularly change in current
direction, pile dike installations do not always function as planned.
The failures occurring in the various types of installations made to prevent erosion,
the mounting costs incurred in making and maintaining them and changing conditions
resulting from the construction of dams and improvement of waterways, justifies a
further investigation and report on this assignments. The committee recommends that
it be continued.
Roadway and Ballast
663
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
664
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Roadway and Ballast
665
Fig. 9.
Report on Assignment 4 (a)
Conditions Requiring Headwalls, Wingwalls, Inverts and Aprons,
And Requisites Therefor
G. D. Mayor (chairman, subcommittee), W. T. Adams, D. W. Blair, T. F. deCapiteau,
C. W. Reeve, G. E. Shaw, C. E. Whitraore, Jr
Your committee submits the following report with the recommendation that it be
adopted and published in the Manual at the end of Part 4 — Culverts, Chapter 1. It
also recommends that the subject be discontinued.
CONDITIONS REQUIRING HEADWALLS, WINGWALLS, INVERTS
AND APRONS AND REQUISITES THEREFOR
A. INTRODUCTION
The design and installation of each culvert must be considered as an individual
engineering and economic problem. The engineer must determine the basic requirements
of type, strength, capacity, service, location, alinement, grade, and other factors per-
tinent to the efficient function and economic installation and maintenace of the culvert.
In addition, he must decide if the physical conditions, both present and during
the projected life of the culvert, warrant the inclusion of headwalls, wingwalls, inverts,
and aprons as part of the installation.
Occasionally, aesthetic considerations may require the use of these appurtenances
666 Roadway and Ballast
within built-up communities or in prominent locations where a pleasing appearance is
necessary, but normally this is not a major consideration. In most cases it is more
expedient to use other and less expensive methods to avoid all or part of these end
finishes. For example, except where limited right-of-way makes it necessary to provide
headwalls and wingwalls, it is usually more economical to extend pipe culverts. Box
and arch culverts, especially when of large capacity, present a somewhat different
problem. Again, however, the cost of installation must be carefully compared with other
solutions, such as grouted rip-rap, sheet piling, etc., which might provide adequate
protection at less cost.
B. HEADWALLS
1. Factors and Conditions
The following factors and conditions may require the use of headwalls:
a. Angle of repose, type, height, and stabiUty of fill material.
b. Inability to hold good vegetation on slopes.
c. Prevention of washouts.
d. Reduction in cost of culvert by shortening installations.
e. Right-of-way limitations.
f. Longitudinal stability for short pipe sections to prevent pulling apart. (Only
where adequate foundation is available).
g. Improvement of appearance.
h. Prevention of undercutting, scour, burrowing and seepage.
2. Design
Headwalls should be designed by the engineering department, usually the bridge
engineers' office, and standard design procedures should be followed.
Economic considerations, based primarily on the required height of the headwall,
will determine whether a gravity or reinforced concrete type of structure should be used.
The design should provide for all loads, including surcharge and impact, and particular
attention should be given to the method used to determine earth thrust. It is very
important that the actual soil conditions closely approximate the theoretical conditions
assumed in the design. If not, only design methods which through past experience are
known to give satisfactory results should be used.
The headwall should have adequate integral strength, and should be proportioned
to prevent sliding or overturning from excessive soil pressures. It should be self
supporting, and every effort should be made to design against settling. In the case of
pipe culverts, this point cannot be overemphasized, as the effectiveness of a carefully
located and bedded pipe can be nullified by the settling of an inadequately supported
headwall.
Cut-off walls, where required, should be of sufficient depth to eliminate undercutting.
C. WINGWALLS
L Factors and Conditions
The following factors and conditions may require the use of wingwalls:
a. Angle of repose, type, height and stability of fill material.
b. Height of culvert.
c. Direction, width and gradient o:f stream channeL
Roadway and Ballast 667
d. Amount and velocity of run-of{
e. Need for increased hydraulic efficiency.
f. Prevention of scour during periods of maximum run-off.
2. Design
Structurally, the same principles govern the design of wingwalls as of headwalls.
Gravity-type construction is economically desirable for walls of limited height.
The walls should be self supporting, and a well reinforced apron, where required, will
materially assist toward this end. Footing to meet the most adverse conditions encoun-
tered should be used, and should be proportioned to provide uniform bearing pressure
over the full length of the wingwall. This will assist in preventing separation between
the body of the culvert and the wings.
Perpendicular, oblique, or parallel wingwalls, or a combination thereof, should be
used, depending on the physical and hydraulic conditions involved. Careful field engi-
neering is necessary to ascertain that the wingwalls, if skewed, will not change stream
direction or encourage turbulence during periods of heavy run-off.
The height of the culvert and incidence of high water will, to a great extent,
govern the length of the wings. Oblique walls are usually tapered from the top of the
headwall to a height of approximately 2 ft. Parallel walls may taper their full length
to the footing.
D. INVERTS AND APRONS
1. Factors and Conditions
The following factors and conditions may require the installation of inverts and
aprons:
a. Prevention of erosion and scour; dispersion of flow.
b. Resistance to corrosive and abrasive materials carried by a stream.
c. Increased hydraulic efficiency.
d. Use of culvert as cattle underpass or other purpose, in addition to drainage.
2. Design
Inverts and aprons should be carefully designed and reinforced, and should be built
to carry and control the hydraulic traffic.
Aprons should be long enough to carry the water well past the toe line at embank-
ments, and should be so designed as to avoid turbulence and eddies. Cut-off walls
should be used to prevent undercutting, where necessary.
Inverts and aprons of culverts handling abrasive and corrosive waters require
special care. Those carrying large quantities of abrasive material can be readily protected
by properly designed and bonded paving. Mine water, however, particularly from coal,
copper and zinc mines, attacks concrete. Water passing through sulfur-bearing rocks or
soils and alkaline water have a similar deteriorating effect. Asphaltic or other non-
metalic paving should be considered where corrosive rather than abrasive atttack is the
governing factor.
Paving of inverts of culverts to be used as a cattle underpass should be designed
to provide reasonably secure footing. Brushed concrete provides an excellent invert
if the fall is not excessive. Where this condition exists cleats may be formed in the
concrete to provide additional footing. Bituminous material may also be used as a
paving, although small sharp-hooved hvestock will soon cut this type of paving badly,
and cause it to deteriorate quickly.
668 Roadway and Ballast
Report on Assignment 5
Specifications for Pipelines for Conveying Flammable
and Non-Flammable Substances
K. W. Schoeneberg (chairman, subcommittee), W. T. Adams, L. H. Bond, H. W. Clarke,
T. F. de Capiteau, J. W. Purdy, C. W. Reeve, R. W. Scott, A. J. Wegmann.
Your committee submits as information a progress report on its activities and
studies relative to pipeline crossings under railroads and longitudinal or parallel
occupancy by pipelines on railroad right-of-way.
As reported at the 1958 convention, the Pipeline committee of the Construction
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, appointed a special committee to make
a study of pipeline crossings of railroads and highways with the view of preparing
a specification that would be acceptable to all interests concerned. The AREA is
represented on this committee by three members of Committee 1 and one member of
Committee IS.
Several meetings have been held and committee task groups were formed, and
much progress has been made in the formulation of primary specifications of design,
construction and maintenance of pipeline crossings under railroads and highways. Our
AREA representatives are working diligently with these people to see there is no
change that would adversely affect the railroads.
Study is also being made of the present specifications as printed in the Manual
with the view in mind that certain revisions should be made.
Progress is also being made by your committee in its studies pertaining to the
ever-growing problem of longitudinal or parallel occupancy of pipelines on railroad
right-of-way.
Report on Assignment 6
Roadway : Formation and Protection
(a) Roadbed Stabilization
(b) Slope Protection by Use of Additives
L. D. Shelkey (chairman, subcommittee), F. N. Beighley, T. W. Creighton, B. H.
Crosland, H. O. Ireland, A. J. PacelH, G. S. Sowers, C. E. Stoecker.
Your committee reports this year on Assignment (a) only. The report presented
as information, covers "Soil Engineering Problems" on the Quebec, North Shore &
Labrador Railway. It was prepared by Professor K. B. Woods, head, School of Civil
Engineering, Purdue University; R. W. J. Pryer, soils engineer, Quebec, North Shore &
Labrador Railway; and W. J. Eden, Division of Building Research, National Research
Council, Canada.
Roadway and Ballast 669
Soil Engineering Problems on the Quebec North Shore
& Labrador Railway
By K. B. Woods,* R. W. J. Pryer,** W. J. Eden***
A. SYNOPSIS
The construction of a 360-mile railroad to reach the iron-ore deposits in Quebec-
Labrador in terrain virtually unknown could be expected to raise serious problems with
respect to soil conditions. The climate of the region imposed another set of difficulties
because the winters are severe and the short summer season is cool with frequent rain-
fall. This paper points out the difficulties that were caused by soil conditions and :ets
forth some of the measures taken to remedy the situation.
Slope stability in banded clays was a serious problem in the first 30 miles. Because
of the climate, frost action was a major consideration throughout the length of the
line. Construction problems were mainly caused by loose, saturated soils with very poor
natural drainage, and frequent rainfall in the summer months.
B. INTRODUCTION
Few engineering projects in recent years have matched the scale of the iron-ore
development in Quebec-Labrador. A major phase of this undertaking was the con-
struction of the Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway between the rich iron-ore
deposits of the Schefferville area and the tidewater docks at Sept lies. This paper
summarizes some of the soil engineering problems encountered in this undertaking and
discusses methods used to solve the difficulties encountered.
The railway, a single-track line, is based at tidewater 1 mile east of the town
of Sept lies on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and some 484 miles
northeast of Montreal. Schefferville (El. 1700), the northern terminus, is almost due
north of Sept lies, a distance of 358 miles by rail. The terrain traversed by the railway
(Fig. 1) may be described generally as the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield,
but a number of different geological and soil formations are encountered, each one
raising problems peculiar to the location.
Reconnaissance and aerial surveys were undertaken in 1945 and 194b (Df and
preliminary lines run during the following two years. In 1949, optimum train lengths,
weights and speeds having been established, final location surveys were begun. Con-
struction commenced in late 1950 (2) and track laying was completed in February
1954. A total of 21 milhon cu yd of excavation was required, 6 million cu yd being
involved in the construction of haulage roads and 11 intermediate airstrips between
those at Sept lies and Schefferville.
* Head, Civil Engineering Department, Purdue University.
** Soils engineer, Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway.
•** Division of Building Research, National Research Council, Canada,
t Numbers in parenthesis refer to references at end of report.
670
Roadway and Ballast
680
^ 67° \V;^ 660
SCHEFFERVILLE^f f^'
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51" —
68°
Gulf of I St. Lawrence I
65° 64°
Fig. 1 Physiographic map of Labrador Peninsula showing location of
railway (adapted from Canadian Geographer, No. 5, 1955, p. 9).
Roadway and Ballast
671
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MEAN MONTHLY TOTAL PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
SEVEN ISLANDS LAT. 50°- ION LONG. 66°- 15 W ( u years records )
KNOB LAKE LAT. 54°-40N LONG. 66°- 55 W ( lo years records )
Fig. 2 — Composite hythergraph of Knob Lake and Seven Islands.
C. CLIMATE
The climate of the region varies from maritime at Sept lies to sub-arctic at
Schefferville (3). Fig. 2 shows hythergraphs for Schefferville and Sept lies by which
the climates may be compared in terms of mean monthly temperature and precipitation.
The coastal region is one of relatively high precipitation, the average annual
precipitation at Sept lies being 42 in. The heaviest monthly rainfall is close to 6 in
and occurs generally in July. A second peak of precipitation occurs during the winter
months when saturated air from the Gulf of St. Lawrence comes into contact with the
steep slopes of the north shore. Annual snowfall is of the order of 170 in, while the
heaviest monthly snowfall averages SO in and occurs usually in January. On the
Labrador Plateau (or in the region north of Mile Post 100) precipitation is more
moderate. At Schefferville, the average annual precipitation is 28 in, of which rainfall
b72 Roadway and Ballast
accounts for slightly more than one-half. The heaviest monthly rainfall amounts to
3.S in and occurs in July and August, the only months during which snowfall is neg-
ligible. Annual snowfall is approximately 130 in, most of which is fairly evenly dis-
tributed over the months from October to April.
By way of further comparison, Sept lies has temperature conditions comparable
with Regiru, Sask., and Schefferville with Dawson in the Yukon Territory. Both Sept
lies and Regina have mean average annual temperatures of 34 deg F, while the cor-
responding figure for Schefferville and Dawson is 23 deg F. The Quebec-Labrador
area, however, does not experience the wide range from midwinter low to midsummer
high temperatures common to both Regina and Dawson. The comparison cannot be
extended to include precipitation; the annual precipitation at Sept lies being almost
three times that at Regina, and the annual precipitation at Schefferville more than
twice that at Dawson.
D. VEGETATION
In the upland region south of M.P. 100, heavy precipitation, a cool climate and
sandy soil have contributed to the development of a mixed coniferous and deciduous
forest type of vegetation with spruce, balsam fir, and tamarack as the dominant species
of tree. Birch is the principal hardwood. Poorly drained areas, lakeshores and the banks
of streams support thickets of willow and alder. The forest floor is generally featured
by a dense growth of ericaceous shrubs such as the Labrador Tea plant and blueberry
which thrive upon the acid, humus soil. A ground cover of moss, lichens and fungi
with some ferns and grasses has developed upon a relatively deep deposit of partially
decomposed woody vegetable debris. The highly acid organic topsoil is rarely more
than a few inches in depth and is usually underlain by an iron-oxide cemented stratum
of glacial till from 1 to 2 ft thick. Forest cover becomes less dense on higher ground
and rock is generally exposed on watersheds.
North of M.P. 100, the Labrador Plateau is characterized by open or timbered
bogs with low shrubs, grasses and moss as the dominant type of vegetation. Tree
cover becomes less pronounced to the north, and Schefferville is in a region of sparse
tree cover.
In general, trees are not very large, and locating and procuring timber suitable
for piling usually requires extensive aerial surveys and long access roads. Timber in
the coastal area is of some commercial value for the production of pulpwood and
lumber.
Throughout the region traversed by the railway, vegetation and climate contribute
to the existence of an enormous insect population; timbered and waterlogged areas
providing breeding grounds for blackflies and mosquitoes, respectively.
E. TERRAIN TRAVERSED BY RAILWAY
A sand plain of marine origin along the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
is the first topographical feature crossed by the railway. The plain is relatively level
with poorly drained areas covered by muskeg. At M.P. 10 the roadbed reaches several
terraces of post-glacial marine clay and abruptly encounters the Laurentian Upland
at M.P. 12. From M.P. 12 to M.P. 94 the roadbed follows deep valleys cut into
precambrian granitic rocks by the Moisie, Nipissis, and Wacouno Rivers. South of
M.P. 30 the Moisie and Nipissis rivers have eroded channels in the deep deposits of
post-glacial silt and clay which comprise the valley fill. These fine-textured sediments
Roadwav and Ballast
673
-: t
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Fig. 3 — Aerial view of terrain on Labrador Plateau (Photo: Royal
Canadian Air Force).
are usually overlain by sands. Between M.P. 30 and M.P. 94 the soil mantle in the
river valleys consists of sands and gravels.
From M.P. 94 to M.P. 260 the roadbed crosses the Labrador Plateau. The
topography is featured by many lakes and by large tracts of poorly drained muskegs.
Fig. 3 is an aerial photograph of the plateau from about M.P. 188. Under the organic
cover the predominating soil formation is a sandy, glacial till. There are minor glacial
deposits such as kames, eskers, and terraces and lacustrine deposits near the larger lakes.
From M.P. 260 to M.P. 360 the roadbed enters the great geological unit known
as the Labrador Trough (4). Here, the soil formations resemble those of the plateau
but are generally better drained. The Labrador Trough is featured by long, parallel
ridges with their axes oriented in a north-northwest, south-southeast direction.
F. TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL FORMATIONS
Foundation and construction materials may be classified as: marine and fluviatile
sands; banded clays; Laurentian Upland rock; stratified sands and gravels; sandy
674 Roadway and Ballast
glacial till; granular deposits from €skers and outwashes; lacustrine silts and sands;
and muskeg or organic terrain.
1. Marine and Fluviatile Sands
The marine sands are beach deposits formed during the retreat of the Champlain
sea at the close of the last period of glaciation (5). The sands are loose, uniform and
stratified. Poorly drained muskeg sections on the coastal sand plain presented minor
drainage problems, but generally the sand was easily handled by construction equip-
ment, and its use in the roadbed has caused no difficulties.
2. Banded Clays
In the drowned section of the Moisie valley between M.P. 16 and M.P. 28, massive
deposits of banded clays are overlain by varying depths of sand and gravel. The clays
form part of the Champlain Sea deposits known as "Leda" clay (5), a particularly
troublesome soil from the slope stability aspects and notorious for the occurrence of
large-scale landsUdes and earth flows. Occasionally, the clays are underlain by, or
interbedded with, relatively deep deposits of uniform sand. The Moisie River, in
eroding its present channel, has removed much of this valley fill, leaving many terrace
remnants — some with heights in excess of 130 ft. Several miles of railroad subgrade
are located in these terrace materials in cut and fill sections. Several slides have
occurred to date and the probable occurrence, within the past century, of several addi-
tional massive earth movements is indicated by the study of aerial photographs and
on-foot studies.
The banded nature of the marine "clays" encountered in the Moisie Valley causes
the results of physical tests to vary widely (6). Generally, however, the sediments
may be described as silty clays and silty fine sands. Typical grain-size analyses indicate
about 15 percent sand-size, SO percent silt-size and 35 percent clay-size particles. Bed-
ding planes are rarely horizontal and in many instances slope towards the river, some-
times very severely. Test data obtained from samples taken between M.P. 11 and M.P.
24 and at depths extending to 160 ft show the most troublesome soils to have natural
water contents in excess of the liquid limit. The following average values are based
upon tests on more than 700 composite samples:
Natural water content 38 percent
Liquid limit 34 percent
Plasticity index 15 percent
The liquidity index (the ratio of the natural water content minus the plastic limit
to the plasticity index) ranges from about 0.4 to 2.7, with an average value of 1.3.
Values in excess of unity indicate soils which are sufficiently sensitive to remolding
that vibration or other disturbance may result in liquefaction.
Unconfined compression tests and vane shear tests indicate an average shear
strength of approximately 2000 lb per sq ft, — a value which should be adequate to
ensure the stability of all natural and cut slopes encountered in the Moisie Valley.
Stability analyses are complicated, however, by the presence of permeable strata and
unusual groundwater conditions, the inclination of bedding planes and by the fissured
character of the sediments.
3. Laurentian Upland Rock
As a result of preglacial uphft and greatly modified glacial and post-glacial drain-
age, the Moisie River has eroded a deep trench in the hard rocks between M.P. 16
Roadway and Ballast 675
and M.P. 12, having abandoned an older and much deeper channel to the west. The
railway follows the Moisle River through this rock area. Between M.P. 59 and M.P.
73, it was necessary to locate the railway well above the level of the Wacouno River
in order to negotiate the numerous falls and rapids. In both of these areas the roadbed
is founded either on benches cut into the valley wail or on high rock fills. A 2200-ft
tunnel was required at the approach to the Moisie River crossing at M.P. 12, and a
second tunnel, 800 ft long, was necessary at M.P. 65 in a steep-sided section of the
Wacouno valley.
The valley of the Moisie between M.P. 12 and M.P. 16 contains no unconsolidated
material of importance, while between M.P. 59 and M.P. 73 such deposits as do exist
are close to the narrow floor of the Wacouno River valley. Maintenance problems in
these locations (other than those normally associated with heavy grades and tortuous
ahnement) are confined to icing difficulties. The rock is generally jointed and fissured,
and water seeping towards the roadbed during the winter months may cause ice to
accumulate in side ditches and eventually to over-run the track. Severe conditions
occur in the vicinity of the tunnels at M.P. 12 and M.P. 65 where heating cables are
necessary in order to keep the side ditches open.
Construction in these rock areas presented few direct problems, but the time-
consuming operation of heavy rock e.xcavation (1 miUion cu yd between M.P. 12 and
M.P. 16) was a serious handicap to road communications. In order not to delay the
movement of equipment and supplies to more northerly working points, it was neces-
sary to construct and maintain approximately 25 miles of haulage road bypassing each
of the two heaviest rock cut sections. In the Moisie River section, the road was located,
for the most part, in banded clays on the west side of the river. A wooden pile trestle
carried this road across the Moisie River at M.P. 17. Demolition of the trestle by ice
during the spring, and the difficulty of maintaining the road, restricted this expedient
to the winter months of two successive years. Fortunately, the sand and gravel cover
overlying the banded clays in the vicinity of M.P. 22 was of sufficient vertical and
areal extent to permit the construction of an airstrip, which helped to overcome the
difficulty.
The road which bypassed the Wacouno valley rock cuts was located partly
through the coarse gravel and boulders of the valley floor and partly on higher ground.
Prefabricated (steel) bridges were used to carry this road across the Wacouno River
in two locations. In this area too, it was possible to relieve a difficult situation by
the provision of airstrips, since suitable coarse-textured soils were available in adjacent
wider sections of the valley at M.P. 54 and M.P. 84.
A rock quarry at M.P. 16 is the source of rip-rap stone used for the protection
of embankment slopes in the river valley sections of the railway.
4. Stratified Sands and Gravels
These materials are of glacio-fluvial origin and are plentiful in the valley of the
Nipissis River. South of M.P. 28, in the Moisie valley, sands with some gravel overlie
the banded clays and fill depressions and former erosion channels. In the valley of the
Wacouno River, north of the falls at M.P. 73, extensive deposits of outwash material
are the source of much prepared gravel ballast. Other ballast pits at M.P. 22 and
M.P. 48 provided gravel suitable for sub-ballast and bank-widening during the final
stages of construction.
The volume of earth work involved in the construction of the roadbed through
these stratified soils was of the order of 4 million cu yd, but their coarse textured
676
Roadway and Ballast
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GRAIN SIZE (MM)
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MIT GRAIN SIZE CLASS I F I CATION
Fig. 4 — Grain-size curves for sandy till.
nature caused little difficulty. A few cuts located in the wider sections of the Nipissis
valley (M.P. 36 and M.P. 51) encountered very silty soils which were wasted.
In the two narrower sections oi the Nipissis Valley, between M.P. 30 and 34
and M.P. 40 and 49, buried rock terraces occur, and sloping bedrock surfaces may
underlie high side-hill cut slopes in sand and gravel. Here, seepage has resulted in
troublesome conditions which are discussed later in the paper.
5. Sandy Glacial Till
As the alinement passes beyond the influence of the river valleys, the predominant
soil formation becomes a sandy glacial till. Grain-size distribution curves for samples of
this material from the Ashuanipi Lake area (M.P. 201 and M.P. 221) are shown in
Fig. 4. A well-graded sandy soil, the till has proved to be a good embankment material.
Because of the low in-place density and high moisture content, however, these soils
were often difficult to place during grading operations. Fig. 5 shows a cut section at
M.P. 201 and illustrates the type of problem encountered. North of M.P. 270, soils
were generally better drained and caused little difficulty.
In the vicinity of Menihek Dam at M.P. 330, the coarse-textured and generally
well-graded glacial till provided the 650,000 cu yd of material required for the rolled,
homogeneous earth-fill sections of the dam (7). The fill was placed in 6- to 8-in lifts,
using both trucks and rubber-tired tractor-scrapers and compacted by tractor-drawn
sheepsfoot rollers. A sand and gravel underfilter beneath the downstream slope was
incorporated in the fill by excavating and backfilling. Upstream sides were constructed
with submerged slopes of 3:1 and upper slopes of 2:1. These slopes were provided
with a coarse gravel blanket and toe, and the upper sections protected by rip-rap stone
quarried locally. Downstream slopes of 2.5:1 were provided with a toe of riverbed
boulders or coarse gravel and protected by a gravel facing. Suitable gravel for this
Roadway and Ballast
677
Fig. 5 — Construction difficulties caused by liquefaction of till resulting from
action of construction machinery, Mile 201 (Photo: G. D. Creelman).
purpose was not readily obtained in the Menihek area and was hauled from the ballast
pit at M.P. 290 after construction.
Construction of the rolled fill sections of the dam was begun in May and com-
pleted in October 1953, a summer of unusually light precipitation, and was not seriously
affected by adverse moisture conditions.
In the Labrador Trough region, gravelly soils with a high percentage of clay-size
particles have proved to be susceptible to frost, and in a few locations heavy differen-
tial heaving in the winter months has been followed by the appearance of mud boils
as late as July. As the grain-size distribution curves show, some of the till o>f the
Ashuanipi Lake area is a borderline soil using Beskow's criterion for frost-susceptible
morainic soils (8). Some frost heaving has occurred in this material.
6. Granular Deposits From Eskers and Outwashes
A fortunate circumstance from an engineering aspect is the existence on the
Labrador Plateau of extensive deposits of coarse-textured granular material in the form
of eskers and other granular landforms. Several large borrow pits were established at
the close of the track laying phase to provide the fill with which embankments were
widened and brought to grade, using train-haul methods. Suitable deposits in the form
of eskers were located for this purpose at M.P. 134, M.P. 21i and M.P. 290. At M.P.
84, near the head of the Wacouno River valley, a well-graded outwash formation pro-
vided another source of excellent material. The better and more favorably located of
these pits (M.P. 84 and M.P. 290) continue to supply crushed and screened rai]wa\-
ballast and coarse aggregate for concrete.
Transportation requirements during the construction period made the location of
678 Roadway and Ballast
airstrips, suitable for use in all seasons, an important consideration. The 5000-ft run-
ways constructed at M.P. 134, M.P. 224 and M.P. 290 are examples of the excellent use
which may be made of glacial deposits from eskers. In connection with the construction
of airstrips, it is fortunate that the north-south trend of most granular landforms
coincides with the direction of the prevailing northwest winds.
7. Lacustrine Silts and Sands
Between M.P. 180 and M.P. 280, the alinement follows closely the shorelines of
Ashuanipi, Whitman, Molson, and Menihek Lakes and passes through many areas with
poor internal and surface drainage. Here the soil profile frequently shows that deposits
of lacustrine silts and sands overlie the till with a surficial cover of muskeg. As a
result of the high water table, cuts in this material invariably produced "near-quick"
conditions. The silts were generally excluded from the roadbed and have proved to be
troublesome in the more or less local situations where they were placed in fills. During
the construction period, every effort was made to use completed or partially completed
sections of the railway subgrade as a haulage road, and encounters with these fine-
textured materials were the cause of much distress.
Between M.P. 95 and M.P. 120, in the wide basin now occupied by the relatively
narrow Wacouno Lake, many shallow cuts were necessary in silty fine sand and also
in much coarser but poorly graded soils with a large proportion of fines. These soils
were fairly weU drained and presented little difficulty during construction, but are
highly susceptible to frost and have performed badly in this repeat.
8. Muskeg
The combination of imperfect drainage, high precipitation, and a cold climate has
resulted in the development, on the Labrador Plateau, of an almost continuous cover
of shallow muskeg or partially decayed fibrous organic matter. Along the route of the
railway, the most extensive areas of muskeg are located in the drainage basins of the
larger lakes and at the headwaters of such streams as the Wacouno and Embarrasses
Rivers. The depth of this organic cover seldom exceeds 3 or 4 ft and although deeper
deposits do exist, they were avoided whenever possible. The material consolidated
rapidly after the placing of fills and differential settlement has been unimportant. The
most serious difficulties occurred during construction when wide detours were often
necessary in order to carry the all-important haulage road past incomplete sections
of the railway subgrade.
G. CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS
L Slides in Banded Clays
Slope stability in sections of the stratified silts and clays is being studied exten-
sively. The landsHde problem became apparent in the spring of 1951 when, during
construction of the tunnel at M.P. 12, the rock roof collapsed about 200 ft from the
south portal allowing the overlying silty clay to cave in. The resulting disturbance
caused the material to liquefy (the liquidity index of the clay in this locahty has been
found to be close to 2) and some 60,000 cu yd of clay poured through the tunnel roof
and flowed through the south portal before equilibrium was restored. To prevent the
occurrence of further mud flows during reconstruction of the tunnel roof and to facilitate
this operation, an additional 40,000 cu yd was excavated hydraulically.
Roadway and Ballast
679
Fig. 6 — Slide in the silty clay bank at Mile 12 (Photo: G. D. Creelman).
A second earth movement involving 3000 cy yd of silty clay took place at the
same tunnel in September 1953. On this occasion, the failure took the form of a cir-
cular slip in the cut slope at the approach to the south portal. The original slope had
a vertical height of 70 ft and was excavated at 1.5:1. Fig. 6 shows the failure shortly
after the right-of-way had been cleared.
As a remedial measure, about 7000 cu yd of soil were excavated from the shoulder
of the slope to form a bench 30 ft in width and 50 ft above the shoulder. Despite
the resulting reduction in driving moment, a further failure involving the material
below the bench occurred in the spring of 1954.
Using the actual sHp circles and shear strength values derived from unconfined
compression and vane tests, <P = 0 stability analyses indicated theoretical factors of
safety of about 2.0 in the case of both slope failures. Borings undertaken in 1956
disclosed the presence of a continuous sand stratum between the banded sediments and
the underlying bedrock surface which outcrops a few hundred feet from the shoulder
of the cut slope. Thre:, days prior to the first slide, 3.79 in of rain were recorded
during a 24-hr period, while the second slide occurred at a time when melting snow
caused the groundwater table to be at its highest. It seems probable, therefore, that
the development of hijh hydrostatic pressures within the confined sand stratum may
have contributed to the failures.
During the spring of 1955, a third failure was anticipated, and an unstable section
of the slope was induced to fail by blasting. Removal of the debris and excavation
of a drainage ditch at the toe of the slope exposed the buried sand stratum, and no
additional failures have occurred to date.
680 Roadway and Ballast
Construction of the roadbed through the banded clay soils of the Moisie valley
frequently required the excavation of benches in the natural riverbank slopes. In these
sections, failures may involve an entire slope or may be confined either to the cut slope
above track level or to the embankment slope beneath the roadbed. To date, no
failure has involved an entire slope of this type, but there have been some slides in
both cut and embankment sections. On April 25, 1955, a failure of the latter type
occurred at M.P. 19.5. The track structure at this location was supported by a granular
fill founded largely on the riverbank slope and deriving little support from a narrow
bench cut into the side of the original slope, just below track elevation. Failure of the
clay slope below the bench caused 15,000 cu yd of fill to slide into the Moisie River
on a 150-ft front, leaving the track suspended.
It has been mentioned previously that stratified sands and gravels overlie the
banded clays and occupy local depressions in the surface of these deposits. An example
of the latter condition exists at M.P. 18.6 where a 60-ft side hill cut was made in an
apparently extensive deposit of banded silty clay, overlain by a shallow cover of gravel
and sand. Four years after completion of the cut, borings disclosed that at one point
the granular cover close to the shoulder was actually 90 ft in depth, with the ground-
water table close to the surface. Extensive drainage measures were required to lower
the water table in this pocket of saturated sand.
A number of factors may thus be said to contribute to the landslide problem and
make theoretical stability analyses extremely difficult to apply to design. Such factors
include the following:
a. The banded silty clays have high liquidity indices and become unstable with
vibration or other disturbance. There is always a danger that a minor slope
failure may develop retrogressively into a "mud flow" of some proportions.
b. Non-uniformity of the formations, variations in thickness and character of the
bands, the presence of sandy strata and the inclination of bedding planes.
c. Because of high relief of the valley walls in the locations where these mate-
rials occur, there are many sections where high hydrostatic pressures can
develop. With a high water table in the granular overburden, heavy summer
rainfall (the month of July averages 4.5 in) and a rapid run-off, drainage
at the shoulders of the slopes is critical in order to prevent erosion and the
development of seepage pressures.
2. Sloughing of Slopes
This problem is the most serious manifestation of the effect of frost in the section
south of M.P. 28. As indicated by Fig. 7, the silty clay is particularly troublesome
in this respect. Despite the fact that wind tends to prevent the accumulation of snow
on cut slopes, frost penetration is restricted to 18 or 24 in by the high moisture content
of the clay. Conditions are conducive, however, to the formation of ice lenses. These
form ideal sliding surfaces for the overlying material which begins to slough into side
ditches with the first periods of warm sunshine in the spring. Ditches are thus fre-
quently obstructed even before the snow has begun to melt, and the problem usually
persists until June, requiring a considerable amount of maintenance.
Cut slopes exposed to several winters tend to become more stable from the
standpoint of sloughing as a weathered surface layer some 2 ft thick develops. This
weathered crust does not support the growth of ice lenses to the same extent as the
parent material and is more tolerant of vegetation. Efforts are therefore being made
R 0 ad wa y and Ballast
681
Fig. 7 — Sloughing of slopes in banded silts (Photo: J. A. Rodriguez).
to establish deep-rooted vegetative cover on slopes which are considered to be stable
apart from a tendency to slough. The use of a blanket of granular material on cut
slopes in clay has been found to be beneficial in certain circumstances, .^n important
prerequisite in such cases is the absence of seepage along the sand-clay interface.
3. Deep Cuts in Gravels
Seepage and heavy precipitation have been responsible for several e.xamples of
sloughing in sands and gravels. At M.P. 32.8 in June 1955, a movement which ap-
proached the proportions of a slide occurred in sand overlying a steep buried rock
slope and was apparently triggered by the passage of an ore train. The vertical height
of the slope was 220 ft, with the crest of the buried rock slope some 40 ft below the
shoulder. Seepage from a small pond located about 800 ft from the shoulder of the
slope is believed to have contributed to the slide in which 2000 cu yd of waterlogged
sand sloughed from the upper part of the slope, derailed a train, and buried the track
to a depth of 15 ft. A rainstorm (0.26 in) 11 days prior to the slide resulted in several
minor slides in the lower part of the slope, a factor which may have affected the
over-all stability of the slope.
Fig. 8 is drawn from an aerial photograph of the location and illustrates the posi-
tion of the pond with respect to the failure of the slope. Through the use of airphotos
and ground surveys, all potentially dangerous slopes are being investigated and, where
necessar>', measures are being taken to drain perched lakes.
682
Roadway and Ball a s t
Roadway and Ballast
683
Fig. 9 — Condition of grade during construction in silty area
(Photo: G. D. Creelman).
4. Muskeg
The initial procedure followed in construction through muskeg sections called for
the use of light draglines supported on timber rafts or mats, and was facilitated by
the generally shallow depth of the organic cover. These machines, working in pairs
one on each side of the proposed roadbed, excavated side ditches by wasting the organic
material and silt, and casting enough of the underlying till onto centerline to form a
traf&cable road. The subgrade was later completed using carry-alls or trucks hauling
from available borrow pits. Since much of the granular glacial till was of a silty
character, this procedure made it inevitable that in some instances silty material was
incorporated in the roadbed in a wet, loose condition. Because of the low relief, ditches
were not always effective in removing water and, under these circumstances, equipment
was frequently mired in the grade. Fig. 9 indicates the unstable conditions which
developed on occasion, especially during wet weather.
Shallow cuts encountered in the muskeg area often proved troublesome; even
glacial till having a tendency to liquefy when exposed to traffic, as Fig. 5 illustrates.
The results of Proctor density tests conducted on samples taken from stable and
unstable sections of the same fill at M.P. 267 are shown in Fig. 10. Since the grading
of the samples was substantially the same (Fig. 4), the cause of the instabihty was
clearly lack of adequate compaction and excess moisture content. In very wet locations,
relief from the effect of the high watertable was obtained by using dynamite to blast
offtake ditches before construction began.
Since haulage roads between construction camps necessarily made wide detours
around muskeg sections, access to working points was a major difficulty. Advantage
684
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was taken of frozen ground at the end of the winter season to locate machines
strategically in readiness for the spring. In the case of the more isolated locations, it was
necessary to use canoes and boats in order to service machines and transport personnel.
5. Concrete Aggregates and Ballast Materials
The organic contamination of sands and gravels is general throughout the region.
In the case of minor concrete structures, it was usually possible to locate acceptable
gravel deposits for concrete aggregate within a reasonable distance of construction sites,
but long hauls were occasionally required.
Pit-run material from the stratified sands and gravels of the lower Moisie and
Nipissis valleys provided suitable graded aggregates for the construction of bridges
at M.P. 30 and M.P. 40. The same deposits also supplied much of the aggregate
required for construction in the terminal area of Sept lies, although a quantity of good
quality aggregate was imported by boat. For major structures, such as the Ste.
Marguerite Dam, 20 miles west of Sept lies, and the Moisie River bridge at M.P. 12,
local gravel deposits supplied the fine aggregate, while coarse aggregate was prepared
by crushing and screening rock quarried locally.
The gravels associated with the glaciated river valleys and the granular land-
forms of the Labrador Plateau are derived from many types of rock. In general, the
presence of granite gneiss characterizes the gravels of the Upper Wacouno River valley,
while metamorphic schists with quartzite as the predominant material are characteristic
of the Labrador Plateau. When crushed and screened, the gravel from these sources is
suitable for both railway ballast and concrete aggregate.
The rocks of the Labrador Trough area are usually dense, fine-grained and have a
Roadway and Ballast 685
tendency to break into harsh angular fragments with flat elongated shapes. The crushid
product has a high abrasion resistance and despite its highly fissile nature is acceptable
as railway ballast. Owing to the presence of such undesirable constituents as chert,
phyllite and iron pyrites, however, the rocks are generally unsuitable for use as con-
crete aggregate. This situation, and the absence of clean gravels, necessitated the use
of a highly contaminated deposit of stony glacial drift as the source of concrete
aggregate for the Menihek Dam at M.P. 330 (7). This deposit comprised stones derived
from the local bedrock, together with quartzitic cobbles and boulders. Washing and
screening removed most of the organic contamination along with the fines. Subsequent
crushing and sand-roll operations reduced the large quartzitic cobbles to a maximum
size of 2 in and improved the grading by restoring the proportion of sand-size particles.
H. FROST ACTION AND ROADBED MAINTENANCE
1. Ground Temperatures
The region traversed by the railway is noted for heavy precipitation and severe
winters; the effect of frost action on the performance of the roadbed is thus a major
consideration. At the outset, the problem was confounded by a lack of information on
the depth of seasonal frost penetration and meager data on air temperatures. To sur-
mount this difficulty, a program of ground temperature measurements was started to
study the thermal regime in typical soils under various conditions of exposure and
surface cover. Three field installations were made — at Schefferville, at M.P. 266, and at
Sept lies (9).
The study of frost penetration along the railway route is being coordinated with
the broader study of climatic data and soil temperatures which is being conducted
by the Division of Building Research of the National Research Council (10).
2. Maintenance
Problems attributable to frost action include the following: (a) differential heaving
of track and softening of the roadbed on thawing, (b) sloughing of cut and embank-
ment slopes, (c) icing of track and culverts due to side-hill seepage.
a. Frost Heaving of Track
Improved drainage and the use of admixtures such as sodium chloride, calcium
chloride and calcium lignosulphonate are two of the measures adopted to surmount
the problem. All three admixtures have been effective in reducing the amount of heave,
but their relative value is difficult to assess since track-raising and drainage improve-
ments have also contributed. Complete excavation of frost-susceptible soils and replace-
ment with granular materials has been undertaken in some locations.
b. Sloughing of Slopes
This aspect of frost damage has been discussed in connection with the banded
clays of the Moisie valley where the problem is particularly severe. In the muskeg sec-
tions of the Labrador Plateau some sloughing of low embankment slopes into side
ditches occurs during the spring run-off period as the frost leaves the ground. This
condition has been relieved by widening embankments with coarse granular material.
c. Icing
The icing problem has been mentioned in connection with rock cut sections of the
railway, but it also occurs in sidehill cuts elsewhere. The difficulties caused by this
686 Roadway and Ballast
condition have been eased by the diversion of surface water and measures designed
to prevent culverts from becoming obstructed.
3. Permafrost
During construction operations in 1953, two locations where frozen soil was encoun-
tered in September suggested that permafrost was a definite possibility in Labrador.
At M.P. 245, a shallow cut revealed frozen ground with ice lenses 3 in thick extending
to a depth of 6% ft. It was very unlikely that this frost would leave the ground
before the onset of the next freezing season. At this location, a winter haul road
crossed the grade line and might have fostered a deeper than normal seasonal frost
penetration. At M.P. 253 frozen soil was again encountered, in this case at a location
where there was no haul road. These occurrences of frozen soil strongly suggest that
scattered islands of permafrost do occur. Further, if the frozen ground at M.P. 245
did result from the winter haul road, then the possibility exists that grading operations
may cause permafrost to develop under certain conditions.
4. Ballasting
One beneficial effect of extreme low temperatures may be cited in connection with
the distribution of ballast. Completion of the track laying program in February 1Q54
made it necessary to stabilize the skeleton track by the distribution of coarse gravel
ballast during the winter months. It was found that relatively dry gravel could be
hauled any required distance and dumped, if it was allowed to freeze before loading
and if the air temperature did not rise above approximately 15 deg F. At higher tem-
peratures the material ceased to be free-running and tended to agglomerate in the cars.
I. CONCLUSIONS
Although long recognized as being potentially of great economic importance, the
Labrador Peninsula remained a relatively inaccessible region until comparatively recent
years. The airplane (and more particularly the floatplane) has done much to alter
this situation, and aerial photography has provided an excellent engineering tool to aid
in the development of the region.
Photogrammetry has facilitated mapping while the use of aerial photographs in
connection with route surveys, drainage schemes, and site location will continue to play
an important role in the planning and execution of engineering projects. Apart from
the value of aerial photographs in simplifying location and survey work, airphoto
interpretation can provide much information on unconsolidated deposits and soil con-
ditions. This is information that can be procured only with difficulty using conventional
methods.
Most of the difficulties encountered during and subsequent to construction of the
Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway have been of a regional nature, and similar
problems, with local variations, are likely to occur throughout a large section of the
Labrador Peninsula. Because of the close relationship between topography and the
character of glacial deposits, one of the most satisfactory ways to approach these
problems is through an appreciation of the glacial and post-glacial history of the region.
In general, the most serious construction problems are related to the excavation
and placing of wet soils. The loose, wet condition in which many soil deposits occur
accounts for the difficulty experienced even with granular till — normally considered to
give satisfactory performance.
Roadway and Ballast 687
Maintenance problems arise from two principal causes: the effects of frost action
and the instability of slopes. In a climate with high precipitation and very low winter
temperatures, the effects of frost action become a major design consideration and one
which should be recognized in the early stages of planning. Much can be done with
respect to identification and mapping of frost-susceptible soils before a final location is
established. At a later stage, the proper design of earthworks can do much to minimize
effects of frost action such as heaving, icing and the sloughing of slopes. In the central
section of the Labrador Peninsula, the effect of permafrost becomes an equally important
consideration.
The stability of slopes in banded clays is a persistent problem in the southern
section of the region. Since the slopes or river banks and terraces tend to be unstable
in th:ir natural state, every effort should be made to avoid construction in these
locations. When relocation is impracticable, construction operations should be so directed
that nothing is done to decrease the stability of natural slopes. Maintenance practices
in these unstable sections should be preventive as well as remedial, and should be based
upon the regular inspection of slopes and drainage facilities. Accumulation of records
of the physical properties of clay soils and detailed investigation of failures are of
inestimable value in planning a rational approach to the problem of maintenance.
J. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is a joint contribution from the School of Civil Engineering, Purdue
University, the Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway Company, and the Division
of Building Research, National Research Council, Canada. In preparing the paper, the
authors received encouragement and advice from their colleagues in each organization.
Particular acknowledgment is due to B. M. Monaghan, chief engineer, Quebec North
Shore & Labrador Railway, with whose permission this paper is published, and to
R. F. Legget, Division of Building Research, National Research Council, who approved
of the contribution from the Division.
K. BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) Livingston, D. A. "Reconnaissance of the Labrador Railway, 1Q45". Engineering
Journal, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 399-405, (1954).
(2) Monaghan, B. M. "The Location and Construction of the Quebec North Shore
and Labrador Railway". Engineering Journal, Vol. 37, No. 7, pp. 820-828, (1954).
(3) Thomas, M. K. "Climatological Atlas of Canada". Canada, Department of Trans-
port and National Research Council. NRC No. 3151. December 1953.
(4) Canada, Department of Mines and Resources. "Geology and Economic Minerals
of Canada", Bureau of Geology and Topography, Mines and Geology Branch,
Department of Mines and Resources, Ottawa, Canada. (1947).
(5) Gadd, N. R. "Geological Aspects of Eastern Canadian Flow Slides". National Re-
search Council, Canada. In Proceedings of 10th Canadian Soil Mechanics Con-
ference, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics, Technical Memoran-
dum No. 46, Ottawa, 1957.
(6) Pryer, R. W., and K. B. Woods. "Investigation of Banded Sediments along St.
Lawrence — North Shore in Quebec". Paper presented to 61st Annual Meeting of
ASTM, Boston, June 1958.
(7) Carey, L. A. "Menihek Power Development". Engineering Journal, Vol. 37, No. 5,
pp. 549-563, (1954).
688 Roadway and Ballast
(8) Beskow, G. "Soil Freezing and Frost Heaving with Special Application to Roads
and Railroads" (1935). Translated by J. O. Osterberg, Technological Institute,
Northwestern University, (1947).
(9) Pryer, R. W. "Frost Action and Railroad Maintenance in the Labrador Peninsula".
Paper presented to 37th Annual Meeting, Highway Research Board, Washington,
January 19S8.
(10) Crawford, C. B. "Frost Penetration Studies in Canada as an Aid to Construction",
Roads and Engineering Construction, Vol. 93, No. 2, February 1955, p. 71.
(11) Douglas, M. C. v., and R. N. Drummond. "Map of Physiographic Regions of
Ungava-Labrador". Canadian Geographer, No. 5, 1955, p. 9-16.
Report on Assignment 8
Fences
L. J. Deno (chairman, subcommittee), F. N. Beighley, J. G. Gilley, L. V. Johnson,
G. F. Nigh, J. A. Noble, W. O. Trieschman.
After making a canvass of roads represented by committee members as to their
present standards for right-of-way fences, your committee came to the conclusion that
some changes are necessary in our present specifications. In general, it was decided to
include illustrations of the four classes of recommended right-of-way fences; to change
the recommended span length from 20 ft to 16 ft 6 in; and to revise the section on
materials to include all the types of fence posts for which there are specifications in
the Manual.
The specific recommendations of your committee are as follows:
Pages 1-6-10 to 1-6-14, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR RIGHT-OF-WAY FENCES
Reapprove with the following revisions:
Page 1-6-10: Change present Arts. 2. Class A Fence; 3. Class B Fence; 4. Class C
Fence; and 5. Class D Fence to read "2. Class A Fence (See Fig. 1); 3. Class B Fence
(See Fig. 2) ; 4. Class C Fence (See Fig. 3); and 5. Class D Fence (See Fig. 4)",
respectively.
Insert the illustrations designated as Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (presented herewith)
immediately following page 1-6-10.
Page 1-6-11: Delete .A.rts. 1, 2 and 3 and substitute the following:
1. Intermediate or Line Posts
See Specifications for Wood, Concrete or Metal Fence Posts in this Chapter.
2. End, Corner, Anchor and Gate Posts
See Specifications for Wood, Concrete or Metal Fence Posts in this Chapter.
Redesignate Arts. 4 to 8, incl., as Arts. 3 to 7, incl.
Page 1-6-12: Redesignate Art. 9 as Art. 8.
In the second line of Art. 2, Sec. C, Change "20 ft" to read "16 ft 6 in."
Roadway and Ballast
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Report on Assignment 9
Roadway Signs
(a) Reflectorized and Luminous Roadway Signs, Collaborating with
Committees 5 and 9, and the Signal Section, AAR
(b) Develop Standard Close Clearance Warning Sign, Collaborating
with Committee 28
J. E. Chubb (chairman, subcommittee), H. Bond, M. B. Davis, J. S. Felton, H. G.
Johnson, Paul McKay.
Your committee presents a report this year on Assignment (a) only. It is the
final report on the studies that have been carried out in regard to the feasibility of
new nuclear light sources. This research has been sponsored by the committee and
the Atomic Energy Committee, AAR, and is part of the work of the Research Depart-
ment, AAR, under the direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research,
and Rockwell Smith, research engineer roadway. The work was performed by the
Armour Research Foundation and is reported on by R. Holtzman and C. A. Stone of
that organization.
Feasibility Studies on New Nuclear Light Sources
By R. Holtzman' and C. A. Stone^
ABSTRACT
A study was made to determine the feasibility of using light sources activated by
nuclear radiation. Of the two types of light sources, a conventional light operated by a
nuclear battery, and phosphors directly activated by radioisotopes, the former was
shown to be impractical at the present time due to the inefficiency and high cost of the
possible systems. It was found that the commonly used directly activated phosphors
would have light outputs of 10 to SO times the present values, if they were modified to
make them transparent. Unsuccessful attempts were made to produce transparency by
compaction of the phosphor powders under high pressure, and it was found that it is
possible to grow transparent activated phosphor-type crystals of high radiation resistance.
None were available by the time of the conclusion of this work for determination
of their luminescent properties under nuclear radiation. The advantages of physically
or chemically mixing radioisotopes with the phosphors were examined, but due to the
relatively small gain to be achieved, this work was not pursued.
It was felt that because a survey of commercially available nuclear light sources
revealed that these sources were not suitable for signs and could be improved for
lamp purposes, this work of improvement should be continued further.
A. INTRODUCTION
Among the many applications of radioisotopes which have reached or are approach-
ing practical usage are nuclear light sources. It has long been established that ionizing
1 Research physicist, Nuclear Physics Section, Armour Research Foundation.
2 Supervisor, Nuclear Physics Section, Armour Research Foundation.
694 Roadway and Ballast
radiation will generate light in special materials whch have come to be known as
phosphors. Only recently, however, have artificially produced radioisotopes become
available in sufficient quantities and at a low enough price to consider large-scale use
of relatively bright nuclear sources.
The railroad industry has several uses for sources of light which require no external
power source, a minimum of servicing and which are not prohibitively expensive. Con-
siderable progress has been made towards providing a signal lamp with these char-
acteristics by commercial firms. Radioactive gas enclosed in a vessel with one transparent
end coated with a phosphor comes close to meeting the requirements outlined above.
A second problem is the need for self-luminescent signs, and, of course, it would be
desirable to improve the characteristics of the aforementioned signal lamps.
The research program discussed in this report has been a study of new approaches
to the design of nuclear light sources as well as methods for improving the characteris-
tics of the existing concepts. The program has been pursued with the problems of low-
level, self-luminescent signs as the major goal but has not excluded items of interest
to nuclear light sources in general, and as a matter of fact the most promising results
obtained would appear to be equally important to both applications of interest to
railroads.
B. PROBLEMS LIMITING APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR LIGHT SOURCES
Before proceeding with the accomplishments of the research, it is perhaps worth-
while to review the major problems in the development of practical light sources.
They can be classed in four interrelated categories.
First is light output. Both the brightness and color of the source must meet mini-
mum standards if the signal or sign is to be of any use. The output is determined
by the efficiency of the prosphor and by the maximum amount of energy (radio-
activity) which can be effectively used. The efficiency of the phosphor can be sub-
divided into the intrinsic efficiency, i.e., light output per unit energy loss and the
fraction of energy available which is absorbed. The maximum amount of activity is
determined by the self-absorption of nuclear radiation in the source material and in
some cases by the geometrical relationship of source to phosphor, since the further
the separation between source and phosphor, the less the utilization of activity.
Secondly there is the problem of cost. The choice of radioisotope and, therefore,
its cost is one parameter and the design and resulting fabrication cost are others.
The prices of isotopes have changed and will continue to change over the next few
years subject to demand and improvements in methods of production and separation.
This means that optimum balance between isotope cost and design cost can change.
Nevertheless it is possible to make a choice based on present-day figures.
Closely related to cost is the lifetime of the unit. The half life of the isotope is,
of course, one aspect of the problem. Radiation damage is an equally important one
since the useful life of the phosphor may be considerably less than that of the isotope
itself.
Finally there is the problem of safety. The uncontrolled spread of radioactivity
can pose a hazard. The degree of hazard is dependent on the chemical and nuclear
character of the isotope, the design of the container and the total amount of activity
required.
While this seems like a long list of problems to overcome, it is also a large number
of different areas in which to seek improvement. The various topics studied during
this program were aimed at overcoming one or more of the problems outlined above.
Roadway and Ballast 695
C. TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
1. Conventional or Electroluminescent Light Powered by Nuclear Battery
The problems in safety can arise from either uncontrolled release of radioactivity
or the external radiation hazard. One of the more efficient isotopes, strontium-90 (high
energy and high specific activity), would create both hazards if used in curie quan-
tities. It was felt that this might be avoided if a nuclear battery were used to power a
light source, since the battery could be buried, minimizing breakage and eliminating
external radation.
Nuclear batteries convert the energy of radioactive distintegrations into electrical
energy by various means. Five types have been under study at various laboratories.
a. The beta-ray current battery (1)* operates on the principle that the radioactive
source deposited on an electrode emits electrons which are collected on a second elec-
trode, creating an electric potential. The voltage of such a battery may be several
thousand volts but is limited by the current leakage over the insulators. The useful
current is limited by the disintegration rate of the radioactive material. One curie
(3.7 X 10^" disintegrations per sec) would produce a current of 6 X 10"° amp if all
the beta particles are collected on the second electrode. In practice the collection may
be much less than 10 percent and due to the high voltage a large fraction of the current
will be lost through air leakage around the terminals. Finally, as it is desirable to use
a plastic insulator between the electrodes, the amount of radioactivity is limited to
reduce radiation damage to the plastic. The cell containing one curie of activity, a cur-
rent of 10"^" amp and 1000 v will produce 10"' w. This is an efficiency of 0.02 percent if
one uses promethium-47 (maximum power r= 420 microwatts/curie). In principle the
use of tritium (maximum power ^35 microwatts/curie) would produce a high efficiency
on the basis of 1000 v potential and a current of 10"'° amp, but due to the self-
absorption of the extremely weak betas there will be less power. In practice it is not
possible to use a plastic insulator between the electrodes for either of the above two
isotopes because this material will stop the betas.
b. A second type of battery is the p-n junction semi-conductor type (2), (3), (4)
in which the semi-conductor, silicon or germanium, is irradiated with beta particles.
An avalanche of about 200,000 electrons is produced for every strontium-90** beta
stopped by the semi-conductor. The efficiency of this cell for visible light is about 6
to 10 percent and for radioactivity about 2 percent at a potential of only about 0.2 v.
As the cell function depends on the crystalline structure of the semi-conductor, it is
sensitive to radiation damage. A cell irradiated with SO millicuries of strontium-90 will
last only a few weeks.
c. A third type of battery is the contact-potential-difference battery in which a
potential of a few volts is produced by two dissimilar electrodes, such as magnesium
metal and lead oxide (4), (S), and a current is produced by electrons from a radio-
active materia], preferably a gas between the plates. The electrons are multiplied by a
factor of 200 times for tritium betas, and the potential is about 1.7 v per cell. Tracerlab
has built a 70-v battery (open circuit) with a short circuit current of 7 X 10"^° amp
with about 1 curie of tritium. This is a power of less than S X 10"* w, giving an
efficiency of less than 0.1 percent.
* Numbers in parenthesis refer to references at end of report.
** In referring to strontium-90 it is always assumed that strontium-90 is accompanied by the
2.2-Mev yttrium-90 daughter.
6Q6 Roadway and Ballast
d. The thermocouple type is powered by heat from a radioactive source (6) (7). In
this type a thermopile (a large number of thermocouples in series) was raised to a
high temperature by the decay energy of SO to 150 curies of polonium-210 giving an
efficiency of 0.1 to 0.2 percent, respectively, and a power output of 1.8 X 10"^ w and
9 X 10"° w, respectively, for the two batteries at 1.9 v. The efficiencies given here may
be improved one and possibly two orders of magnitude by the use of the newly devel-
oped semi-conductor and ceramic thermocouples instead of the previously used metal-
lic thermopiles. Jordan and Birden (6) give the work capacity as 1.8 and 9.2 times that
of a RM4Z commercial mercury cell with 30 percent less weight. This means that one
may obtain 2 to 10 w-hr out of such a battery. Polonium-210 has only a 138-day
half life, so this particular isotope is not practical. One may also use strontium-90 at
$10 per curie, with a power output per curie about 0.2 that of the polonium-210, but
the half hfe is 28 years. Another problem is the bremsstrahlung radiation produced by
the 2.2-Mev betas of the strontium-90 in that a large amount of radiation shielding
may be necessary. In cases where shielding is not an important problem, one may
be able to use inexpensive, mixed, raw fission products without much processing. More-
over, with the use of inexpensive radioactive materials it may be possible to produce
more powerful batteries up to 24 w (7), which will also operate at high temperatures
and with improved efficiencies.
e. Finally, another type of battery that has been constructed is a phosphor layer-
photocell type in which a phosphor is radioactivated and current is generated in a
photocell exposed to the phosphor. In this way the photocell is protected from radia-
tion damage. In this case radiation damage to the cell is much more serious than that
of the phosphor. The efficiency of the system is about 1 percent (a high figure for a
nuclear battery) with the use of promethium-147.
Table I shows the various aspects of maximum and expected power conversion
of the radiation of radioisotopes which might be useful in nuclear batteries.
With the price of strontium-90 at $10 per curie and promethium-147 at $3.25,
the cost of power from these materials is brought into the cost range of the flashlight
cell as shown by the comparable data given for a Type D flashlight cell producing
about the same power as about 15 curies of strontium-90. This source of power is
relatively expensive compared to larger batteries, storage batteries and especially to
electric utility power. An example of a battery designed for railroad service is the
2-S-J-l Carbonaire Battery produced by Thomas A. Edison Industries of Bloomfield,
N. J., which, it is claimed, will operate 10 months or more without maintenance at a
Lost of about $14, or less than $0.01 per w-hr. It must be mentioned here that the
costs are not actually comparable in that in the former case only the cost of part of the
materials in the power source is considered while in the latter case the finished product
is taken as a basis of cost. Hopefully, in large-scale production, the cost of completed
nuclear battery may only be a few times the cost of the isotopes.
One of the major difficulties experienced with nuclear batteries is the low energy-
conversion efficiency of radioactivity to usable electric power. At present there does not
seem to be much probability of increasing the efficiency much above 2 percent. (1) The
most efficient type at present is the p-n junction type which is up to 10 percent efficient
for light and could be about 8 percent efficient for beta rays, at least in principle,
with the use of multiple layer barriers. (4) Very likely its light efficiency will be
improved, in which case it may also be improved for conversion of beta-ray energy.
The efficiency of the thermocouple battery may be increased somewhat by the produc-
Roadwav and Ballast
697
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698 Roadway and Ballast
lion of larger radioactive sources and better insulation to increase the operating tem-
perature of the hot junction and improved thermocouples.
Most of the batteries are limited in the amount of radioactivity which may be
incorporated into them. This is due mainly to lack of resistance to radiation damage
breakdown. The main damage is produced in plastic insulators and seals, but this may
be corrected by the substitution of glass and mica for plastics. As mentioned earlier,
radiation will destroy the p-n junction cell in a short time, but this may be corrected
with use of new semi-conductors, although this is just a surmise. Another possibiHty
for present applications is to use low-energy beta emitters such as tritium (0.018 Mev)
or promethium-147 (0.223 Mev) so that no radiation damage is produced, as the
radiation damage threshold is about 0.3 Mev in theory. Radiation destroys phosphors,
plastics, and photocells used in the photo-junction type battery, but again improvement
in materials may make it possible to increase outputs and efficiencies.
A step in the use of nuclear batteries is conversion of the electrical energy into
light. A method suggested in the proposal for this project is the use of electrolumi-
nescence. Other possible methods are the use of fluorescent and other discharge tubes
and incandescent lights.
There are two main difficulties in the use of electroluminescence. First, the present
efficiency is low so that under the best conditions only about 12 lumens per w is pro-
duced. At 100 percent efficiency 1 w should produce 621 lumens at 5560 Angstroms. (8)
The efficiency of the electroluminescent device is therefore about 5 percent.
A second problem in the use of electroluminescence is the necessity of alternating
current with a frequency of a few hundred cycles per second or higher. The theory
of this principle of operation is that the electric field applied to the electroluminescent
phosphor may accelerate electrons which knock electrons out of the luminescent centers
to produce light. This field then must be reduced to allow electrons to fill the luminescent
centers. The rate of variation of this electric field determines the rate of filling and
emptying the luminescent centers, and the efiiciency of the device increases with fre-
quency up to the point where the electrons cannot empty the luminescent centers rapidly
enough to take advantage of the high frequency. This would involve a device to convert
the direct current of battery to alternating current. At the low powers possible with
nuclear batteries this device would have a maximum conversion efficiency of 90 percent
and would probably involve a mechanical device. If one assumes an efficiency 2 times
the present maximum, namely 10 percent, for electroluminescence, a 90 percent efiiciency
for the conversion of direct current to alternating current and an efficiency of 8 percent
for a nuclear battery (a high efficiency for the near future) (1), then the over-all
efficiency is the product of the three efficiencies or 0.7 percent conversion of radioactive
decay energy into light.
A nuclear battery with suitable characteristics of voltage and current could operate
light sources other than electroluminescent. The efficiency of fluorescent light (9) ranges
up to about 12.5 percent for 40-w tubes and probably one may obtain very low-
powered fluorescent lights. Similarly, the efficiency of incandescent lights ranges from 1
to 5 percent, with the efficiency an increasing function of the power consumption. There-
fore, a low-powered light bulb may have appreciably less than 1 percent efficiency. Gas
discharge tubes such as mercury are somewhat less efficient than the fluorescent lights
for the production of visible light, so these would probably not be useful.
If one is able to construct a suitable fluorescent light with a 10 percent efficiency
and a battery with 8 percent efficiency, the over-all efficiency would be 0.8 percent.
Other presently known electrically operated light sources would be less efficient.
Roadway and Ballast 609
It is concluded that nuclear batteries as a power source for light production make
inefficient use of the radioactive decay energy compared to the presently known radio-
activated light sources which attain efficiencies of about 10 percent. (10), (11) The
maximum efficiency obtainable from a nuclear battery is 2 percent at present (1) and
possibly 8 percent (4), and there are some limitations on the maximum power. The
advantage of a battery over a directly excited light source is that the large amount of
radioactive material may be easily shielded by burying or covering the battery with
building materials, while an exposed source would be difficult to shield and would
constitute a health hazard. In the future, if the prices of radioisotopes are further
reduced, a battery-light system might be more economical and desirable in spite of low
overall efficiency.
D. INCREASED EFFICIENCY UTILIZING LARGE TRANSPARENT PHOSPHORS
One approach to more practical light sources is the increased utilization of the
radiation energy. It is well known that the powdered phosphors currently used do not
effectively use the energy available from high-energy beta particles. The efficiency can
be improved if a stable and transparent phosphor of reasonable thickness can be made.
A comparison was made of the relative efficiencies in light output of radio-
activated phosphors in the transparent and powdered forms per beta particle. Four
types of phosphors were studied. The first was copper-activated zinc sulfide, a repre-
sentative of the usual and inherently most efficient type of phosphor. This type will
produce the most hght in a thin film per unit energy loss in the film, and the resistance
to radiation damage is fairly good. This type of phosphor generally is a non-transparent
powder.
A second type of phosphor is the alkali halide type, such as sodium iodide con-
taining a small amount of thallium activator. These materials have been developed as
scintillators for nuclear particle detection at low radiation levels. As a result, the
luminescent properties for constant light production and radiation resistance are not
well known. These materials are transparent, but the intrinsic luminescent efficiency of
these materials is about half that of zinc sulfide. As a result of having been developed
as scintillators in which the peak of the light output spectrum must match the sensi-
tivity of a photomultiplier tube, little has been done to produce scintilators with
spectral outputs near 5200 Angstroms, the peak sensitivity of the scotopic (dark-
adapted) eye. This reduces the efficiency for viewing by eye IS to SO percent, depending
on the wavelength and the efficiency of possible wavelength shifters.
A third type of phosphor is the organic crystal represented by anthracene, the
most efficient one known. Usually these materials must be highly purified to produce
a light output efficiency one-half that of sodium iodide, and there is a similar problem
of the spectral-emission peak. The organic phosphors may, however, be somewhat less
expensive than inorganic crystals.
A fourth type is the polystyrene plastic scintillator incorporating various wave-
length shifters to change the spectral output to a useful wavelength. While the efficien-
cies of these scintillators are somewhat less than that of anthracene (peak heights of 50
to 80 percent that of anthracene), these are even less expensive to produce and fabricate
than the crystalHne organic scintillators.
Several tyf>es of phosphors were chosen for study in that any of them may turn
out to be unsuitable for some reason, such as radiation damage which destroys the
luminescent properties. For example, the polystyrene might be better than anthracene
700
Roadway and Ballast
in that radiation damage even by ultraviolet light is known to reduce the scintillation
properties of anthracene. (12).
The relative light outputs of the four representative phosphors are shown in Table
II. It is assumed that the zinc sulfide powder obeys Lambert's law for the absorption
of its own emitted radiation, that is, the decrease in intensity with distance is propor-
tional to the intensity. The exciting radiation is absorbed exponentially by the phosphor
for a radiation source behind the phosphor. The derivation of the equation for the
light output of the phosphor is as follows:
dL{x) —\i(x)—eL{x)
dx
dLjx)
dx
- = \I„e-f'x -eL(x)
integrating
so that
C =
and
L(x)/Io=-
e-fi
ie-f'^-e-^^)
where
Lix) = light output
X = distance in phosphor
^^ ^^ conversion efficiency of exciting radiation into light (light energy/
cm)
I(x) =: intensity of exciting radiation as a function of :i"
/„ = intensity of exciting radiation at a: ^ 0
At ^^ absorption coefficient of the exciting radiation in the phosphor
e = absorption coefficient of the emitted radiation in the phosphor.
The efficiency of the phosphor for conversion of the exciting radiation into light
is thus ^/m, the fraction of energy converted to light. The unit of x is in mg/cm^,
as this is easier to determine in a powder and it is the unit used in beta-ray absorption
data. / and L{x) are in the same energy units. M is the absorption coefficient for beta
rays in cmVgm determined from the beta-particle range data using the assumption that
half the beta particles are stopped in l/S the effective range of the particles. (13). This
figure, which tends to weight the light output in favor of transparent phosphors, is
reasonable but may be as low as 1/10. The derived formula assumes that the intensity
of beta particles through the phosphor decreases exponentially, which is a good approxi-
mation up to one-half the range. At least 80 percent of the beta particles are stopped
to this one may use a phosphor thickness one-half
with little loss in light output in the transparent
in this thickness. As a corollary
the range of the beta particles
phosphors.
The value of e is based on a
half thickness of 20 mg/cm^ and an example is given
for 10 mg/cm^. The values obtained from various data in Leverenz (14) give 2 to
Roadway and Ballast
701
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702
Roadway and Ballast
30 mg/cnf for the half thickness, although this value may be as much as SO mg/cm"
in some cases. The half thickness for the transparent materials is large compared to the
maximum thickness of material involved (1000 mg/cm").
The values taken for the beta particle range were those obtained for the range in
aluminum. (15) These values depend on A/Z, the atomic mass number divided by the
atomic number, which for aluminum and for zinc sulfide, are essentially the same. The
efficiency of the phosphors for production of light is shown in Table II. (16). The
relative values of the efficiencies are fairly good, but they may vary ±25 percent in
practice due to the particular samples of phosphors used and geometry. The absolute
values are not reliable, as shown by the absolute efficiency of anthracene which varies
from 3 to 10 percent, depending on the particular experimenter.
An additional efficiency correction is made to compensate for the spectral emission
of the phosphor. The efficiency of a phosphor is stated as the emission energy of light
divided by the excitation energy. The light output may be at the very blue end of the
spectrum with a high energy per quantum, so that conversion to light at 5200 Ang-
stroms produces an energy loss in that the wavelength is shifted quantum for quantum
rather than energy for energy. Table III gives the efficiency factor to convert the peak
emission to emission at 5200 Angstroms. The conversion factor for the efficiency without
the use of a wavelength shifter taking account of the sensitivity of the scotopic eye is
shown in the last column in Table III.
Table II shows that if weak beta emitters are to be used to produce the exciting
radiation, there is a gain of two in the use of transparent zinc sulfide, but no advantage
in the use of other phosphors. If high energy beta emitters are used, a transparent zinc
sulfide phosphor 2.4 mm thick has a gain of 10 over the powder of transparent phosphor
activated by promethium-147 and a gain of 30 over a promethium-activated powder.
There is a gain of 2 to 4 in the use of sodium iodide or anthracene over the powder
Table III
CORRECTION FACTOR TO CONVERT EIHSSION PEAK LIGHT
OF PHOSPHOR TO PEAK AT 520o8
Phosphor
Etaission
Efficiency Factor
Peak
for Wavelength
(K)
Shifter
Conversion Factor
Without Wavelength
Shifter (Sensitivity
of Scotopic Eye at
Emission Peak)
ZnS(Cu)
, 5200
Nal(Tl)
hioo
Anthracene
I45OO
Polystyrene
li5oo
1.00
0.79
0.86
0.86
1.00
0.35
0.1.5
o.h5
Roadway and Ba Hast 703
if high-energy beta emitters are used. If it is assumed that the absorption of emitted
light in the phosphor has a half thickness of 10 mg/cm^ then a transparent phosphor has
an additional advantage of a factor of about 6 for the use of a weak beta emitter and
a gain of 1^ in the use of strontium-90.
As a result of this data an attempt was made to produce transparent zinc sulfide
by compaction of the powder. This method has long been used to produce transparent
potassium bromide windows for use in infrared spectrometers, and it is known, that
other alkali halides may be so compressed. Alkali-halide phosphors have been produced
in this laboratory. It was thought that a similar process might occur in the compaction
of zinc sulfide.
In order to test this hypothesis attempts were made to compress ^inc sulfide
powders and phosphors employing the alkali-halide techniques. This consists of evacu-
ating the air from the sample and compressing it at 180,000 psi. This produced a
pellet with a shiny surface but no appreciable transparency was observable. Subse-
quently, a small compaction die was used and the pressure raised to about 430,000 psi,
but no improvement in transparency was observed. Moreover, upon compression the
color of the phosphor powder changed from white to brown, and the luminescent
properties were destroyed. Similar results were obtained with a zinc sulfide-cadmium
sulfide phosphor obtained from the General Electric Company. In this case, besides
losing luminescence, the phosphor changed from green to brown and no transparency
was observed.
We then tried a mixture of the phosphor and potassium iodide. The latter material
was chosen as one which is compactible into a transparent luminescent mass and one
with which this laboratory had had experience. A mixture of 50 percent potassium
iodide and SO percent of the phosphor was made up, mixed thoroughly and then com-
pacted. Several phosphors were used — a zinc sulfide phosphor from the Radio Cor-
poration of America, a similar one from the Sampson Chemical and Pigment Company
in Chicago and a zinc silicate phosphor from the latter company. The compacts, about
1 mm thick, showed very little light transmission (1 to 2 percent) when made with
zinc sulfide and potassium iodide. The zinc silicate was essentially opaque, due probably
to the fact the phosphor grains themselves are opaque. The zinc sulfide phosphors may
be transparent, and the lack of transparency of films of the powder is due to light
scattering by the small particles. Measurements with a spectrophotometer showed the
compact to have an optical density about 25 percent that of a film with an equal
amount of zinc sulfide. This indicates that while the transparency is small, there may
be an appreciable improvement in the use of the compact.
W. Metcalf of the Eagle-Picher Company was contacted and the possibihty of
obtaining large crystals of a phosphor was discussed. This company has been growing
large crystals of cadmium sulfide for use in semi-conductor studies which are available
on a commercial basis. It has also grown large clear zinc sulfide and zinc sulfide-
cadmium sulfide crystals. Both of these materials in the powder form are good phos-
phors under beta-ray excitation. It is also possible to "dope" these large crystals with
other materials so that they would have the same chemical composition as the phosphors.
In order to determine the feasibility of using a "doped" single crystal, several
cadmium sulfide crystals with 0.05 percent silver, which were readily available, were
obtained. These are fairly transparent and do luminesce, under X-ray excitation,
with a reddish color, the characteristic color of a cadmium sulfide-silver phosphor. These
are not very active, but they are heavily "doped" compared to phosphor powders and
much less transparent than the pure crystals. Both factors may reduce light output.
704 Roadway and Ballast
No scintillation properties were observable as the excitation sources are weak and the
photomultiplier tubes used are insensitive at the red end of the spectrum. It was felt
that sufficient success has been obtained with visual observations under X-ray excitation
to pursue the zinc sulfide crystals.
One does not know how well "doped" zinc sulfide crystals will work, since there
has been little study of them as phosphors. Some information is known from the work
of Toralinson (17) who grew single zinc sulfide crystals and activated them with copper
and chlorine. These crystals were luminescent under ultraviolet excitation and in the
presence of an electric field (electroluminescence) but their action under high energy
beta and X-ray excitation is not known.
Several large "doped" crystals were ordered at this juncture so that measurements
on light yield and transmission could be made. These are not routine production items,
and Eagle-Picher was unable to supply any phosphors prior to completion of the
program.
During the period in which we were awaiting delivery, measurements on other
powder phosphors were continued. A crystal of thallium-activated potassium iodide
which has total light output about the same as that of sodium iodide was used as a
standard phosphor. Various silver-activated zinc sulfide and zinc sulfide-cadmium sulfide
phosphors were made into thin films of various thicknesses on a glass slide. These were
produced by evaporating an alcoholic slurry of the phosphor powder on a known area
of a glass microscope slide. By weighing the slide before and after adding the powder,
the film thickness can be determined.
The phosphors, excited by a radioactive beta emitting source, were placed on a
photomultiplier tube and the current from this tube was measured. This current is
proportional to the light output of the phosphor. The detector used was about equally
sensitive to all the wavelengths of light emitted from the various phosphors. Table IV
shows the results of this work.
This table shows that, when activated by strontium-90 betas, the transparent potas-
sium iodide phosphor produces about 25 times the light output of the best of the
phosphors available from the General Electric Company, and even when the sensitivity
of the eye is taken into account there is still a factor of 20 between the powder and
transparent crystal. If an isotope emitting a weaker beta is used this ratio will decrease,
probably to about 5 if krypton-85 is used.
The film thicknesses used here were about 7 mg/cm^ for maximum Ught output
of the powder phosphors. This is to be compared to the calculated maximum of approxi-
mately SO mg/cm^. The difference is probably due to the fact that the coefficient of
light transmission was assumed to he too large. Moreover, as this coefficient appears
in an exponential function, the thickness is very sensitive to this value.
A difficulty in these measurements was that most of these phosphors are excited
to emit light long after exposure to visible hght. This excitation decays in a few minutes
to many hours, depending on the phosphor. The previously seen unreasonable results
(efficiencies were greater than 100 percent, etc.) were due to this phenomenon. This
was eliminated by setting up the instrument in a minimum of Ught, allowing the
light emission to decay away and by using a more intense source to make the light
excitation effects negligible.
Two samples of its best phosphors were obtained from U. S. Radium Corporation.
One, 8S2A, emitting in the blue and the other, Y-240, emitting in the yellow regions
of the spectrum. The results are listed in Table V.
Roadway and Ballast
705
Table IV
REUTIVE LIGHT OUTPUT OF PHOSPHORS
Phosphor
Radioactive
Source
Current
(Amperes)
Ratio
to
KI(Tl)
Value
Potassium Iodide
Thallium-Activated Sr
Zinc Sulfide
Silver-Activated Sr
Zinc Sul fide-Cadmium Sulfide
Copper-Activated Sr
Cadmium Sulfide Crystal
Silver-Activated Sr
90
90
90
90
Compact: 50 percent KI(Tl)
(ZnCd)S:Cu Sr
90
2I45 X 10"^
2.8 X 10'
,-9
9.7 X 10"^
0.78 X 10"^
(background)
7.3 X 10'
,-9
1/88
l/?5
0
1/30
Table V — Light of Phosphors
DC Current Light-Out -
PhotomidtipUer put Relative
Phosphor Tube ( Amperes) toKI(Tl)
KI (Tl) (Crvstal) 245x10"' 1.00
852A 2.0x10" 1/8.^
Y-240 5.QxlC" 1/42
These data confirm the conclusion that the best powder phosphors are inferior in
light output to the intrinsically less efficient transparent potassium iodide crystals.
E. ADDITION OF RADIOISOTOPES TO PHOSPHOR
One problem involved in the use of radioactivated phosphors as light sources is to
determine the optimum method of relating the radioactivity to the phosphor. The
simplest method would be to produce separate phosphors and radioactive sources, then
if the source becomes weak or the phosphor loses efficiency only one of these need be
replaced. It may also be difficult to combine the source into the phosphor due to the
effect of impurities on the luminescent properties of phosphors. However, due to the
cost of the radioisotopes and to safety considerations, it may be necessary to keep the
radioactivity to a minimum so that a separate source may be undesirable.
It has been suggested that the efficiency of a phosphor-radioisotope combination
may be improved by mixing the radioisotope directly with the phosphor, possibly by
chemical combination with the phosphor. Chemical combination would possess several
advantages over a separate source and phosphor or physical mixing.
706 Roadway and Ballast
a. In the case where very weak beta emitters, such as tritium, are used only radio-
active atoms and phosphor would be present. This would reduce the non-light-producing
absorption of the beta particles.
b. If an organic phosphor is used, tritium may be easily incorporated into the
phosphor. Moreover, an extraneous, non-luminescent material might even quench the
luminescence of the phosphor.
c. A source made up of radioactive material over which a phosphor is placed may
have a large amount of self-absorption and backscattering due to surrounding materials
which will reduce the available radiation. The seriousness of this problem may be
greatly reduced by mixing the radioactive materials with the phosphor or using a thin
transparent beta source with phosphor on both sides.
d. Mixing may produce a non-transparent material, thereby greatly reducing its
efficiency while it may be possible to incorporate the radioisotopes directly into the
transparent phosphor without quenching its luminescence.
e. Another problem is that radioisotopes are usually not pure radioisotopes but
contain extraneous material, much of which may be chemically the same as the radio-
isotopes. In this case it may be profitable to incorporate this directly into a phosphor
to reduce non-light-producing self-absorption of the betas in the phosphor. In case
a large concentration of pure radioisotopes is needed, there may be an appreciable
amount of the radioisotopes present, and efficiency might be improved if this were part
of the phosphor.
f. It may be safer to incorporate the radioisotope into the phosphor in case the
sign is broken. There will be little advantage to this unless the radioisotope is in
powder form and the phosphor in large crystals. In this case there would be somewhat
less probability of spreading radioactive contamination. Also, it would be possible to use
safer low energy isotopes. An example is strontium-90 versus tritium; the maximum
permissible limit of strontium-90 in the body is 1 microcurie while that of tritium is
10^ microcuries. (18) While the ratio of the power of strontium-90 to that of tritium
is ISO, even ISO curies of tritium is still safer by a factor of 6S than 1 curie of stron-
tium-90. Even promethium-147 is 10 times safer than strontium-90 per unit of power.
The disadvantages to chemical incorporation of the radioisotopes are the following:
a. The gain in efficiency, except in particular cases, will be small and in case of
mixing a small (several curies/gm) amount of radioisotopes with a powder will be
negligible.
b. Phosphors are difficult to produce, the conditions of mixing are critical and
there is danger of radioactive contamination spreading when the materials are heated
and mixed. Also, it may be necessary to purify and crystallize the radioactive phosphors.
c. It is much more costly to handle radioactive materials than nonradioactive ones
of the same type.
d. The safety advantages are not great as the radioactive material may be fixed
in a binder, and in an accident powder may be formed in any case.
e. There is little advantage to low-energy beta emitters except from the point
of view of safety and in thin film phosphors where the beta energy could be used
efficiently. The total power per curie of strontium-90 is such that over ISO curies
of tritium would be needed to equal it, if it is assumed that there is equal efficiency for
the conversion of radioactive energy into light. The efficiency of some inorganic phos-
phors varies in the low-energy region such that at 6 kev (average energy of tritium
betas) beta energy the luminescent efficiency is directly proportional to the voltage. (19)
There are some losses due to the bremsstrahlung radiation emitted by the high energy
Roadway and Ballast 707
yttrium-90 betas, but these are small. In this case the bremsstrahlunp may produce
problems in shielding of the radioactivity, though.
This survey shows that there is little advantage at present to binding the radio-
isotope into the phosphor by chemical means, unless it is found that tritium should
be used. Any gain would probably be less than 50 psrcent as compared to the use of
transparent phosphors which, if successful, would produce a gain of at least an order
of magnitude in light output.
F. COMMERCIAL LIGHT SOURCES
1. New England Nuclear Corporation
One light source commercially available was investigated and the characteristics
were determined in a conversation with Dr. E. Shapiro of the New England Nuclear
Corporation, which produces the Atomhght. This device is a phosphor-coated glass
container filled with tritium gas to sub-atmospheric pressure and sealed off. The con-
tainer is then encapsulated in an aluminum or brass holder and covered with a Plexi-
glass window to protect the container. For added safety the window may also be
sealed with an 0-ring to prevent the escape of tritium in case of glass container
breakage.
The light output varies from 15 microlamberts to about 600 microlamberts, de-
pending on the source size. The latter-size source is a 1.15 in diameter light source
observable at 100 ft in twilight. Increased tritium pressure did not improve the light
output because of the energy loss due to the self-absorption of the betas in the gas,
but some added light output may be obtained with the use of a spherical container.
This gas-filled source is more or less temperature independent between — 186 deg C
and -1- 100 deg C where the light measurements were obtained only qualitatively at the
temperature extremes. A similar light source using chemically bound tritium in the
phosphor gave no light output at the above temperature extremes.
The average energy of the betas emitted by tritium is 6 kev and the maximum
energy is 18 kev. Consequently, while as much as 3 curies of tritium is used, only
a few counts per minute of x-radiation penetrates the walls of the source. The stability
was good, and in tests conducted over one year the decrease in light levels was that
due only to the radioactivity decay of the tritium.
The approximate cost of the light sources is: NEL 1 — $100, NEL 2— $80 and
NEL 3— $145. NEL 1 and NEL 3 are the same 1.15 in diameter, except that NEL 3
has the 0-ring construction. NEL 2 is of slightly smaller size. These sources are avail-
able only in blue, green and red. Other colors were found to have low light output or
were unstable.
The cost of this light source apparently depends mainly on labor so that mass
production could greatly decrease the cost.
The source might be useful as a marker and could possibly be modified for low-
level sign illumination.
2. United States Radium Corporation
The United States Radium Corporation produces various types of radioactivated
light sources with intensities up to 1000 microlamberts. Their sources use krypton-85,
strontium-90 and tritium with various types of zinc sulfide phosphors which are stable
in the sources up to 100 microlamberts, but which are damaged at the higher intensities.
708 Roadway and Ballast
This damage may be due to radiation deterioration of the organic materials in the
sources.
The high brightness sources are gas-filled Kr*' sources similar to the Atomlight,
while other sources use Sr™ mixed with phosphor.
The cost of this high brightness source varies from about $50 per unit for 250
unit lots to about $125 for a single unit, and prices on other types of sources would
depend on the source type and construction. This source is visible for over 500 yd in
twilight and the phosphor intensity may vary from ±5 to ±25 percent for extremes
of outdoor temperatures, depending on the type of phosphor used.
The tritium type, used for small signs, is bright enough that it may be seen in the
dark by a person whose eyes are light adapted. The surface 'brightness of a sign con-
taining 2 curies of tritium is about 100 microlamberts, close to the maximum obtainable.
The sign had 2 lines 6 in long of ^-in letters and was of very simple construction.
Two grooves were milled in a plastic block and this was sealed with an opaque plastic
sheet containing transparent letters backed by a phosphor. A large sign similar to this
could be made, although it would be fairly expensive and of limited light output.
Signs using krypton-85 could be made, but as this isotope has a higher decay
energy, radiation damage and escape of the gas may be a problem, so that in such
a sign it may be necessary to use more expensive glass or glass and metal construction.
Mr. Taylor was not very hopeful about the economics of such a sign.
G. CONCLUSION
The studies and experiments performed during this program have thus lead to a
series of conclusions concerning the ideas which were initially suggested as possible
means for improving nuclear light sources.
Conventional lights powered by a nuclear battery do not appear to represent a
sufficiently great improvement to warrant further consideration and effort. This approach
would permit enclosure of the radioactivity in a very durable housing which ultimately
could be buried. This would, of course, virtually eliminate the safety problem. However,
even the most optimistic prices for isotopes lead us to conclude that the cost per unit
power would be 10 times as great as a conventional battery supply. We have not taken
into account the reduced maintenance by virtue of the expected long life, but it does
seem doubtful to us that even maintenance costs could overcome this large differential.
Equally important is the fact that, in spite of a fair amount of research, no one has
yet succeeded in making the comparatively high-powered nuclear battery that would
be required. It is possible, however, that with the emphasis being placed on long-lived
power supplies for space research, a solution may be forthcoming in the next few years.
We would not recommend that the railroads pursue this approach for the time being.
The most promising approach for an improvement on existing sources, and there-
fore a closer approach to practicality, lies in the use of thick, clear, high-efficiency
phosphors. As was indicated in Section D, gains of from 10 to 50 in light output can
possibly be achieved. This represents, we feel, sufficient potential to warrant further
investigation. This approach is not without its problems. Radiation damage represents
a large hurdle. As was pointed out, zinc sulfide represents the best possibility for avoid-
ing radiation damage, but the technology of growing large "doped" crystals is still in
its infancy. Therefore, a program to continue this line of investigation should pursue
at least two avenues — the production of zinc sulfide phosphors and the search for other
phosphors which have high efficiency and radiation resistance.
Roadwav and Ballast 709
After considering the pros and cons of adding the radioactivity to the phosphor
by either chemical or physical means, we conclude that this offers no great improve-
ment, with the possible exception of the isotope tritium. For high energy (greater than
100 kev) beta emitters, the only gain is a slight increase in efficiency through better
;,ource-to-phosphor geometry. The cost and difficulty of combining the two materials
would seem to negate any increased efficiency available. In the case of tritium, a factor
of 10 improvement is possible if the tritium is added chemically to an organic phosphor.
In such a case, however, the question of radiation damage reappears. On this basis
it would seem inadvisable to pursue this approach also.
We briefly mentioned in a letter, towards the end of the project, the possibility
of a new technique being of advantage for nuclear light sources. This represents the use
of clathrate compounds which can hold foreign molecules much in the fashion of a sponge
without changing the properties of the clathrate itself. Two possibilities are evident.
If a phosphor can be found with clathrate properties, then the inclusion of radioactivity
might be a simple and straightforward process. In the case of krypton, it is conceivable
that instead of a gas-tight vessel a clathrate could be used to contain the activity thus
reducing the complexity and cost.
In summary, we would recommend a continuing program to further investigate the
problem of large and efficient phosphors and to examine the characteristics and advan-
tages of clathrates as applied to nuclear light sources.
REFERENCES
1. Thomas, Alexander. Nucleonics 13, No. 11, 129 (1955).
2. Rappaport, P., Loeferski, J. J., and Linder, E. G., A Study Program on Possible
Uses of Radioactive Materials in Electronic Devices. Final Report AD-30732.
3. Lomer, W., The Direct Conversion of Beta-Irradiation Energy to Low Voltage
Electrical Energy AERE-T/M-108.
4. Pfann, W. G., and van Roosbroeck, W., J. App. Phys. 25, 1422 (1954).
5. Thomas, Alexander and Petrocchi, Jane, Investigations on Utilization of Radioactive
Energy as a Source of Battery Power Quarterly Reports, Series of 10 Reports —
Department of Army Project No. 3-99-09-022 — Signal Corps Project No. 162B.
6. Jordan, K. C. and Birden, J. H., Thermal Batteries Using Polonium-210 (Informa-
tion Report) June 2, 1954, MLM-984.
7. Heyd, J. W. and Jordan, K. C, The Mound Laborator_\- Thermal Battery: Some
Practical Considerations, MLM-1060.
8. American Institute of Phy.'^ics Handbook (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957)
Page 6-9.
9. Ibid, 6-77.
10. Meeting of Subcommittee C of Committee VII — Materials Research, Signal Section,
Association of American Railroads, Nov. 13, 1957.
11. New England Nuclear Corporation, Cambridge, Mass.
12. Black, F. A., Phil. Mag. (Series 7) 44, 263 (1953).
13. Friedlander, G. and Kennedy, J. W., Nuclear and Radiochemistry, (John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York. 1955), p. 199.
14. Leverenz, H. W., An Introduction to Luminescence of Solids, (John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, 1950), p. 425.
15. Friedlander, G., and Kennedy, J. W., op cit, p. 202.
16. Swank, R. K., Ann. Rev. Nuclear Sci. 4, 11 (1954).
710 Roadway and Ballast
17. Tomlinson, T. B.. Luminescence in ZnS:Cu, CI Single Crystals, Journal of Elec-
tronics 2, 293 (1056).
18. National Bureau of Standards, Handbook 52, Maximum Permissible Amounts of
Radioisotopes in the Human Body and Maximum Permissible Concentrations in Air
and Water.
10. Hill, C. G. A., British Journal of Applied Physics, Supplement 4, p. 6 (1954).
Report on Assignment 10
Ballast
(a) Tests
(c) Special types of ballast
(d) Specifications for sub-ballast
R. H. Beeder (chairman, subcommittee), E. W. Bauman, J. G. Campbell, J. P. Dates-
man, A. T. Goldbeck, E. W. McCuskey, R. L. McDaniel, J. W. Thomas, Stanton
Walker, C. E. Webb.
Your committee reports this year on two of its three assignments, namely, (a) Tests,
and (c) Special Types of Ballast. In addition, the committee submits recommendations
for revision of Specifications for Prepared Stone, Slag and Gravel Ballast.
The report on Assignment (a) is presented as information and is a progress report
on ballast tests being carried on at the Association of American Railroads Research
Center.
The report on Assignment (c) is also submitted as information and is a progress
report of the activities of the joint committee representing the AREA and the Asphalt
Institute on asphalt ballast treatment.
Manual Recommendations
Gravel in many areas is produced from large oversize material in which substan-
tially all particles are crushed and which is, therefore, essentially a crushed stone. In
order to classify crushed gravel ballast as crushed stone and give it the same gradation
requirements as recommended for crushed stone and crushed air-cooled blast furnace
slag ballast, your committee submits the following recommendations for adoption and
publication in the Manual.
Pages 1-2-2 to 1-2-4, incl.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR PREPARED STONE, SLAG
AND GRAVEL BALLAST
Page 1-2-3: Under the table in Art. 4 (b), change the present "Note:" to read
"Note 1:"
Add the following as a second note und«r this table.
"Note 2: Gravel meeting these requirements for grading and having not less than
75 percent crushed particles with two or more fractured faces and not more than 5
percent of uncrushed particles shall be considered as crushed stone."
In the table under Art. 4 (c) change the Percent Crushed Particles for G-3 gravel
ballast to read 41-75 instead of 41-100.
Roadwav and Ballast
711
Report on Assignment 10 (a)
Ballast Tests
This is a report on the ballast tests in progress at the AAR Research Center.
The research is sponsored by Committee 1 and is under the general direction of
G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, and Rockwell Smith, research engineer
roadway. It is supervised and reported by G. L. Hinueber, assistant research engineer
roadway.
Previously, results on 17 ballasts tested with the oscillator equipment were reported.
Recently, new dynamic test equipment consisting of an Amsler Pulsator and hydraulic
jacks were received and installed in the AAR Engineering Laboratory. This equipment
is being utilized for repeated-loading tests on ballast as described in the AREA Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 59, 1958, page 818. Figs. 1 and 2 are two views of the new ballast test
equipment in operation showing the loading frame, pulsator, hydraulic jacks, and the
ballast test sections.
The test program is not far enough advanced as yet to report data or results or
to draw any conclusions. It is expected that a fairly comprehensive report on test
results will be presented next year.
Fig. X,
712
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 2.
Report on Assignment 10 (c)
Special Types of Ballast
Under committee sponsorship the Research Department, AAR, has entered into a
cooperative agreement with the Asphalt Institute for the study of the methods and
economies involved in the treatment of ballast sections with asphaltic materials. A pro-
gram involving approximately 31 miles with an equivalent length of untreated check
sections has been projected for 1959 application, ranging geographically from Illinois
to California, and including crushed limestone, blast furnace slag, chat and volcanic
cinder ballast.
Specially equipped cars have been completed to facilitate the spraying of hot
asphalts and the spreading of a chip or screening cover coat or seal as may be required
Roadway and Ballast
713
Fig. 1 — Specially equipped hopper car developed by the Barber-
Green Company.
714
Roadway and Ballast
Fig, 2 — Partially completed asphalt distributor car developed by the
E. D. Etnyre Company,
following the ballast penetration application. Fig. 2 shows the partially completed
asphalt distributor car developed by the E. D. Etnyre Company, Oregon, 111., and
Fig. 1 shows the specially equipped hopper car developed by the Barber-Greene Com-
pany, Aurora, 111.
This report is submitted as information.
Report on Assignment 11
Chemical Control of Vegetation
Collaborating with Signal Section and Communications Section, AAR
C. E. Webb (chairman, subcommittee), C. R. Bergman, P. G. Martin, S. J. Owens,
A. J. Pacelli, A. C. Parker, Jr., W. F. Petteys, W. O. Trieschman.
The report on this assignment, presented as information, consists of four parts.
Part 1 is a report on vegetation-control research at Iowa State College under its coop-
erative agreement with the Engineering Division, AAR. This is the final report on the
work at that institution. Part 2 is a similar report of the work at North Carolina
State College, which will be continued through 1959. Part 3 is the report of the AAR
research staff on the field studies conducted in 1958, and Part 4 is a discussion of the
probable costs involved in the development of a new herbicide.
Parts 1 and 2 were prepared by staff members of the colleges, as indicated. Parts 3
and 4 were prepared by C. G. Parris, agronomist, and Rockwell Smith, research engineer
roadway, of the AAR research staff. The work has been conducted under committee
sponsorship as part of the work of the Research Department, AAR, under the direction
of G. M. Mage«, director of engineering research, and the supervision of Rockwell Smith.
I
Roadway and Ballast
715
Part 1 — Vegetation Control on Iowa Roadbeds — 1958
By W. E. Loomis, W. M. Struve, and C. G. Wayweir
Major attention was given to tests of Simazine alone and with chlorate; to winter
applications of pellets and solutions of Simazine and Urox, and to tests of herbicidal
oils fortified with various chemicals. Work with CMU-chlorate (chlorea), unfortified
oils, and repeat treatments was continued. In addition one-mile strips of weedy track
were treated with previously recommended chemicals to demonstrate their effectiveness.
A planned re-treatment of many of last-year's plots at Kanawha was abandoned when
the area was inadvertently sprayed with Chlorea by the railroad crew.
Procedures were as previously reported. Sprays were applied with a power sprayer
mounted on a push car and spraying a strip one rod wide. Dry chemicals were weighed
and distributed carefully by hand. Plots were again two rods long with a check plot
strip between each pair of treatments. Control w'as estimated by comparing each plot
with the adjoining check plot. All treatments were replicated three to five times. Data
shown in the tables are an average of the percentage vegetation control on the replicate
treatments.
Weather was more normal than in 1957, and rainfall was moderate to very light
for some weeks after the earUer treatments were applied. July rainfall was above normal,
but the remainder of the season was dry. Plots were laid out on the Minneapolis &
St. Louis Railway tracks between Denhart and Kanawha in north central Iowa, and
on the Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern Railway lines south of Ames.
Tests with Substituted Urea Compounds and Simazine
Three series of tests contained substituted urea compounds or mi.xtures containing
these compounds and Simazine. The first of these consisted of a winter application,
made December 22, 1957, of Simazine and Urox, the latter a 3-(p-chlorophenyl)-l,
1-dimethylurea-trichloroacetate combination. The treated plots were not disturbed be-
tween December 22 and the date of scoring for vegetation control on September 19,
1958. The treatments and resultant data are shown in Table 1. Values for least significant
Table 1 — Winter Applications of Simazine and Urox at Ames
Form
Rale
Lb/A^
Vegelalion Control '
Rep. 1
Rep. e
Rep. 3
Avg.
Rank
Simazine-
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine
Simazine Plus 100 lb Chlorate
Simazine Plus 100 lb Chlorate
Urox
Urox
PeUets
PeUets
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
Pellets
PeUets
10
20
10
20
10
20
20
30
65
82
77
92
90
98
77
87
25
75
70
84
97
98
55
87
22
37
45
91
82
98
75
72
37
65
64
89
90
98
69
82
8
6
7
3
2
1
4
'Least significant difference; 59c =21.5, 19r =29.8.
^Active ingredient.
difference were obtained by an analysis of variance. Considering the rapid changes in
ballast and vegetation characteristics of track of the type used here, on the FDDM&S
south of Ames, these values are reasonably low. They indicate that differences between
treatments of less than 20 percent were not fully established for the conditions of the
1 Professor, formerly associate, and associate, respectively, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station
Ames, Iowa.
716
Roadway and Ballast
experiment. Thus the control by 30 lb active ingredient of Urox pellets was 13 percent
more than that by 20 lb, active ingredient a difference which was not statistically
significant. The addition of 100 lb of chlorate to 10 lb of Simazine, however, increased
the control by 26 percent, and the odds are thus close to 100 to 1 that a similar result
would be obtained if the treatments were repeated under the same conditions. Similar
odds apply to the conclusion that application of Simazine in solution was better than
the use of pellets.
Considering that pellets were used, the results obtained with 30 lb active ingredient
of Urox justify further consideration. One might estimate that the use of a spray or
of 40 lb active ingredient of pellets would have given fully satisfactory control of this
vegetation. The possibility of following moderately heavy winter treatments with
summer sprays of oil also suggests itself.
Keeping in mind that different results might have been obtained if the ballast,
vegetation or weather had been different, we can conclude: (1) That winter applications
of these chemicals show promise and should be tried where their use would have
economic or other advantages. From other and past experiments we would expect
results with CMU [Telvar W or monuron-3 (p-chlorophenyl)-l, l-dimenthylureal] sim-
ilar to those obtained with Simzaine. (2) That solutions are better than pellets. We have
had this indication in all comparisons of these two forms on track in Iowa. (3) That
Simazine apphcations may be markedly improved by adding chlorate at the light rate
of 'less than % lb per s)q rod.
The largest single experiment run during the year was a test of CMU and Simazine
with and without added chlorate in the fire retardant form of Chlorax (Chlorate-
borate). Four of the heavier treatments in this experiment fell by chance on plots
infested with essentially pure stands of perennial or swamp smartweed (Polygonum
coccineum) which is not controlled by recommended chemical applications for general
track use (Fig. 1). The result was one apparently poor replication and two very good
ones for these treatments.
The four smartweed plots were considered as missing, and were handled by the
missing plot technique. The data market by asterisks in Table 2 are the value cal-
Table 2 — Factorial Combinations or Chlorate, CMU, and Simazine — 1958
Chemical, Lb Active/ A
Vegetatio
n Control
Chlorate i
CMU
Simazine
Rep. I
Rep. 2
Rep. 3
Avg.
0
0
5
30
45
60
45
0
0
10
37
75
77
63
0
5
0
32
25
12
23
0
10
0
55
88
80
74
0
5
5
92
81
78
84
100
0
0
10
12
22
15
100
0
5
79*
80
94
84
100
0
10
96
85
95
92
100
5
0
87
80
91*
86
100
10
0
84*
95
90
90
100
5
5
85*
93
95
91
200
0
0
10
25
45
27
200
0
5
92
87
98
92
200
0
10
96
96
90
94
200
5
0
67
92
95
85
200
10
0
82
96
94
91
200
5
5
91
82
95
89
'Applied in form of Chlorax (sodium chlorate 40%, sodium metaborate 57%).
*Data for plota heavily infested with perennial smartweed calculated by missing plot technique.
Roadway and Ballast
717
Fig. 1 — Resistant weeds, perennial smartweed on the left and horsetail
on the right, after five annual applications of 10 lb of CMU.
culated in this manner. An analysis of variance showed that there were highly signiii-
cant differences among the treatments of the experiment, but we have not felt justified
in calculating least significant differences from the corrected data. As an estimate, differ-
ences of 20 points are considered to be statistically significant.
The data of Table 2 show; (1) That, under the conditions of the experiment, CMU
(Telvar W or monuron) and Simazine were equivalent, pound for pound of active in-
gredient. (2) That the addition of 100 lb of chlorate more than doubled the effectiveness
of S lb of CMU or Simazine and gave a slightly better average control than 10 lb of
these chemicals applied alone. (3) That the second 5 lb of CMU or Simazine or the sec-
ond 100 lb of chlorate gave only small increases in gercentage control. Results with CMU-
chlorate in past seasons have generally shown definite advantages in increasing CMU
from S lb actual to at least 8 lb, so that the controls obtained in this experiment can
be considered to be better than average.
We have previously recommended that small areas of weeds, such as perennial
smartweed, that are very difficult to control, be hand treated with heavy rates of
chlorate or other chemicals rather than to use a general spray treatment strong enough
to be effective against these resistant weeds.
Repeated Treatments
The year 1958 was the sixth year for the long-term, repeated treatment plots south
of Ames. Plots in the "B" group, treated every other year, were not sprayed in 1958.
718
Roadway and Ballast
It is therefore possible to estimate the carry-over effect of the chemicals of these plots.
Only the plots of treatment 7 which had received 20 lb of CMU in each of the years
1953, 1955, and 1957 gave full control (more than 90 percent) after one year without
treatment. The 79 percent control for CMU-chlorate (10-80 lb per acre, respectively)
applied in alternate years may be considered to be satisfactory. CMU alone at 10 lb
gave only a 64 percent carry-over, and all other treatments were below 25 percent.
Even when applied each year, only CMU, 20 lb, CMU-chlorate, 10-80 lb gave full
control, and CMU, 10 lb gave satisfactory control at the end of the season.
In contrast, when the regular spray on May 12 was followed by 100 gal of herbicidal
oil during the middle of August, all treatments except oil followed by oil gave essen-
tially full control. The late oil spray was applied about three weeks later than normal
this year, and this delay is assumed to have been responsible for the relatively poor
showing of oil plus oil. Most of the weeds on these plots were annuals that had made
so much growth by the time of the second spray that they were not fully controlled.
These results point up the importance of timeliness in weed-control work.
The general results of this test suggest that there is no probability of permanent,
one-shot control of on-track vegetation. On the other hand, relatively simple and inex-
pensive treatments can be effective if applied at the proper time and followed up
consistently.
Table 3 — Results with Repeated Treatments — 1958
Chemical.'^ and Rate/ Acre''
Vegetation Control ■
CMU-chlorate, 10-80 lb.
TCA-chlorat3, 40-80 ' lb
TCA, 401b
Oil (L-8764) 100 gal
TCA-chlorate, 40-80 lb_
Chlorate, 80 lb
CMU, 20 1b
CMU, 10 1b
'Least significant difference: .5% = 12.4, 1%
^Active ingredient.
3Not treated in 1958.
■•Plus 2 lb 2,4-D.
Tests with Herbicidal Oils
Three series of oil tests were run in 1958, two at Denhart in north central Iowa
and one at Ames. A test of seven herbicidal oils, similar to the test run at Ames last
year, was applied at Denhart on July 29 and rated on September 18. The late applica-
tion was intended to prevent seeding of annuals and to give the maximum all-season
control. The oils were medium to heavy aromatic oils, except Agronyl-R which is
a very heavy oil. All oils gave significant general vegetation control, but only two oils,
Cox-6 and Conoco-B, differed at the five percent level of significance. On the basis of
these and past results we estimate that two sprays about June and August 15 would
have given reasonably good weed control on this very foul track. One application was
not enough. The data are shown in Table 4. All oils were applied at 100 gal an acre.
Roadwa\' and Ballast
710
Table 4 — A Test of Seven Herbicidal Oils in North Iowa — 1958
Vti/claliun Control '
Oil
Rep. 1
Rep. 2
Rep. .i
A vy.
Cox-6 ---
9'>
17
35
25
Cox-00
2.5
30
35
30
Cox-65
30
40
."0
33
Conoco- A
42
37
10
30
Conoco-B^. ... . _
47
45
47
4(i
50
30
■'7
3(i
Stand.-L-87f)4
27
57
40
41
'Least significant difference: 5% = 18.t), ]%=25.9.
The second test at Denhart was based on the heavy catalytic cycle oil, Standard of
Indiana No. L-8764, and concerned the effect of various oil-soluble additives in increas-
ing the toxicity of an oil of this type. Chemicals added were trichlorobenzoic acid
(TBA), 3-(p-chlorophenyl)-l, 1-dimenthlurea (monuron or CMU), hexochloroacetone
(HCA), and a mixed organic sulfide. Diesel oil was compared with the heavy catalytic
oil in one test. The data in Table 5 show the oil, additive chemical, and rate of chemical
in lb active ingredient per acre. Sprays were applied at 100 gal an acre on June 12,
and ratings were made on September IS.
TBA at 24 lb and CMU at 10 lb in oil gave satisfactory vegetation control
although we are not convinced that this is the most economical way to use these chem-
icals. HCA had httle effect on broad-leaved plants, which tended to expand into the
area left by the reduction of grasses by this spray. There appears to have been a
synergistic action between L-8764 and HCA at the higher rates in the control of
grasses, and a similar action with the sulfides.
Something of the effect of later spraying on end of season control by oils can
be obtained by comparing L-8764 applied June 12, 17 percent in Table 5, with the
41 percent shown in Table 4 for a July 29 spray. The difference represents regrowth
of perennials and infestation with late annual weeds after a spray with only moderate
residual effects.
Table 5 — Effects of Various Added Chemicals on Weed Control by a Hea\'y
Catalytic and a Diesel Oil — 1958
Oil
Chemical and Hate
Vegetation Control i
Gra-'ines Only
All Veg.
L-8764
TBA, 24 lb
79
60
52
81
65
48
28
36
25
24
39
18
13
82
L-8704
TBA, 12 lb. . .
L-87fi4
TBA, (i lb
57
80
''3
L-87<i4
CML', 10 lb
L-87(i4
HCA, 6 lb .
L-87<)4
HCA, 3 lb
25
23
L-87t)4
HCA, 1.5 1b .
HCA, t) lb
9,5
HCA, 3 lb
91
HCA, 1.5 1b
21
L-87f34
Sulfides . . .
25
L-8764
17
Control . . .
15
'Least significant difference; Grasses only, 5% = 24, 1%=32; all veg,, 5% = 18, 1% =25,
720
Roadway and Ballast
In a third test of oils, the plots at Ames which were sprayed with oils last year
were resprayed, so far as possible with the same oils. Cox-6S was substitute for Cox-77
and Conoco-B for the Lion Oil Co, LHO-6, which were not available this year. The
oils were applied at the rate of 100 gal an acre on June 27, which is considered to be a
desirable date for single oil sprays in this area.
Vegetation was light on this strip of track, consisting mainly of blue grass and
annual weeds. The check plots looked bad, however, (Fig. 2) and the treated plots were
good (Fig. 3). The data are shown in Table 6. All of the oils may be considered to
have given a satisfactory vegetation control under the conditions of the experiment.
\ comparison of the data of Table 6 with those of Table 4 will illustrate the need of
interpreting single experiments with caution, even after statistical analysis. Cox-6S was,
on an average, poorer than Cox-6 at Ames but better at Denhart, while the reversal
of the Conoco oils in the two experiments approached statistical significance.
Table 6 — Second Year Oil Sprays at Ames, Iowa — 1958
Oil
Vegetation Control i
Rep. 1
Rep. 2
Rep. 3
Avg.
Cox-6
Cox-60 - -
87
87
65
80
80
75
90
98
70
85
77
92
75
70
92
92
87
82
87
90
77
93
95
99
81
85
Cox-65
Conoco-A
Conoco-B
76
87
77
79
Stand.-L-8764
92
Stand.-L-8764 -|- CMU, 10
96
'Least significant difference:' 5% = 11.2, 1% = 15.4.
Summary
Since this will be the last report to the AAR from Iowa, a few general conclusions
on the trend of the work here should be in order.
Vegetation control on track can be divided into root kill to eradicate perennials
and top kill to eliminate annuals or reduce interference of perennials. Root kill can be
obtained by a herbicide that is translocated downward through the roots, or by one
that penetrates the soil and acts directly upon the roots. Translocation of herbicides
involves the movement of poisons through delicate living tissues, and is difficult at the
best. Translocated applications are not essential on track, as they may be in a cultivated
field, and we, personally, would not ordinarily use 2,4-D, for example, in roadbed work.
In addition to the damage hazards, the Iowa work has shown no clear-cut demonstration
of the value of 2,4-D in track work. Brush-mix may have a place in brush control
on the right-of-way, but not, in our opinion for general use on track.
Where translocated chemicals, such as brush-mix, are used they should not be
mixed with top-killing chemicals which will completely prevent translocation by killing
the tissues concerned. Also, over-doses of translocated chemicals have the same effect.
One-half lb of 2,4-D per acre can do a better jo'b of killing Canada thistle than 2 lb,
and 8 lb simply burns off the tops, leaving the roots to sprout promptly and vigorously.
When the fire hazard is controlled, as with Chlorax (sodium chlorate-metaborate
mixture), sodium chlorate is one of the good root killers. It washes out of the top
soil or ballast too rapidly under some conditions and decomposes rapidly in warm soil.
Roadwav and Ballast
721
Fig. 2 — Check plot in the repeat oil sprays showing annual weeds on track
and perennials, mostly blue grass, on the shoulder.
Fig. 3 — Control of moderately heavy vegetation (Fig. 2) by two years of
spraying with 100 gal of a heavy catalytic cycle oil.
722
Roadwav and Ballast
Fig. 4 — Good weed control on heavy cinder ballast with a
heavy catalytic oil.
Combinations of chlorate with substituted urea compounds have been our most effec-
tive soil-acting weed treatments in Iowa and are recommended for foul track with
mixed weeds and grass.
Of the top killers or chemical mowers, the better herbicidal oils are, in our opinion,
the best thing available (Fig. 4). They have no livestock hazards and their effectiveness
is not destroyed by rain after application. Insofar as we have gone in determining the
most active oil fraction, it appears to be among the polycyclic aromatics. Paraffine oils
of moderately high boiUng points also have a slow, chronic poisoning. We have found
L-8764, with usually less than 40 percent aromatics, to be as effective as special weed-
killer oils with 70 percent aromatics and, generally, with lower boiling points. For the
present it does not seem feasible to buy herbicidal oils on specifications alone. There
should be, in addition, evidence of their effectiveness as herbicides.
Finally, and perhaps more difficult to put into practice under present economic
conditions, weed control requires persistant, continuing action. One year missed for
budget reasons will allow for reinvasion of the track by perennials and the production
of a new crop of seeds of annuals that will make trouble for years. Equally trouble-
some at times, the proper period for a particular spray may last no more than two or
three weeks. The railroad that wishes to maintain a single spray train in operation for,
a maximum period cannot expect maximum results in vegetation control.
For the future — we hope that better, and especially cheaper phenylurea type of
chemicals will become available, and that oils may be improved, either by refinery
processes or by cheap additives.
Roadway and Ballast 723
Part 2 — Railroad Weed Control, North Carolina State College
By Glenn C. Klingman and Merrill Wilcox'
A research program aimed toward roadbed weed control was started in North
Ca/olina in the spring of 1957. The program has been conducted in cooperation with
the Research Center of the Association of American Railroads, the Durham & South-
ern Railway and the Norfolk Southern Railway. The results at the end of the first
growing season were reported as Part 2 of the report on Chemical Control of Vege-
tation, Committee on Roadway and Ballast, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 59, pages 843-
850, 1958.
In the spring of 1957, when the experiment was started, the D&S roadbed between
Holly Springs and Apex was lightly but rather uniformly infested with Bermuda
grass (Cynodon dactylon). In addition, it had a rather heavy infestation of woody
plants, including cow-itch vine (Campsis radicans), poison oak (Rhus Toxicodendron),
and blackberry (Rtibus spp.) The roadbed is composed of coarse crushed granite.
Cinders have not been used for many years.
The Norfolk Southern roadbed experimental area, located in the suburbs of Char-
lotte, N. C, was heavily infested with Bermuda grass. The roadbed is underlain by
cinders, and considerable coarse sand has been added in the last few years.
A spray boom covering 1634 ft was mounted on a small push car drawn by a
motor car. This width covers 1 acre with each ^4 mile of track, or 2 acres per mile.
Each plot was 4 rails long and each treatment was replicated 3 times.
The chemicals were applied on the dates, at the rates and in the amount of spray
mixture shown in Tables 1 and 2. In most cases, this was the second year of treatment
on the same plots with the same herbicides. The amount of spray mixture was normally
ii gal per acre, or 66 gal per mile, unless there was a specific need for larger amounts.
Results
Most treatments resulted in considerably better weed control at the end of the
second year than appeared at the end of the first year. It is anticipated that the degree
of weed control will continue to improve through the third year.
The rate of chemical treatment was reduced with a few treatments this year,
reducing costs. It is anticipated that a number of chemical rates of treatment can be
reduced in the third year.
At the end of the 1958 season the principal woody species remaining on the Holly
Springs experimental area was cow-itch vine. Failure to control this species is reflected
in occasional low broad-leaved weed control ratings, Table 2.
Each treatment will be discussed briefly. In some cases it will be desirable to discuss
several treatments as a group. Reference to various treatments will be given as to loca-
tion. The letters "Ch" will be used for Charlotte and "H. S." for Holly Springs. Treat-
ment is abbreviated as Tr., and refers to the treatment number given in the left column
of Tables 1 and 2.
Dalapon applied twice at the rate of 10 lb per acre (Tr. 1) gave good grass control
and poor broad-leaved control at both locations. The dalapon was giving obvious injury
to some of the broad-leaved perennials. It is possible that continued repeated treatments
may give control of some species in this group.
Dalapon (40 lb per acre) and 2,4-D (8 lb per acre) applied once (Tr. 2) gave
1 Professor of field crops and graduate assistant, respectively, North Carolina State College,
Raleigh, N. C.
724
Roadway and Ballast
TABLE 1. CHARLOTTE, NORTH CAROLINA - NORFOLK SOUTHEBN RAILWAY
Chemical , Rate Per
fLb or Gal ), and Date of Application
No
July 17-18. 1957
Aug. 7-8. 1957
June 4-5. 1958
July 9-10. 1958
1
Dalapon 10
Dalapon 10
Dalapon 10
Dalapon 10
2
Dalapon 40
2,4-D 8
None
Dalapon 40
2.4-D 8
None
3
Dalapon 20
2.4-D 4
Dalapon 20
2,4-D 4
Dalapon 20
2.4-D 4
Dalapon 20
2.4-D 4
4
Dalapon 10
2,4-D 2
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
5
Dalapon 10
2,4-D 2
DIuron 10
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
Diuron 10
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
6
Dalapon 10
2,4-0 2
Simazine 10
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
Simazlne 10
Dalapon. 10
2.4-D 2
7
Dalapon 10
2,4,5-T 2
Dalapon 10
Dalapon 10
2.4. 5-T 2
Dalapon 10
2.4. 5-T 2
«
Dalapon 10
2(2,4, 5-T)P 2
Dalapon 10
2(2.4. 5-T)P 2
Dalapon 10
2(2.4. 5-T)P 2
Dalapon 10
2(2.4, 5-T)P 2
9
Dalapon 10
PBA(354) 4
Dalapon 10
PBA(354) 4
Dalapon 10
PBA(3541 4
Dalapon 10
PB,V3.54) 4
10
Dalapon 10
Diuron 10
Dalapon 10
Dalapon 10
Diuron 10
Dalapon 10
11
ATA 5
PBA(354) 4
ATA 5
PBA(354) 4
ATA 5
PCPO Ib/A
ATA 5
PCP 6 lb/A
12
ATA 5 + W.A.
PBA(354) 4
Simazlne 10
ATA 5+ W.A.
PBA(354) 4
ATA 5
Slniazine20
None
13
ATA 5 + W.A.
2,4-D 2
ATA 5+ W.A.
2.4-D 2
TCI 20
ATA 5
TCI 20
ATA 5
14
ATA 5 + W,A.
Dalapon 10
ATA 5 + W. A.
Dalapon 10
ATA 5
Dalapon 10
ATA 5
Dalapon 10
15
Conoco Oil 100
None
Conoco Oil 100
None
16
Agronyl-R 100
None
Agronyl-R 100
None
17
Agronyl-R 100
SimazinelO
None
Conoco Oil 100
SimazinelO
None
18
Agronyl-R 100
Diuron 10
None
Conoco Oil 100
Diuron 10
None
19
Agronyl-R 43
HCA-2 Gal
Agronyl-R 48
HCA-2 Gal
Conoco Oil 47
HCA-3 Gal
Conoco Oil 47
HCA-3 Gal
20
Agronyl-R 45
PBA(103-AI 10
Agronyl-R 45
PBA(103-A) 10
Conoco Oil 45
PBA-94A 10
Conoco Oil 45
PEA-94A 10
21
Agronyl-R 43
Mon-TCA 21
Agronyl-R 43
Mon-TCA 21
Conoco Oil 43
Mon-TCA 21
Conoco Oil 43
Mon-TCA 21
22
Fen-TCA 21
Fen-TCA 21
Fen-TCA 21
Fen-TCA 21
23
Chlorax Liq. 100
Diuron 10
None
Chlorax Liq. 100
Diuron 10
None
24
dilorax Liq. 50
Diuron 5
Chlorax Liq. 50
Diuron 5
Chlorax Liq. 50
Diuron 5
Chlorax Liq. 50
Diuron 5
25
Monsanto 10847
Monsanto 10847
20
Herb. NP-ATA
165 Gal
Herb. NP-ATA
165 Gal
26
Monsanta 13842
20
Monsanto 13842
20
FB 2
G-30027 10
FB 2
G-30027 10
27
Erbon 120
None
Erbon 120
None
28
Diuron 40
None
Diuron 40
None
29
Simazine40
None
Simazlne40
None
30
Urealwr 872
None
Ureabor 872
None
31
Chlorea 872
None
Chlorea 872
None
32
Atlacide-2,4-D
872
None
At]acide-2,4-D
872
None
33
Check
G-30027 20
None
34
Check
BHB(D) 45
Gal/A
RHB(D) 45
Cal/A
Weed Ratings^. Oct. 16. 1958
Broad- Avg. Crass and
Crass Leaved Broad-Leaved
7.3 6.6
* See Table 3 "Chemicals Used"
2 Weed Ratings - 10 - Pvrlcct Control.
Least Slgniticant Different
Least Signiricant Different
Coefficient of Variability
6.3
3.3
3.0
7.7
8.3
7.0
8.3
5.0
8.7
B.3
B.O
.0
.3
.0
.3
.0-
.3
.7
.3
.0
.84
7.3 6.
4.0 3.
4.3 3.
7.7 7.
8.0 8.
6.3 6.
8.0 7.
6.3 8.
7.3 6.
9.3 9.
9.0 8.
8.0 8.C
7.3 7.2
9.0 8.t
9.7 9.4
9.0 9.2
9.7 9.3
9.3 9.3
8.3 8.2
5.7 5.7
4.0 4.2
0.0 0.0
1.54
44
2.05
17% 14%
Roadwav and Ballast
725
TABLE 2. HOLLY SPRINGS, NORTH CAROLINA - DLHHAM AND a)l.THERN RAILWAY
Chemical'. Rale Per Acre ( Lb or Gal ) . mil Date of Applicali
May 10, 1957
June 6. 1957
Dalapon to
May 19. 1958
Dalapon 10
June :!3, 1958
Dalajxjn 10
Weed Ratings^, Del. 17, 19ri8
Dalapon 10
2.-1-D 2
Dalapon 20
2,4-D I
Dalapon 20
2.4-D 4
Dalapon
2.4-D 2
Dalapon 10
2,4-D 2
Ddlapon :
2,4-D I
8 Dalapon 10
2(2.4, 5-T)P 2
Dalapon 10
PBA(354) 4
10 Dalapon 10
Dalapon 10
2.4,5-T 2
Dalapon 10
2(2.4.S-T)P
Dalapon 10
PBA(354) 4
Dalapon 10
2.4-D 2
Dalapon 10
2.4,5-T 2
Dalapon 10
2(2,4, 5-T)P
Dilapon 10
PBA(354) 4
Dalapon 10
3(2,4,r>-T)P 2
Dalapon 10
PBA(354) 4
ATA 5
PBA(354) 4
None
ATA 5
PBA(334) 4
Agronyl-R(lOO)
Conoco Oil (100)
ATA 5
Diuron 20;TCA 2
.■\gronyI-R(100)
Conoco Oil (100)
Agronyl-R 45
PBA(103-A) 10
Agronyl-R 45
PBA(103-A) 10
Conoco Oil 45
PBA(103-A) 10
Conoco Oil 45
PBA(94A) 10
Fen-TCA 21
CWorax Liq. 50
Fen-TCA
None
Conoco Oil 46 1/2 Conoco Oil 46 1/2
Mon-TCA 10 1/2 Mon-TCA 10 1/2
Fen-TCA 10 1/2
Fen-TCA 10 1/2
None
Chlorax LIq. 50
Monsanto 9303
None
Herb. NP-ATA
Herb. NP-ATA
40
165 Gal
165 Gal
Monsanto 9303
Monsanto 9303
FB2 2
FB2 2
20
20
G-30027 10
G-30027 10
Erbon (Baron)
None
Erbon (Baron)
None
120
60
Diuron 40
None
Diuron 40
None
Simazine40
None
Simazine40
None
Ureabor 872
None
Ureabor 436
None
Chlorea 872
None
Oilorea 436
None
Atlaclde-2,4-D
None
Atlacide- 2.4-D
None
See Table 3 "Chemicals Used"
2 Weed Ratings - 10 - Perfect Control, 0 - No Control
Least Significant Diflerence
( O.i)
1.64
1.75
Least Signilicant Difference
(01)
2.17
2.33
Coefficient of Variability
13%
16%
726
Roadway and Ballast
TABLE 3. CHEMICALS USED
Chemical
Dalapon
TCA
Active
Ingredient
71%
90%
Trade Name
Radapon
TCA Grasskiller
Provided By
Dow Chemical Company
Amchem Products, Inc.
TCI-Trichloro
isobutyric Acid
2 Lb/Gal
ACP M540
Amchem Products, Inc.
Emuls. PCP
1 Lb/Gal
ACP M604
Amchem Products, Inc.
HCA
20%
HCA Weed Killer
Concentrate
General Chemical Division
Allied Chemical & Dye Corp.
Ethylene dipyridilium
dlbromide
4 Lb/Gal
FB2
Chipman Chemical Company
Amino Triazole (ATA)
50%
Weedazol
Amchem Products, Inc.
2,4-D Amine
(1957 only)
4 Lb/Gal
2,4-Dow Weed
Killer
Dow Chemical Company
2,4-D Amine (1958)
4 Lb/Gal
2,4-D Weed Killer
Monsanto Chemical Company
2,4, 5-T Amine (1957
only)
4 Lb/Gal
Dow 2,4, 5-T Amine
Weed Killer
Dow Chemical Company
2,4, 5-T Amine (1958) 4 Lb/Gal
2(2,4,5-T)P 4 Lb/Gal
Poly Benzoic Acid (PBA) 2 Lb/Gal
Poly Benzoic Acid (PBA) 2 Lb/Gal
Poly Benzoic Ac id (PBA) 4 Lb/Gal
Erbon 4 Lb /Gal
Diuron (Karmex) 80%
Simazino 50%
G-30027 50%
Veon 245
Kuron
ACP Benzacl03-A
ACP M94A
ACP-M-354
Baron
Karmex DW
Simazine
G-30027
Dow Chemical Company
Dow Chemical Company
Amchem Products, Inc.
Amchem Products, Inc.
Amchem Products, Inc.
Dow Chemical Company
E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.
Geigy Agricultural Chemicals
Geigy Agricultural Chemicals
M.)nuron-TCA
3 Lb/Gal Compound 2996
General Chemical Division
Allied Chemical & Dye Corp.
Fenuron-TCA
3 Lb/Gal Compound 260 J
General Chemical Division
Allied Chemical & Dye Corp.
Sodium Chlorate
Sodium Metaborate
2 Lb/Gal Chlorax Liquid
1.67 Lb/Gal
Chipman Chemical Company
Sodium Chlorate
2,4-D
58%
. 06%
Atlacide 2,4-D
Chipman Chemical Company
Sodium Chlorate 40%, Chlorea
Sodium Metaborate 57%
Monuron (Telvar W-80%) 1%
Sodium TCA 14.24% RHB (Spec. D)
Sodium Chlorate 28.49% Weed Killer
Calcium Chloride 17.09%
Chipman Chemical Company
R. H. Bogle Company
Borate Compounds
Monuron (Telvar W)
94%
4%
Ureabor
U.S. Borax & Chemical Corp.
Weed Killing Oil
Weed Killing Oil
loo*;
lOOf
Agronyl-R
Conoco Weed
Spray Oil
Socony Mobil Oil Company, Inc.
Continental Oil Company
Oil 21.4%
Cresols 1.8%
Xylenols 1.2%
Phenols 0.5%
Sodium TCA 7.0%
2,4-D 1.1%
Arnizol (Amino Triazole) 0.7%
Surfactants 12.0%
Herbicidol
NP-ATA
Reade Manufacturing Company
Coded
Coded
Coded
Coded
Coded
Coded
Monsanto 0303
Monsanto 10847
Monsanto 13842
Monsanto Chemical Company
Monsanto Chemical Company
Monsanto Chemical Company
Roadwav and Ballast 727
only fair broad-leaved control at Charlotte and Holly Springs, with good control of grass
at Holly Springs and fair control at Charlotte. The high rate of chemical application
quickly kills the tops, but does not favor translocation of the herbicide to below
ground parts.
Dalapon (20 lb per acre) and 2,4-D (4 lb per acre) applied twice (Tr. 3) gave
good grass and broad-leaved control at both locations. One-half of this rate (Tr. 4)
gave approximately the same control at Charlotte and about the same broad-leaved
control at Holly Springs. The data indicate better grass control at Holly Springs at the
higher rate of dalapon and 2,4-D.
The addition of diuron (10 lb per acre) (Tr. 5), or Simazine (10 lb per acre)
(Tr. 6) to dalapon and 2,4-D (Tr. 4) showed an increase in weed control at both
locations. This trend was not evident the first year. The three herbicides mixed together
(Tr. 5 and 6) gave excellent grass and broad-leaved control at both locations.
Dalapon (10 lb per acre) and diuron (10 lb per acre) (Tr. 10) gave excellent
grass and broad-leaved control at both locations (Figs. 1 and 2). Additional research
is needed to establish the value of 2,4-D (Tr. S) to the above herbicide mixtures.
Dalapon (10 lb per acre) mixed with 2,4,S-T (Tr. 7), with 2 (2,4,5-T)P (Tr. 8), or
with PBA (Tr. 9) gave no increase in weed control beyond that obtained with equivalent
rates of 2,4-D (Tr. 4).
Treatment 11 was shifted in 1958 to a combination of amino triazole (ATA) (5 lb
per acre) and pentachlorophenol (PCP) (6 lb per acre). Two applications at Charlotte
gave fair to good grass and broad-leaved control. One application at Holly Springs
gave poor grass control and fair broad-leaved control. It should be emphasized that
this was the first year of treatment with this combination, compared to two years oi
treatment with most other chemicals.
Treatment 12 at Charlotte was changed in 1958 by omitting PBA and by increasing
the rate of Simazine to 20 lb per acre. Amino triazole (5 lb per acre) was retained at
the same rate. Fair to good grass and broad-leaved weed control was the result.
Treatment 13 at Charlotte was changed to TCI (20 lb per acre) and amino
triazole (5 lb per acre) in 1958. This combination gave poor control.
Amino triazole (5 lb per acre) and dalapon (10 lb per acre) applied at Charlotte
(Tr. 14) gave fair to good grass and broad-leaved control.
Amino triazole (5 lb per acre), diuron (20 lb per acre), and TCA (20 lb per acre)
at Holly Springs (Tr. 12) gave good to excellent grass and broad-leaved control.
Weed killing oils alone (Ch. Tr. IS, 16; H. S. Tr. 13, 14) applied as wetting sprays
gave quick top-kill of all vegetation. Perennial species developed regrowth so that by
the end of the growing season the plots were rated as giving poor to fair grass and
broad-leaved control.
Weed oil plus hexachloroacetone (Ch. Tr. 19, H. S. Tr. 15) gave good grass and
good broad-leaved weed control at both locations. The addition of Simazine to the
above chemicals (H. S. Tr. 16) gave excellent grass control.
The addition of diuron (10 lb per acre) or Simazine (10 lb per acre) to the oil
(Ch. Tr. 17, 18) increased the control of both grasses and broad-leaved weeds to good.
(Fig. 3). The addition of PBA (10 lb per acre) increased the control to excellent at
Holly Springs (Tr. 17) and to good at Charlotte (Tr. 20). The addition of monuron-
TCA to the oil resulted in excellent weed control at Holly Springs (Tr. 18). Control
was good enough in 1957 that the monuron-TCA rate of application was reduced by
one-half in 1958. The rate was continued at Charlotte (Tr. 21) resulting in good grass
and broad-leaved control.
728
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 1 — Dalapon (10 lb/A) applied twice in 1957. Diuron (10 lb/A ap-
plied with first treatment of dalapon (Ch. Plot 14, Tr. 10). Picture taken
Aug. 13, 1957.
Fig. 2 — Dalapon (10 lb/A) applied twice in 1957 and twice in 1958.
Diuron (10 lb/A) applied with first treatment of dalapon each season (Ch.
Plot 14, Tr. 10). Same test plot as Fig. 1. Picture taken Oct. 16, 1958.
Roadway and Ballast
729
Fig. 3 — Area not treated (check plot), showing heavy growth of Ber-
muda grass, annual weeds and woody plants along the edge. Plot 3 beyond
the telephone pole was Conoco Oil (100 gal) and diuron (10 lb/A) (Ch.
Tr. 18).
Fenuron-TCA (21 lb per acre) gave excellent weed control at Holly Springs (Tr.
19). Control was sufficiently good in 1957 that the applied rate was reduced by one-
half in 1958. Oak trees growing 75 ft from the edge of the track were killed. At Char-
lotte (Tr. 22) weed control was fair to good. Several of the plots were in locations
having a porous and open track. In these areas weed control was less effective than
where the track was on a relatively heavy soil base.
Chlorax hquid and diuron (Ch. Tr. 23, 24; H. S. Tr. 20, 21) gave good to excellent
grass and broad-leaved weed control at both locations. It would appear that there is
little or no difference between split application of this herbicide spray mixture as com-
pared to a single seasonal application.
Herbicidol NP ATA (H. S. Tr. 22; Ch. Tr. 25) gave good grass and broad-leaved
weed control at both locations. This was the first year of application of this mixture.
The control produced after only one season's treatment was very good compared to
that obtained with many of the herbicides.
F. B. 2 and G-30027 (H. S. Tr. 23; Ch. Tr. 26) gave good grass and broad-leaved
weed control at both locations. Therefore, control is considered very good for the end
of one season's application.
7,^0
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 4— Simazine (40 lb/A) applied in 1957 and 1958. In 1957 this treat-
ment received an average rating of 4.6, whereas in 1958 the average
increased to 8.4 (Ch. Tr. 29; H. S. Tr. 26).
Fig. 5 — Simazine still clinging to the rails after five months and 32 inches
of rain. The upper surface of the crushed rock had a similar residue.
Roadway and Ballast
731
Fig. 6— Ureabor (872 lb/A in 1957; 436 lb/A in 1958) gave excellent
grass and broad-leaved control. (H. S. Tr. 27; Ch. Tr. 30). The stems
shovi^ing in the ballast are dead. At Charlotte the rate was not reduced in
1958.
G-30027 (Ch. Tr. 33) gave fair grass and broad-leaved weed control at Charlotte.
The woody plants appeared very yellow in the fall of 1958. Plant survival in the spring
of 1959 will be of considerable interest. Only one season's observations have been made.
Erbon (Ch. Tr. 27; H. S. Tr. 24) has given good to excellent grass and broad-
leaved weed control at both locations. It gave good enough weed control at Holly
Springs in 1957 that the rate of application was reduced to one-half in 1958.
Diuron (40 lb per acre) and Simazine (40 lb per acre), as individual treatments,
gave good to excellent grass and broad-leaved weed control at both locations (Ch. Tr.
28, 29; H. S. Tr. 25, 26) (Fig. 4). The excellence of control at the end of the second
season is of considerable interest, since neither herbicide was rated very highly at the
end of the first season. The solubility of these materials are very low (Fig. 5). It is
assumed that the rates may be reduced in years hence.
RHB (Special D) Weed Killer (Ch. Tr. 34) gave fair to poor weed control at
Charlotte. It should be pointed out that this was the first year that this herbicide was
applied on these plots. The rating given is comparable to the rating given many of
the treatments at the end of the first season in 1957.
732
Roadway and Ballast
Ureabor, Chlorea, and Atlacide-2,4-D applied individually as granular treatments
have all given good to excellent control (Fig. 6) (Ch. Tr. 30, 31, 32; H. S. Tr. 27, 28,
29). At Holly Springs the excellence of control obtained in 1957 made it possible to
reduce the rate of chemical application by one-half.
Part 3— Chemical Control of Vegetation— 1958 AAR Report
The 1958 season completed eight years of research into the problem of vegetation
control on railroad rights-of-way under Assignment 11 of AREA Committee 1 — Road-
way and Ballast. Each year the AAR staff has made field observations evaluating the
results of system-wide treatments as well as cooperative tests conducted between rail-
roads and chemical companies throughout the United States and Canada. The results
obtained from these treatments have been summarized and presented as information
in the AREA Proceedings, Vols. S3 through 59.
Numerous chemicals and chemical combinations have been tested during the past
eight years. Much progress has been made but as yet there is no chemical available
that will solve all vegetation control problems found on railroads throughout the United
States and Canada. At the present there are more than 50 materials available for the
purpose of controlling weeds and brush on railroads. Each of these materials when
applied at the recommended rates has been used successfully, depending upon the type
of vegetation present, climatic conditions, length of growing season, type of soil .and type
of control desired.
As mentioned in previous reports, the AAR has divided the United States and
Canada into seven regions for the purpose of evaluating more effectively the results of
chemical treatments for weed and brush control (Fig. 1). A particular region has similar
'«si
m
Fig. 1.
Roadway and Ballast 733
soil types, climatic conditions, types of vegetation and length of growing season, but
some variations do occur within regions.
The AAR staff inspected system-wide treatments on 13 railroads for weed control
and on 3 railroads for brush control in 6 of the 7 regions during the past season. The
results of these observations are briefly discussed in this report. In addition, a number
of large weed control test sections were followed on 14 railroads in 6 regions, some
of which were initiated in 1956. Brush control tests using dry granular and pelletized
materials were evaluated on three railroads in three regions. Specific results of these
tests are summarized in Tables lA through 7. These data are presented as information
and are not intended to express approval or condemnation of any particular chemical
treatment. It should be noted that the materials included in this report do not embrace
all chemical treatments used in any specific region, but merely those inspected by the
.\AR staff.
Observations this year further substantiate the theory that a long-term system-wide
weed control program is superior to one on a year-to-year basis. Although the initial
expense involved in such a program may be high, a reduction in cost may be realized
over an extended period.
Single applications of translocated and contact materials continued to provide fairly
good seasonal control in regions 1 and 2, but reinfestation occurred during late summer
where the rainfall was above normal. Repeated treatments were necessary in high rain-
fall areas with long growing seasons, regions 3 and 4. Split applications of these types
of materials continued to be more effective than the single appUcation at equivalent
rates.
Soil sterilants or residual type materials maintained good seasonal control in all
regions when used at the recommended rate. It is often possible to reduce the rate of
application of these materials during a second season or it may be possible to omit
the treatment during the second year in low rainfall areas.
Materials Used
Chemical combinations continue to be widely used for controlling weeds on main
and branch lines in all regions. These combinations include chlorate-borate materials,
chlorate-borate-substituted urea compounds, methoxone-chlorate-borate-substituted urea
mixtures, chlorate- chloride, methoxone-chlorax, TCA-chlorate and dalapon-phenoxy
compounds. One application of these materials will usually provide good seasonal con-
trol when used at the recommended rates in regions 1, 2, 5 and 6. Two applications
are required in higher rainfall areas, regions 3 and 4, where the long growing season
is conducive to vigorous plant growth. Mixtures containing soil-sterilant type materials
were more effective in preventing regrowth during the late summer.
Soil-sterilant type materials were used primarily in yard areas, around bridges,
communication poles, signal stands, buildings and at road crossings. Among those most
widely used for these purposes were sodium arsenite, Baron, Borate slurry, Concentrated
Borascu, Chlorea, Nalco H-174, Reade's M/W, Ureabor and Urox. In some regions
these materials have been applied on the same area during successive years with excel-
lent results. Nalco H-174 was applied on a main line in region 4 in strips of 18 and
24 in for controlling vegetation along the ballast toe line (Fig. 2). The results of these
treatments were very good.
Herbicidal oils were used primarily in the Midwest and Southeast during the 1958
season. One application of oil provided fairly good control in the Midwest. Two and
three applications were required in the Southeast to maintain seasonal control. Soil-
734
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 2 — Ballast toe line treatment with Nalco H-174 in Region 4. Treat-
ment applied at 480 lb per acre April 23, 1958 on 18 in strips each side
of track. Picture taken September 23, 1958.
sterilant materials such as monuron have been added to oils with much success in the
Midwestern area. The oil provided the initial top kill and the monuron provided residual
effects.
Atlas D-11 was used in the Midwest as a contact killer and its results were
favorable.
Cost
The cost per mile for controlling vegetation with chemicals may vary considerably
between railroads within a particular region. The cost per mile is determined by the
type of material used, rate applied per acre and the width treated. Table 8 contains
a list of materials used during 1958, showing the price range f.o.b. plant. The cost
of any specific material is normally within this range but it is subject to adjustment
by commercial applicators.
Special Problems
One railroad in region 3 used a spot treatment of hexachloroacetone in combination
with oil for the control of Johnson grass during August 1957 (Fig. 3). A second applica-
tion of HCA was made during August 1958 in a weed and brush spray mixture. This
area was inspected during May and September 1958 to determine the effectiveness
of HCA in controlling Johnson grass. Results indicated that approximately 80 to 85
percent of the Johnson grass had been eliminated.
Gamet D, a mixture of amino triazole and 2,4-D, was used on one railroad in
region 3 for the control of trumpet vine during 1957. The application was made dur-
ing June 1957. This area was inspected during 'May 1958 to determine the effectiveness
of the material being translocated throughout the plant system and to estimate the
percentage of regrowth. Results during 1957 indicated a very good top kill with minor
resprouting. The May inspection revealed that the chemical had been translocated 3 to
Roadwav and Ballast
735
Fig. 3 — Johnson grass control with Hexachloroacetone in Cox Hykil in
Region 3. Spot treatment applied mid-August 1957. Picture taken September
27, 1958. Note: this area is the same location as shown in Fig. 5, AREA
Proceedings, Vol. 59, page 854.
12 in beneath the surface of the soil and ballast. It was estimated that approximately
65 to 70 percent of the trumpet vine was resprouting.
Trysben 200 looks promising in tests on one railroad in region 2 for controlling
bouncing bet and field bindweed (Fig. 4). This material appears to be more effective
on bindweed than on bouncing bet, but the results justify further evaluations of this
product on bouncing bet.
Tests
Several tests were followed in si.\ of the seven regions during 1958 (Tables l\
through 7). Some of these were initiated in 1956 for controlling vegetation on branch
lines while others were established as long-term tests using granular materials in yard
areas and on branch lines.
One railroad in region 1 established a long-term test during 1957 in yard areas
using dry materials (Table lA). Five materials were used on adjacent tracks at each
of two locations covering areas from 1775 ft to 7609 ft in length and 14 ft wide. Re-
treatment was made in 1958 on four of these tests in each location. One test at each
location was not re-treated during 1958. Results were good in all areas. Same regrowth
occurred in the area not re-treated in 1958. It is possible that the rates of the.«e materials
can be reduced ne.xt year.
A test in region 1 using MCP-chlorax-Simazine in a yard covering approximately
14 acres shows promise for controlling vegetation in this area. Results justify further
evaluations of this combination. Other materials used in test sections in region I provided
varying degrees of control. (Refer to Tables lA and IB for results).
Tests using dry granular materials were applied on a branch line in region 2
co\'ering areas of 0.6 mi to 1.8 mi in length and 16 ft wide. Three materials were used,
the results of which are shown in Table 2A (Fig. 5). These materials provided good
results on all vegetation except deep-rooted species. Another railroad in this region
tested a number of materials in yard areas (Table 2A). Telvar W, baron and Simazine
736
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 4 — Bouncing bet control using Trysben 200 at 10 lb per acre in
Region 2. Treatment applied May 210, 1958. Picture taken August 13, 1958.
Note : Check area in background.
Fig. 5 — Chlorea granular at 450 lb per acre applied April 22, 1958 on house
track in Region 2, Picture taken August 21, 1958.
Roadway and Ballast
737
Fig. 6 — Typical control obtained with MCP-Chlorea in Region 5. This
area was treated during June 1956 with Radapon (dalapon)-Methoxone-
Chlorox No. 2 at 17 lb and 77 gal cone, per acre and re-treated in June
1957 with Methoxone-Chlorea 800 at 185 gal solution per acre. Not re-
treated during 1958. Picture taken October 1, 1958.
mixed with oil showed promise in these tests. Results of other materials tested in
region 2 are included in Table 2A. FB 2, a new chemical not yet released for com-
mercial use, was used in a test section in region 2. This chemical was applied alone
and in combination with other materials to determine its value as a contact weed killer
(Table 2B). The initial top kill provided with this chemical was very good, but regrowth
occurred one month following application.
Granicide 2X used alone, and Herbicidol NP, alone and in combination with ATA-
2,4-D, ammate, monuron, diuron and erbon, was applied in a test section in region 3.
Johnson grass was the predominant species found in the area. These treatments pro-
vided a good initial top kill and reduced the density of Johnson grass. Specific results
are included in Table 3.
A number of dry materials were used in yard areas in region 4. Results are shown
in Tables 4 A and 4B.
One of the most extensive long-term test sections followed covered 700 miles of
branch line in region 5 (Table 5). The initial treatment was applied in June 1956 and
re-treated in June 1957 and June 1958. The most outstanding treatment in these tests
has been methoxone-chlorea (Fig. 6). This treatment has been consistent in providing
good control for a two-year period.
A railroad in region 6 applied mixtures of sodium chlorate-sodium metaborate-
monuron (Telvar W) at various rates during November 1957 for controlling vegetation
on a branch line. Inspections this year reveal that the high rates of sodium chlorate
and metaborate with a medium rate of monuron provided the most outstanding results.
Annual species were controlled but deep-rooted perennial species survived (Refer to
Table 6 for specific results).
738 Roadway and Ballast
Following is a summary of the results observed of various chemical treatments
used bv railroads on system-wide basis in six of the seven regions during 1958.
WEED CONTROL
Region 1
Methoxone-chlorea at the rates of 50 gal concentrate per acre (equivalent to 2 lb
MCP, 87.5 lb sodium chlorate and 8 lb Telvar W) was used quite extensively on main
and branch lines in region 1 during 1958. In one area, this treatment was applied during
early June and inspected in August 1958. Species present were quackgrass, blue grass,
foxtail, Mexican iireweed, bluestem, sweet clover, bindweed, upright spurge, horsetail
and wild four-o'clock. This treatment provided very good control for the season. The
estimated control was 90 to 95 percent on August 20. Only species surviving were
horsetail, bindweed and bluestem.
In another area this treatment provided 95 percent control when applied during
late May. Species in this area were smooth brome grass, blue grass, pigweed, Mexican
fireweed and dandelion. The ballast was soil and cinders.
Another area was treated in June with SO gal concentrate of MCP-chlorax plus
6 lb Telvar W. Vegetative species were similar to that found in other areas of region 1.
Control on August 20 was estimated at 90 percent.
Methoxone-chlorax was used on main lines and yard areas in this region at 81 gal
cone per acre. This material when applied during early June provided a good initial
kill of all species after which some regrowth occurred late during the season. In one
yard area the estimated percent control on September 30 was approximately 75 to
80 percent. Reinfestation was primarily with small grain seedlings.
A mixture of oil-Telvar W (monuron) applied ,at 100 gal and 8 lb, respectively,
during June was effective in maintaining control for the season. Species in this area
were blue grass, quackgrass, horsetail, timothy, ragweed, dock, sweet clover, milkweed,
aster and others. Control was approximately 85 percent on August 21.
Atlas D-11 was used on one railroad during late June at the rate of 242 gal solu-
tion per acre (equivalent to 40.7 lb arsenic trioxide per acre). This treatment provided
a good initial top kill from two to four weeks, after which annuals began to reinfest
the area. At the time of inspection on August 21 the area had considerable regrowth,
but it was evident that the density of the vegetation had been reduced.
Ureabor was applied in a yard area at the rate of 400 lb per acre during May
1958. Species were perennial grasses, sow thistle, plantain, dandelion, marestail, wild
barley and others. Results on July 22 were very good with approximately 90 to 95
percent control. A few plants of dandelion and plantain survived.
Chlorea Granular at 290 lb per acre was used in one yard area in region 1 during
May 1958. Vegetative species found in this area were blue grass, foxtail, dropseed,
Mexican fireweed, dandelion, pigweed, lovegrass and others. Control on September 30
was approximately 80 percent. It was evident that the rate used was low considering
the fact that some species were surviving that are*normally controlled with recommended
rates of this material.
Region 2
System-wide treatments observed in this area were Methoxone (MCP) -chlorea,
Nalco H-174 and Urox.
A combination of methoxone-chlorea at the rate of 50 gal concentrate (equivalent
to 2 lb MCP, 87.5 lb sodium chlorate and 6 lb Telvar W) per acre was used on a
Roadway and Ballast
739
Fig. 7 — Typical control obtained in yard areas with dry herbicides in
Region 2. This yard was treated between tracks only during May 1957 with
Urox 150 lb per acre. Picture taken September 27, 1958.
branch line during June in this region. Vegetative species found in this area were quack-
grass, blue grass, slough grass, smartweed, smooth brome grass and o'hers. This treat-
ment provided very good results for the season. The estimated percent control on
August 21 was approximately 80 to 95 percent. Only isolated bunches of smartweed
and slough grass survived this treatment.
Nalco H-174 was applied in a yard area between rails only at 250 lb per acre
during April 1958. Vegetation in this area consisted of Mexican fireweed, bindweed,
blue grass, crabgrass, black medic, smartweed, prostrate spurge and dock. Control in
July was approximately 85 to 90 percent.
Urox at 150 lb per acre was applied in one yard between tracks during May 1957
(Fig. 7). Vegetative species in this area were foxtail, Mexican fireweed, sandbur, crab-
grass, witchgrass, Russian thistle, Muhlenbergia spp., upright spurge, sweet clover,
alfalfa, ragweed, annual smartweed, and plantain. This treatment provided good results
for two seasons. Some regrowth was present during the late summer of this year.
Control was estimated to be 70 to 95 percent on September 10, 1958.
Region 3
Chlorate-chloride was used on one railroad at the rate of 60 gal concentrate per
acre in a spUt application. The first treatment was applied during June and the second
during August. Species found in this area were blue grass, orchard grass, sweet clover,
cheat grass, rye grass, crabgrass, marestail, daisy fleabane, Johnson grass and some
Bermuda grass. Results were very good when inspected during early September. There
was evidence that each appUcation provided a good initial top kill. Some regrowth
occurred following the first treatment but was controlled with the second application.
;40
Roadway and Ballast
Herbicidol NP at 82.5 gal cone per acre was applied on one area in this region
during June 1958. The predominant species in this area was Johnson grass. Other
species were trumpet vine, Bermuda grass, little barley, downy chess, Bracken fern,
blackberry briars, wild lettuce, honey suckle, Kudzu, wild onion, manna grass, broom-
jedge, evening primrose, dogbane, dandelion, blue grass, ragweed, nut grass, black medic,
smilax, daisy fleabane, sleepy catchfly, sweet clover, wild geranium, buttercup, pepper-
grass and curled dock. This treatment provided a good initial top kill and controlled
most annual species. Johnson grass had reinfested the area when inspected during
late October.
In another area two treatments of Herbicidol NP was used at the rate of 82.5 gal
cone per acre for each treatment. The first treatment was applied during June and
the second in August. Vegetative species were similar to those found where a single
treatment was applied. Two applications of this material maintained fair control
throughout the season. Each application provided a good initial top kill. Annual species
were controlled and the density of Johnson grass was reduced.
Garnet D at 200 gal per acre was used in this region during June 1957 for the
control of trumpet vine. This material produced a good top kill and maintained good
control during the 1957 season. An inspection was made during May 1958 to deter-
mine the effectiveness of this material in producing root kill. Approximately 65 to 70
percent of the trumpet vine had resprouted at the time of this inspection. There were
indications that practically all the trumpet vine had been killed 3 to 12 in beneath the
surface of the soil and ballast. The resprouting that was occurring came from the root
system of thes'e plants.
Hexachloroacetone, 2 percent by volume, in 160 gal per acre of Cox Hykil oil was
used during August 1957 in a spot treatment for the control of Johnson grass. An
inspection 60 days following application revealed that only 10 percent of the Johnson
grass was resprouting. An early spring inspection was made this year to determine the
percentage of root kill. On May 8, 1958, approximately 45 percent of the Johnson
grass root system was either killed or seriously damaged. Results on September 27 were
very good with approximately 80 to 85 percent control. Some areas were re-treated
during August 1958 with a combination of HCA in a weed and brush spray mixture
(2.5 gal HCA in 100 gal mixture). This material was applied at the rate of approxi-
mately 200 gal mixture per acre. This second treatment provided a very good top kill.
One yard area in this region was treated twice during 1958 with sodium arsenite
at the rate of 60 gal cone per acre. The first appUcation was made during June and
the second in August. Vegetative species consisted of blue grass, nut grass, cheat grass,
crabgrass, rye grass, dock and other grasses. Results were excellent when inspected on
September 2, 1958. No regrowth was evident.
Nalco H-174 was used in another yard during 1957 and 1958 in region 3. The
initial treatment was made in April 1957 at the rate of 400 lb per acre. A re-treatment
was applied during April 1958 using 300 lb per acre. Vegetative species found in this
area were nut grass, cheat grass, prostrate spurge, marestail, wild lettuce, Johnson
grass, bitter weed, dandelion, peppergrass and crabgrass. Control when inspected on
June 12, 1958 was approximately 95 percent. Nut grass was the only resistant species.
According to a railroad representative, there was approximately 20 to 25 percent
regrowth on November 12, 1958. Of this, 90 percent was nut grass, nine percent crab-
grass and one percent other species.
In another area, Nalco H-174 was applied during April 1958 at the rate of 400 lb
per acre between tracks and at 300 lb per acre between rails. Vegetative species were
Roadway and Ballast 741
similar to other areas treated with Nalco H-174. Results were very good when inspected
during June.
Ureabor at 870 lb per acre was applied in a yard area during March 1957. Vegeta-
tive species found in this area wire Johnson grass, prostrate spurge, crabgrass, ragweed,
marestail, wild lettuce, cheat grass and bitter weed. Results 15 months following appli-
cation were very good.
Another yard area in this region was treated between tracks with Concentrated
Borascu at the rate of 6 to 7 lb per 100 sq ft. Vegetative species in this area were
crabgrass, marestail, Johnson grass, nut grass, ragweed, wild lettuce, prostrate spurge,
cheat grass and bitter weed. Results were very good when inspected June 12, 1958.
Region 4
Three treatments of Radapon-2,4-D at 20 lb and 4 lb per acre, respectively, were
used on a main line in this region. The first application was made May 1, the second
June 15 and the third August 20. Vegetative species found in this area were Bermuda
grass, nut grass, sandbur, vasey-grass, Spanish needle, crabgrass, marestail, upright
spurge, Florida pusley and bunch grass. Control was very good when inspected Sep-
tember 3, 1958. There was evidence that some annuals had reinfested the area following
the second appHcation but these had been killed with the third treatment. Some bunch
grass was surviving.
One railroad used Nalco H-174 at rates of 280 lb to 480 lb per acre in 18-in and
24-in bands along the ballast toe line on a main Hne. These treatments were applied
during April 1958. Vegetative species found in this area were Bermuda grass, sandbur,
Spanish needle, upright spurge, crabgrass, bunch grass, marestail, nut grass and Florida
pusley. Results were very good when inspected on September 3, 1958. Some Bermuda
grass was encroaching along the edge of the treated area but other species were con-
trolled. Estimated control ranged from 80 to 95 percent.
Region 5
Methoxone-chlorax at 81 gal cone per acre was apphed on main lines of one railroad
in this region during 1958. Vegetation consisted of brome grass, blue grass, quack grass
and annuals. This treatment provided good initial kill of all species when applied during
June. Some reinfestation occurred during the late summer with perennial grasses and
annuals.
Region 6
One railroad used Monobor-chlorate No. 2 at 112 gal cone per acre during Novem-
ber 1957. Vegetation in this area consisted of Johnson grass, Indiangrass, big bluestem,
little bluestem, Bermuda grass, silver bluestem, purple nightshade, Carolina horsenettle,
prostrate spurge, upright spurge, sideoats grama, aster, prairie threeawn, buffalo-bur
and Mexican fireweed. This treatment provided fair results when inspected during May
1958. Annual species were controlled but perennial species were reinfesting the area.
Granicide 2X was also used in this same area during November 1957. Vegetative
species were similar to those found in areas where Monobor-chlorate No. 2 was applied.
Control was fair when inspected during May 1958. Some perennials were reinfesting .
the area. However, this treatment appeared to be more effective in controlling Johnson
grass than Monobar-chlorate No. 2.
742
Roadway and Ballast
Fig. 8 — Brush control obtained from a treatment of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T
in Region 3 one year following application. Treatment was applied during
June 1957 using off-track equipment. Picture taken July 10, 1958. Note:
Treated under the pole line only.
BRUSH CONTROL
Low-volatile ester formulations of 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T continue to be used quite exten-
sively for controlling brush in all regions, with Animate being substituted for the
phenoxy compounds in areas adjacent to crops or in states where the use of phenoxy
compounds are prohibited. It is usually the practice for railroads to apply these materials
with on-track equipment; however, one railroad has employed the use of off-track
equipment in applying chemicals for brush control during the past two years. The
results obtained from this type of application have been outstanding but expensive.
Several test sections using dry granular and pelletized materials have been estab-
lished in three of the seven regions during the 1958 season. These materials are usually
slow reacting and their effectiveness cannot be determined in one seison. Results justify
further evaluation of these products. Table 7 includes the results obtained in brush
control tests on three railroads in three regions, one of which was an aerial application.
Following is a summary of the results observed in 1958 of brush treatments used
by railroads.
Region 2
A low-volatile ester formulation of 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T (50:50 mixture) was used by
one railroad during August 1957 at the rate of 2 to 3 gal cone per acre. Vegetative species
found in this area were locust, elm, willow, sumac, cedar, wild plum, sycamore, sassafras
and elderberry. The initial top kill was very good. Results during July 1958 were
good with some resprouting of locust. Other species appeared to be controlled.
Roadway and Ballast 74£
Applications using 2.4-D — 2.4,5-T ester at 2.2 gal cone per acre and Ammate at
,500 gal sol per acre (equivalent to 186 lb) were observed during July in this region.
Predominant species in the area treated with 2,4-D — 2,4, 5-T were locust and elm. In
areas treated with Ammate the predominant species was elm. Other species in these
areas were sumac, oak, willow, sycamore, sassafras, elderberry, persimmon, sweet gum,
wild plum, cedar and trumpet vine. These areas will be inspected early next spring to
determine the effectiveness of these treatments.
Region 3
Results of brush control chemicals applied during June 1957 with off-track equip-
ment were observed in this region. Two formulations were used; one contained 2 lb
per gal 2,4-D and 2 lb per gal 2,4,5-T, and the other, 1% lb per gal 2,4-D and % lb
per gal 2,4,5-T. Both formulations were applied in an oil-water emulsion using 10 gal
oil per 100 gal solution and applied at appro.ximately 2 to 3 gal cone per acre. Vege-
tation consisted of sumac, sassafras, elm, sycamore, wild plum, oak, maple, sweet gum,
walnut and honeysuckle. The initial kill was very good three months following applica-
tion. Results 15 months after treatment were very good (Fig. 8). No differences were
noted in response of the brush to these two formulations. Ash was resistant and some
sprouting of sumac and elm was occurring. However, the estimated percent control of
all species on August 29, 1958, was 85 to 90 percent.
Another railroad in this region used 2,4-D — 2,4,5-T at 2 to 3 gal cone per acre,
with Ammate at 180 lb in 300 gal water per acre substituted in areas adjacent to crops.
These treatments were applied during August 1958. Vegetation consisted of sumac,
sassafras, elm, oak, persimmon, pine, wild plum, trumpet vine and honeysuckle. The
initial top kill of all species was very good when inspected on October 22, 1958. This
area should be inspected during early spring to determine the effectiveness of these
treatments.
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Roadway and Ballast
Table S — Cooperative Weed Control Test in Region S
Application Dates:
Original Application — June 11-24, 19o()
Re-treated — June 9-25, 1957
Re-treated— June 2-12, 1958
Inspection Dates:
August 20-23, 1956
May 14-16, 1957
September 10-12, 1957
October 1-2, 1958
Vegetation: Predominant species — smooth brome grass, blue grass and quackgrass.
Other species — smartweed, milkweed, horsetail, willow, buckbrush, knotweed, foxtail grass
and Mexican fireweed.
Weather: For Test No's 1, 2 and 3— Avg. Max. Temp: 1957— Jan.— 10.8°, Feb.— 20°, March— 35.8°,
Apr.— 52.7°, May— 69.5°, June— 73°, July— 86.6°, Aug.— 79.5°, Sept.— 64.5° Oct.— 54.0°,
Nov.— 33.6°, Dec— 28.3°. 1958— Jan.— 25.3°, Feb.— 21.6°, March— 40.0° Apr.— 57.3°, May
—72.7°, June— , July— 78.1°, Aug.— 81.1°, Sept.— 71.7°.
Precipitation: 1957— Jan.— .30", Feb.— .51", March— .13", Apr.— .98", May— 3.21", June—
3.78", July— 2.20", Aug.— 4.04", Sept.— 7.54", Oct.— 1.94", Nov.— 0.93", Dec— 0.11".
Annual— 1957— 25.67" (5.62" above normal). 1958— Jan.— 0.09", Feb.— 0.19", March—
0.18", Apr.— 0.75", May— 1.31", June— , July— 5.09", Aug.— 1.32", Sept.— 1.24".
For Test No's 4, 5 and 6— Avg. Max. Temp: 1957— Jan.— 10°, Feb.— 18.9° March— 33.5° Apr.—
49.9°, May— 66.1°, June— 70.7°, July— 85.7°, Aug.— 76.4°, Sept.— 64.4°, Oct.— 52.6°, Nov.—
33.9°, Dec— 27.4°. 1958— Jan.— 23.2°, Feb.— 17.3°, March— 36.3°, Apr.— 54.8°, May— 70.2°,
June— , Julv— 76.3°, Aug.— 79.8°, Sept.— 69.3°.
Preceipitation: 1957— Jan.— .40", Feb.— .42", March— .43", Apr.— .74", May- 1.26", June—
4.14", July— 1.51", Aug.— 4.71", Sept.— 2.26", Oct.— 1.56", Nov.— 0.52", Dec— 0.29".
Annual— 1957— 18.24" (0.62" above normal). 1958— Jan.— 0.37", Feb.— 0.34", March—
0.18", Apr.- 0.66", May— 1.02", June— , July— 3.07", Aug.— 0.80", Sept.— 0.81".
For Test No's 7, 8, 9 and 10— Avg. Max. Temp: 1957— Jan.— 13°, Feb.— 21.8°, March— 37.8°,
Apr.— 53°, May— 71°, June— 74.6°, July— 90.2°, Aug.— 80.7°, Sept.— 70.5°, Oct.— 55.9°,
Nov.— 37.0°, Dec— 31.1°. 1958— Jan.— 26.2°, Feb.— 20.6°, March— 34.8°, Apr.— 59.7°,
May— 75.2°, June— . July— 79.6°, Aug.— 83.4°, Sept.— 72.3°.
Precipitation: 1957— Jan.— .14", Feb.— .12", March— .22", Apr.— .60", May— .95", June—
4.50", July— 1.01", Aug.— 2.23", Sept.— 0.35", Oct.— 1.54", Nov.— 0.31", Dec— 0.12".
Annual— 1957— 12.09". 1958— Jan.— 0.25", Feb.— 0.91", March— 0.15", Apr.— 0.22", May—
0.74", June— , July— 3.92", Aug.— 1.68", Sept.— 0.70".
Test
Rate Applied
Miles
No.
Treatment
Per Acre
Treated
Results
1
Radapon (dalapon)-Methox-
32.5 lb-1.63 lb
12.0
Very good during 1956 season.
one (MCP) .
36.29 lb-1.81 lb
39.07 lb-1.95 lb
58.68 lb-2.93 lb
26.5
67.12
22.65
Re-treated 1957 with
Radapon
40 1b
Results fair to good May 14,
2,4-D
6 1b
1957. Initial control following
re-treatment fair. Considerable
regrowth occurred on this line
by Sept., 1957. Species reinfest-
ing this area were Mexican fire-
weed, knotweed, horsetail, fox-
tail and prostrate spurge. Some
blue grass and brome grass sur-
viving.
Re-treated 1958 with
MCP-Chlorea 48 i
51.79 gal cone
Very good to excellent control
on Oct. 1, 1958 (85% to 90%
control). Some areas spotty
with brome grass, blue grass and
dandelion.
2
Radapon (dalapon)-Methox-
20.64 lb-93.35 gal
31.0
Excellent during 1956 season.
one-Chlorax No. 2
21.24 lb-95.59 gal
19.44 lb-87.52 gal
17.18 lb-77.34 gal
4.0
33.16
20.36
Re-treated 1957 with
Methoxone-Chlorea 800
185 gal
Good conti'ol on May 14, 1957.
Results Sept., 1957 very good to
excellent. Spots of blue grass
surviving but chlorotic. Absence
of annuals on this line.
Not treated 1958.
Very good control on Oct. I,
1958. Some brome grass en-
croaching along edge.
i
Roadway and Ballast
769
Table 5 (Continued)
Test
Rate Applied
Miles
Xo.
Treatment
Per Acre
Treated
Results
3
Radapon-Methoxone Liquid +
7.46-1.50-9.50 lb*
25.87
Very good during 1956 season.
monuron (Telvar W)
9.66-1.93-7.78 lb*
10.88-2.17-0.73 lb*
18.13
28.37
Re- treated 1957 with
Methoxone-Chlorea 800
195 gal
Very good control on May 14,
1957. Control Sept., 1957, excel-
lent. No appreciable regrowth.
Xot treated 1958.
Very good to excellent control
on Oct. 1, 1958 (85% to 90%
control). Brome grass en-
croaching along edge.
4
Methoxone-Chlorax No. 3-
200.4 gal-4.80 lb*
24.07
Fair to excellent during 1956
monuron (Telvar W) (Same as
187.86 gal-4..50 lb*
25.93
season.
Methoxone-Chlorea No. 3)
219.8 gal-4.90 lb*
282.16 gal-5.46 lb*
4.50
11.48
Re- treated 1957 with
S/M Agronyl-R
83 gal
Results very good. May 14,
1957. Control Sept.. 1957 good
to very good. Some brome grass
encroaching along edges of
treated area. Few spots of blue
grass surviving.
Re-treated 1958 with
MCP-Chlorea 48
51.79 gal cone.
Very good to excellent control
on Oct. 1, 19.58. Few spots blue
grass and rush grass surviving.
5
Methoxone-Chlorea No. 4
210.6 gal-8.85 lb*
23
Very good to excellent during
193.87 gal-6.65 lb*
31.83
195() season.
Re-treated 1957 with
None
Results excellent. May 14, 1957.
Control very good 15 months
following treatment. Some en-
croachment brome grass and
blue grass along edge treated
area. Scattered plants of fox-
tail, prostrate spurge and pig-
weed in some areas.
Re-treated 1958 with
MCP-Chlorea 48
51.79 gal cone.
Very good to excellent control
on Oct. 1, 1958.
fi
Chlorax (Chlorate)-TCA Xo. 2
98.1 lb-17.60 lb
27.34
Fair during 1956 season.
(TC.\)
113.5 lb-20.43 lb
14.60
Re-treated 1957 with
S/M .-^gronyl-R
90 gal
Control fair May 14, 1957. Con-
siderable regrowth with blue
grass and brome grass when in-
spected during Sept., 1957. Ap-
parently this treatment provided
control for only a short period
in 19.57.
Re-treated 1958 with
MCP-Chlorea 48
51.79 gal cone.
Very good control on Oct. 1,
1958.
7
Radapon-Methoxone Liriuid
Re-treated 1957 with
.38.29 1b-]. 91 lb
28.58
Very good during 1956 season.
S/M .\(froii\'l-R
88 gal
Results fair to good on May 14,
1957. Re-treatment maintained
good control for appro.ximately
6 weeks. Area was reinfested
with brome grass, blue grass,
Mexican fireweed, foxtail, knot-
weed, Russian thistle and pig-
weed when inspected Sept. 12,
1957.
Re-treated Aug. 1958 witli
MCP-Chlorax No. 2
90 gal cone.
Very little vegetation on this
line early June but heavy growth
fireweed by early August. This
treatment made during August.
Top kill very good Oct. 2, 19.58.
770
Roadwav and Ballast
Table 5 (Continued)
Test
Rale Applied
Miles
No.
Treatment
Per Acre
Treated
Results
8
Garnet (Amino Tiiazole and
7.0 lb-14.0 lb
23 . 25
Fair during 1956 season.
Methoxone)
f).73 lb-13.58 lb
7.2 lb-14..35 IV)
4.75
21 . 24
Re-treated 1957 with
S/M Agronyl-R
88 gal
Control fair May 15, 1957. Some
evidence of initial top burn but
grasses had recovered by Sept.
11, 1957. Some annuals such a.s
fireweed and foxtail infested
area following treatment.
Ke-treated 1958 with
MCP-Chlorea 48
51.79 gal cone.
Very good control on Oct. 2,
1958. Some brome grass and
blue grass surviving in spots.
9
TCA (4)-Chlorax No. 2
6(i.46 lb-23.93 lb
22.14
Poor during 1956 season.
(Chlorate)
75..53 lb-27.19 lb
23.32
Re-treated 1957 with
S/M Agronyl-R
81 gal
Results poor May 15, 1957.
Grasses predominant on this
line. Heavy growth blue grass
and brome grass when inspected
Sept. 11, 1957.
Re-treated 1958 with
•
MCP-Chlorea 48
51.79 gal cone.
Very good control. Oct. 2, 1958.
10
Animate emulsion (Animate
32.16 lb-5.58 lb
24.27
Good during 19.56 season.
X)-|-monuron (Telvar W)
24.75 lb-6.04 lb
11.00
-i-476 gal oil slurry
27.69 lb-8.4 lb
25.29
Re-treated 1957 with
S/M Agronyl-R
81 gal
Results fair to good. May 15,
1957. General control on this
line considered good when in-
spected Sept. 15, 1957. Diffi-
culties encountered during origi-
nal treatment in injecting mo-
nuron-oil slurry in Ammate
emulsion resulting in small scat-
tered areas not treated with
monuron. Considerable regrowth
occurred in these areas. Results
very good where monuron was
included in treatment.
Re-treated 1958 with
MCP-Chlorea 48
51.79 gal cone.
Good to excellent control on
Oct. 1, 1958. Some areas excel-
lent. Other areas with brome
grass surviving.
*Lb of Telvar W (CMU— 80%).
iMCP-Chlorea — Equivalent to 2.07 lb MCP per acre, 90.6 lb sodium chlorate per acre, 51.8 lb sodium
metab orate Jper acre, 8.18 Telvar W per acre.
Roadwa\" and Ballast
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782 Roadway and Ballast
Part 4 — Cost of Developing a New Herbicide
With increased use of chemicals for vegetation control and the need for improved
materials tremendous advances have been made in the development of new herbicides.
In this connection, the question, "What does it cost to develop a new herbicide?" has
been asked often during recent years. The following is a review of the present informa-
tion concerning the expense involved in developing a new herbicide.
There are many factors which influence the cost of discovering and developing
a new chemical to be used for vegetation control. Some chemical compounds may
present very few problems in their development and may be available for commercial
use within a minimum of 4 years. Others may present numerous problems, and it may
require a maximum of 10 to 11 years before they can be placed on the market.
The present development and evaulation tests on new herbicides are not only con-
ducted by the chemical industry but the chemicals are often furnished to public agencies
and industrial research personnel for their tests. However, most companies- have facil-
ities to give them an evaluation before they are forwarded to other groups. According
to L. L. Coulter\ all new herbicide compounds must be subject to basic laboratory tests
before becoming candidates for weed control herbicides. Field research dollars cannot
justifiably be expended on compounds which have not shown real phytotoxic merits,
are too hazardous to use, are uneconomical to produce, or are too difficult to formulate.
J. A. Field and R. H. Wellman^ state that "to obtain one successful agricultural
chemical about 1800 compounds must be synthesized and run through biological screens.
On the average, it costs $150 to synthesize a chemical and $200 to run it through
biological screens. The initial research cost is then a total of 1800 compounds, in each
of which $350 is invested. Only 1 in 30 of these compounds survives the initial screening,
and the cost of the failures must be borne by those that continue. A total of $10,500
is, therefore, invested in each of the remaining chemicals. Further laboratory and green-
house work will cost $1000 each, making a total of $11,500 for each chemical. Only
1 chemical in 10 will merit further consideration. In each of these (adding the cost of
failures), $115,500 is invested. Initial field tests will cost at least $1000 per chemical,
which must be added to the $115,000. Only 1 in 3 of these compounds will be worth
a full-scale development effort. So there remains 2 chemicals, from the 1800 compounds,
that have cost so far about $348,000 each. To this must be added $250,000 development
cost for each, which is made up of field studies, analytical methods, residue analyses,
toxicological studies, production, research and pilot plant construction and cost of
securing patents. The total cost of each of the two remaining chemicals is now approxi-
mately $600,000. If only one of the two compounds achieves commercial markets, the
full price tag will read $1,200,000."
According to Mark G. Wiltse", "the cost of a new product will have to include
some or all of the expense of discovering and developing a new herbicide similar to
those outlined below:
1 Coulter, L. L., "Right-of-Way Brush Control Research and It's Ramifications," Proceedings 12th
Annual Meeting, NEWCC, New York, January 19S8, page 213.
2 Field, J. A., and Wellman, R. H., "A Teen-Ager Growing Up", National Agricultural Chemicals
Association News and Pesticide Review, March-April, 1956, page 4.
^Wiltse, Mark G., "Profit and Loss with Aquatic Weeds". Proceedings 1 2th Annual Meeting.
NEWCC, New York, January 1958, page 356.
Roadway and Ballast 783
Item Dollars
Synthesizing and Screening $ 70,000
Patent Cost 8,000
Field Testing 475,000
Pilot Plant 50,000
Analytical Methods 130,000
Residue and Flavor Studies 335,000
Toxicology Studies 75,000
Formulation. Corrosion and Packaging Studies 125,000
Registration, Legal, Miscellaneous 100,000
Total $1 ,368,000
"These figures represent the expense in discovering and developing an average new
product."
Charles O. Barnard* reported that from a survey of several major producers of
pesticide chemicals, the minimum cost was .^500,000 for a pesticide chemical that ap-
parently encountered no serious roadblocks on its way to certification of usefulness by
USDA, and the establishment of official tolerances by FDA under Public Law 518 (Mil-
ler Amendment). Another compound, however, created for its owner a frustrating
variety of obstacles to commercial registration, and its development cost rocketed to
nearly $3,250,000. He stated that the probable range confronting developers of new
pesticide chemicals appears to be $750,000 to $3,250,000, and the trend is constantly
upward.
Dr. Max GoebeP reported that more than $3,000,000 was invested in discovering
and developing the urea herbicides. Well over half of this sum was spent in evaluatiilg
and demonstrating the effectiveness of these materials.
The figure generally used in references to developing new herbicides is about
.SI, 000,000. This includes toxicology tests and finding where the chemical fits. In dis-
cussion groups this figure ranged from $300,000 to $1,000,000. In one instance, the
toxicology tests on a chemical was $750,000.
The work involved in discovering and developing a new herbicide is expensive,
time consuming, and is likely to bear fruit only many years after the initiation of such
a program. However, it should be mentioned that it is not too difficult to find com-
pounds that have activity. The difficult part is trying to find enough areas where they
can be used in competition with other chemicals to make them worthwhile to produce.
The chemical companies admit that they run across many compounds that are highly
specific for a certain problem, but the potential market is so small that these compounds
remain on the shelf.
One important point to remember when considering the development of a herbicide
for industrial purposes is that plants vary greatly in their reaction to chemicals. As yet,
in the whole soil sterilant or general vegetation control program, we have no compound
that will kill all plants unless they are used at excessively high rates. It seems logical
that we will not have one in the future because of this difference in plant reaction.
* Charles O. Barnard, "Pesticide Development Cost," Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Volume 6, No. 7, July 1958, page S12.
6 Goebel, Max, "Weed Control— An Industry Point of View," Proceedings 13th Annual Meeting
NCWCC, Chicago, December 1956. page 2.
Report of Committee 5 — Track
m _
W,
R. BjORKLUNl)
T. R. Klin GEL
^^^UtU^^^^
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G. Brisbin
R. E. KusTON
^^IRHHMiAftL
R.
J. Bruce
L. W. Leitze
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E. J. LiSY, Jr.
W 1
M
. D. Carothers
C. J. McCoNAUGHY
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E.
W. Caruthers (E)
G. W. Miller
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H.
B. ClIRISTIANSON
M. P. OVIATT
J.
T. COLLINSON
J. S. Parsons
E.
D. COWLIN
L. A. Pelton
J^H^Q^i^^ /
F.
W. Creedle
C. E. Peterson
^^H^Hf •
P.
H. Croft
S. H. POORE
glg^H^^JI^pp 'i^g^
K.
E. Dunn
J. A. Reed
^^^^^K j|L^ SjH
C.
R. Fears
M. K. RUPPERT
^^^I^K -^T' ^H
H.
C. Fox
J. M. Salmon, Jr.
^^^^^^K ^^ I^B
R.
M. Frev
R. E. Sampson
^^^^^^K ^^K 9B
J.
W. FULMER
V. M. ScHwiNt;
^^^^^^K ^^K IH
R.
G. Garland
R. D. Simpson
^^^^^^^^ ^^^ wmMt
L.
W. Green
T. R. Snodgrass
W. E. Cornell, Chairman
> W
. E. Griffiths
G. R. Sproles
Troy West,
M.
. J. Hassan
J. R. Talbott, Jr.
F/ce Chairman,
A.
E. Haywood
J. B. Taylor
A. F. HuBER (E),
C.
C. Herrick
R. E. Tew
5pfrf<ary,
A.
B. Hillman
K. H. Von Kampen
J. E. Armstroxg, Jk.
A.
E. HlNSON
S. J. W.4TS0N
John Ayer, Jr.
H.
W. Jensen
D. J. White
R. D. Baldwin
L.
H. Jentoft
I. V. WttEY
J. P. Barker
C.
H. Johnson
J. B. Wilson
F. J. Bishop
R.
J. D. Kelly
B. J. Worley
M. C. BiTNER
C.
N. King
M. J. Zeeman
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Raikcay Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Revision of Specifications for Soft Steel Cut Track Spikes, submitted for
adoption page 786
2. Track tools, collaborating with Purchases and Stores Division, AAR.
No report. Your committee has asked for an assignment to make a
standard design for lag screws and drive screw spikes.
3. Plans for switches, frogs, crossings, spring and slip switches, collaborating
with Signal Section, AAR.
Progress report, with recommendations submitted for adoption and pub-
lication in the Portfolio of Track Plans page 787
Appendix 3-a. Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel Castings in
Crossings at McCook, 111 page 792
4. Prevention of damage resulting from brine drippings on track and struc-
tures, collaborating with Committee IS, and Mechanical Division, AAR.
Progress report, submitted as information. Covers further investigation
seeking to find non-toxic brine corrosion inhibitors page 793
785
786 Track
5. Design of tie plates, collaborating with Committees 3 and 4.
No report. Study is being continued.
^. Hold-down fastenings for tie plates, including pads under plates; their
effect on tie wear, collaborating with Committee 3.
Progress report, presented as information, covering the service test installa-
tion of hold-down fastenings, tie pads, etc., on the Louisville & Nashville
near London and East Bernstadt, Ky page 800
7. Effect of lubrication in preventing frozen rail joints and retarding cor-
rosion of rail and fastenings.
Final report on service test on the Illinois Central, offered as information.
Continuing with study of corrosion of track structure under special condi-
tions where the corrosion is accelerated page 828
8. Laying rail tight with frozen joints.
Progress report on the service tests of rail laid tight compared to rail laid
with normal bolt tension and expansion page 839
9. Critical review of the subject of speed on curves as affected by present-
day equipment, collaborating with the AAR Joint Committee on Relation
Between Track and Equipment.
No report. Your committee has under consideration the revision of present
AREA spiral.
10. Methods of heat treatment, including flame hardening, of bolted rail frogs
and split switches, together with methods of repair by welding.
Progress report, presented as information page 862
11. Economies to be gained by the railroads from the more extensive use of
AREA trackwork plans.
Final report, presented as information page 870
AREA Bulletin 549, February 1959.
The Committee on Track,
W. E. Cornell, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
G. R. Sproles (chairman, subcommittee), John Ayer, Jr., R. J. Bruce, M. D. Carothers.
W. E. Cornell, P. H. Croft, M. J. Hassan, C. C. Herrick, A. F. Huber, H. W.
Jensen, L. A. Pelton, Troy West, M. J. Zeeman.
Your committee submits the following recommendations with respect to the Manual:
Pages 5-2-1 and 5-2-2
SPECIFICATIONS FOR SOFT STEEL CUT TRACK SPIKES
On page 5-2-2, Sec. C, Par. 1 (b) reads:
"The head of the full size finished spikes shall bend to the line of the face of the
spike, without cracking on the outside of the bent portion."
Track 787
The present wording was adopted in 1920, and considering the change in the
design of spikes, the committee is of the opinion the wording does not cover the
intent of the specification with respect to present-day manufacture. The intent of the
specification is to eliminate spikes containing forging defects in their throats and should
not be concerned with superficial surface disturbances. Bending the large amount of
metal in the spike head puts severe tension stresses in the throat fillet, and it can be
expected that some superficial metal skin distortion can occur.
Accordingly, the committee recommends that this paragraph of the specifications be
changed to read:
"(b) The head of the full-size finished spike shall bend backward to the line
of the face of the spike, without showing evidence of forging laps on the surface of the
bent portion."
Report on Assignment 3
Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip Switches
Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR
M. J. Zeeman (chairman, subcommittee), R. D. Baldwin, J. P. Barker, W. R. Bjork-
lund, R. J. Bruce, M. D. Carothers, E. W. Caruthers, H. B. Christianson, J. T.
Collinson, W. E. Cornell, E. D. Cowlin, F. W. Creedle, H. C. Fox, R. M. Frey,
J. W. Fulmer, M. J. Hassan, A. E. Haywood, A. B. Hillman, A. F. Huber, H. W.
Jensen, C. H. Johnson, T. R. Klingel, R. E. Kuston, L. W. Leitze, E. J. Lisy, Jr.,
C. J. McConaughy, C. E. Peterson, S. H. Poore, J. A. Reed, R. D. Simpson, T. R.
Snodgrass, J. B. Taylor, K. H. Von Kampen, S. J. Watson, Troy West, I. V. Wiley,
J. B. Wilson, B. J. Worley.
Your committee submits for approval as recommended practice and publication
in the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) the following three plans:
Plan 791-59— Tables of Practical Gages and Flangeways for Curved Track,
Plan 792A-S9 — Graph Showing Minimum Gages and Flangeways for Curved
Track (Diesel Locomotives),
Plan 792B-S9 — Graph Showing Minimum Gages and Flangeways for Curved
Track (Steam Locomotives).
It also recommends withdrawal of the previous issue of Plans 791-34 and 792-34.
The data on the above three plans were obtained by combining the information
in the AAR Engineering Division research report "Track Gage and Flangeway Widths
for Operation of Diesel Power on Curved Track" with the data now published in the
Portfolio for steam operation only. This research report was presented to the 1958
convention as information and is published in the 1958 Proceedings (Vol. 59) as
.\ppendix 3-d on pages 1011 to 1017.
Your committee also recommends for approval as recommended practice and pub-
lication in the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) revisions of Par. 33 (b), 33 (c),
33 (d) and 33 (h) of the Specifications for Special Trackwork, Appendix A, page 1,
as follows:
Par. 33(b) — Substitute the following for the present wording:
Track gage may be tW" under or iV" over specified gage in completed crossings".
Par. 33 (c) — Substitute the following for the present wording:
"Guard face gage in completed crossings having a specified track gage of 4' 8^"
with specified flangeways n/s" wide, or a specified track gage of 4' 8§^" with specified
flangeways 1%" and 2" wide, shall be between 4' 4%" and ¥ 4W, incl.
78S Track
"Guard face gage in completed curved crossings other than those which are inchidcd
in the preceding paragraph shall not be greater than the specified dimension and may
be up to }i" less than this dimension."
Par. 33 (d) — Substitute the following for the present wording:
"Flangeways in completed crossings may be iV" less than the specified width or
more than the specified width if required to conform to (b) and/or (c) above, except
that in curved crossings the minimum guard check gage from the inner guard line to
the outer gage line shall be 4' 6i1j"."
Par. 33 (h) — Change first sentence to read: "All the above apply to track for
steam or diesel locomotive operation".
The above proposed revisions of Par. 33 result in slightly closer tolerances in frog
and crossing gages and flangeways, which are thought to be desirable for die.«el
operation.
Also recommended for approval as recommended practice and publication in the
Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) is a revision of Art. IS, Spring Washers, Appen-
dix A, page 8, of the Portfolio. The proposed revision is to limit Article IS to cover
spring washers for railroad crossings only, instead of for all parts of special trackwork
requiring 1J4 in and 1% in diameter bolts. The double-coil type of spring washer
designed to meet the reactive load requirements is not needed for turnout frogs and
guard rail assemblies. The proposed new Art. IS, to supersede present Art. IS, is as
follows:
Article 15. Spring Washers
1501. Material Covered
Spring washers for use in special trackwork.
1502. Manufacture
Spring washers for all bolts of %" to 1^" diameter, inch, shall be in accordance
with the current AREA Specifications for Spring Washers (Manual, Chapter 4, Part 2).
Spring washers for 1%" diameter bolts for all purposes and for 1%" and 1^" diameter
bolts when used with turnout frogs and guard rail assemblies shall have a minimum
reaction of SOOO lb. at 0.030" release as specified in the above specifications for the
1^'" and 1%" diameter washers. Spring washers for 1%" and l}i" bolt sizes when
used in crossing frogs shall comply with the said current AREA specifications except
that the following revisions and additions to the specifications shall govern.
Method of Testing for Reactive Load
The reactive pressure tests of the specimens shall be conducted in a compression
machine of approved design, equipped with a deflection gage, graduated in 0.001'"
and located so that readings are taken from approximately the center of the platens.
Each specimen shall be preloaded three times to 60,000 lb between hardened steel blocks
and completely released. The specimen will then be compressed with the fourth 60,000-lb
load and released to a release point, at which release point the reactive load shall be not
less than 10,000 lb.
The release point shall be as determined from tests conducted in the manner herein-
after described on six specimens of the design and size of washer involved. Each speci-
men shall be compressed in the testing machine between an ASA heavy medium-carbon
nut with a short length of its bolt as one bearing face and a 4" square steel plate of not
to exceed ISO Brinell with a hole drilkd in the center -h" larger than the nominal
bolt diameter as the other bearing face. The faces on both sides of the nut and plate
shall be machined or ground for each specimen tested to provide flat and parallel
bearing surfaces. The specimen shall be oriented to have one coil end close to the
middle of one side of the nut. Load the specimen to 40,000 lb and record the gage
reading for that position of the platens. Increase the test load to 60,000 lb. Then
NOTES
;R shall in all cases SPECIFY: The gage and the
Bngeways to be used in crossings and other trackwork units
curve and equipment as described in Notes 2 and }.
TPUCK WHEEL
Iclusive diesel operation with wheel mounting per Note
.jpecify from Table "D'' the gage required by the longest
kheel base.
-elusive diesel operation with trucks having wheels spaced
_> back of flanges 4'-5>/4" or 4'-^Vs", see Note "D" for
etermination. For convenience in specifying adjusted gages
_jrded curves, comparable gages to those shown in Table
re listed in Note }, below.
"Tnbined steam and diesel locomotive operation specify the
_om Table "S" preferably per Note "J".
ronomy in maintenance of curved crossings. 4'-9" gage
-not be exceeded.
(A) Data i
(B) Gages
maxind
4 '-5 3/8
6-whei
\G£ PER
■fe BtoB
RIGID', -_..,. ^-
5 PAIRS
AIL
riANGED
DRIVERS
SEE NOTE G
^
19-0
19-0
OUT.RL
2V8
2V4
?%"
T/z
25/8"
23/4
ADJUSTED GAGE FOR GUARDED CURVES
PER NOTE 2(b)
WHEELS 4-5'4 BtoB
GAGE
4- B'/r
4-8V8
4- 8^/4
4- B'Vs"
4-9"
4-9'/fe"
FLWYS
BOTH
l¥
2V8"
2V4'
2%"
2V2
WHEELS 4-5 Vs" BtoB
SAGE
4-8'/z"
4-85/8"
4'8V4'
A'-9P/q
4-9"
4-9'/8"
PUU6EWAVS
IN.RL.
i¥
r
2'/8"
2V4"
2^8"
2V2'
OUT. RL.
2'/q'
2V4
23/8'
2V
25/a
Jays
ig-
Flangeways for various gages and equipment shall be speci-
■^d above:
2^
KS
<ar trucks can be operated on all curves where gages and
L flangeways suitable for steam or diesel locomotives are
JES
sn Basic No. 790 for flangeways and other data when gage
widened for curvature.
(E) Dappendix "A", Section 33, for permissable variations in
tcture.
(F) D;
^^Bii Railway Engineering Association
(G) D
(H) C
ruction and Maintenance Section
'iociation of American Railroads
(I) G
^^ TABLES OF PRACTICAL
(J) gGages and flangeways
^' FOR CURVED TRACK
PLAN NO. 791-59
TABLE
D-GAGES —
CUR^
7
1
TRACK— DIESEL LOCOMOTIVES
GAGES
1
DEGREE OP niRVATllDF
1— GENERAL
^^^f^^f^f^ ^"'^^'- 'J^ ^^ "^ASES SPECIFY: The gage and the
width of Hjngeways to be used in crossings and other trackwork units
to suit the curve and equipment as described in Notes 2 and }.
2- GAGE
(a) For exclusive diesel operation with wheel mounting per Note
truck wheel has""" ''""'''' "°" ""^ *^*' required by the longest
(b) For exclusive diesel operation with trucks having wheels spaced
back to back of flanges A'-'iV," or 4'-5i/a". see Note "D'^ for
gage determination. For convenience in specifying adjusted gages
lor guarded curves, comparable gages to those shown in Table
■•D" are listed in Note 3, below.
(c) For combined steam and diesel locomotive operation specify the
gage from Table --S' preferably per Note ••;■'.
(d) For economy in maintenance of curved crossings. 4'-9" gage
should not be exceeded.
33°
30°
2B°
76'
24°
22°
20°
ia°
lfi°
14°
1?°
10°
"/-• SUARDEP
to CURVES
"n" I'NSUftROED
^ CURVES
4-9V
4'a'/f
4-8V,-
4'8'/f
4-9V-,"
4-8'/7
4-P,V,'
4-A'A"
4'-R'A"
4'-P,'A'
4-8'A"
4-8V0
TyjCKw«ro.SASE
U-6" £ UNDER
a'-s^/h
4'8%"
d's'V/,-
4-85''fl"
4'-85^'
4-8V
U-S £ UNDER
OVERll-6'TO 12'-\"
4'- 9"
4'8''/r
4' 8^/4
4'8^/
4-8^^"
A-8%
4-8'/,"
.
..
„
OVER 11-6 TO 12'- r
■• 12- r " 17-8"
A-gVft
4- 9'
"I'aV
4'8V
4-8%'
4'-9Vfl
4'-8'/7"
„
- \Z-\' " 12-8
■• 12-9" •■ 13- 3"
4'-9V4
i-9V«
4'-q"
4'B%'
4'-8'/fl"
4'-R%"
4-8Vr
4'flV
„
„
„
■ 12-8 - 13-3'
■ :3'-3" " 13- 10'
4'-9V4
4-9Vfl
4'-9"
4'-8^/ft
4'-8T'p-
4-8^4
4-8S^'
4'-8'/7"
,.
■■ 13-3' » !3'l0"
- 13'10'" !4'-5"
4'9V4
4'qVp"
d'-q"
-a'-fiT},'
4-83/,l'
4'-8^4
4-8S/fl
4'-flyv
,
" 13-10 - 14-5
- 14'- 5' - 15-0"
4'9'/4
d'-g'-ft"
4'-9"
4'-8''/fl"
4- 8%'
4'-85^-
4-R'A,"
„
■• W-S" ■■ '.5-0"
■ 15' 0'" 15-7"
4'-9'/4''
4'-9'/fi"
4'-9"
4-8V
4'8V4
4-8^
4'-8'/7'
.
" 15- 0"- 15-7"
4'9V4"
4'9V8"
4'-9"
4'-8lft"
4'-8V4
4-85^'
4'8'/f
lA» Data for Table "D" were derived from Plan Basic No. 729A. (C) For gages for trucks having an average total lateral play in middle
.n> <-,~. ,~ oiv..„ »„,!,-► ■ k.k ■ 1. J 1. J and end axles other than >/s" , see Note 4(b) Plan Basic No. 792A.
(Bl Oafes are siven to the nearest one-eighth inch and are based on
maximum uheel diameter of 42", spaced back to back of flanges (D) Fur gases for trucks having wheels spaced back to back of flanges
■l-^-s- and average total lateral play in middle and end axles of 4'-'.\V or A'-'.Vs". see Note 4(c) Plan Basic No. 729A for "UN-
6-»-heel truck amounting to %". GUARDED CURVES' and Note 4(d) Plan Basic No. 792A for
■nirARnpn ruRVFS".
V/IDENED GAGE PER
NOTE 2(a) OR 2 (d
ADJUSTED GAGE FOR GUARDED CURVES
PER NOTE 2(b)
TABLE S — GAGES — CURVED TRACK— STEAM LOCOMOTIVES
WHEELS 4-53/fl BtoB
WHEELS a'-B'/iBioB
WHEELS 4'-5Vb BtoB II
Av: \:''vff-" :^'"-ti^,3H:5 t^a^e"^^
GAGES
GAGE
FL6NGEWAVS
GAGE
FL'WVS.
GAGE
FLflNGEWflVS II
"Hm
''ci\'zi' k.:vi3E:
3 =A-RS
i'J.FLiVSD
:p:vers
2?A'.RS
AILW'-IEEL
3&SES
DEGREE OF CURVATURE
IN.RL.
OUT. RL
BOTH
IN.RL.
OUT. RL.
33»
30°
28°
26°
24°
22°
20°
16°
16°
14°
12°
10"
8°
6°
4-85/8
iV
2"
4- S'/i'
l'/8
4'-8'/2
l'/8
2'
s-.'s:
■ ■ ' "^
Y.' i-p"
A'- 8'/,'
4-8/7"
4-8'/,"
4-flVf
4'-8'/7
4'-8V
4'8V7"
4-6V7"
4-8'/7"
4'-8V7'
4-8W'
4-6V
d'-S'/?'
d'&V,"
4'- 83/4"
r
2"
4-85/8
2"
4-85/8"
2"
2V8
::-C'
WHtELSftSt
4- 9'
^'ft'/fl
4' 8%'
4-8^
4-8V
4-8%'
4'-8'/-,"
,
..
«
4'- 8%'
2V8'
2V8'
4'- 83/4
2'/9"
4-8%'
2'/8
2V4
'.'.'- 0' !'-&'
4-9-
4-8V
4'8'^"
4-8^4
4'&3/^"
4-85| 4-85/8
4-8V7"
„
,,
4- 9"
2V
2V4
d'-S'Vs
2V4-
C\-Z\
2'/4"
23/8'
11-6" :2'o'
4-9'-f,-
4'-9"
4-9"
4'8V
4'85/4
4' 85/^"
^■^%'
4-85/„'
4-8V7'
..
„
..
.
4'-9Vb''
m
23/8
4'- 9"
2^/8
4-9"
24-6
2Vz"
G P
12: s' -i-:'
4'934,"
4'9V4
4'-9Vft'
4'9V
4-9"
4'-8''/ft'
4-33/4
4'-8V
4'-8V
4-8V7"
.,
4-9V4
2'^"
T/i
4'- 9'^"
2V2
4'-9Vs"
2'/2'
2Vp
•1' 5^ '.-■'"'
4-qV7"
4-9'^^'
4'9'/,,"
4'-qVfl
4-9"
4-8V
a-?,%
4-83/4
4'-854'
4-6'/7
..
..
4'- 93/8
2V8"
2V8"
.^>- ■;:-.-
" B
4'-9V
4'-93^"
4'-9'/4"
4-9'/fi"
4'- 9"
4'-8''/ft'
a'-fP/B
4'-83/4
4'- 8^^
4- 8'//
..
d'-g'/z
?3/4'
23/4
'G" '?'
!;-c i;-s
4-9'/i'
4'95/g
4'9'/4"
4'9Ve
4-9"
4'-8-'/8'
4-83/4'
4-85/^'
4-8'/{
"
■■
3— FLANGEWAYS
Width of Flangeways for various gages and equipment shall be speci-
fied as listed above:
4— CAR TRUCKS
Two axle car trucks can be operated on all curves where gages and
widths of flangeways suitable for steam or diesel locomotives are
specified.
'.?-r
:--0":-'-6'
■5-e" :s-o"
" A
4-9 Vz
4-9^-i"
4-9li"
4-9'/8'
4'- 9"
4'-3'/8
4'- 8*4
4'-8V8
4-8'''2'
"
■?-:'i:'-c
'-■•G'lS-O'
16-C":
4■9'/^■
4'-94'8
4--9V4
4-9'-fe"
4'-9"
4'-8%
4-84^4
4'-8^'z'
"
■j* '?' "Z'-'-i
' 'S-C 19' 0"
4'-9>'r'
4-9J/8
4'-9'/4
4'-9'/8
d-S'/g
4-8%
a-&%
4-8'/2
•9-"' "■-■:■ Ti-i
' 'S-O'.
4-9'/r
ask
4-9'/4
4'-9
4-8^9
4-8^/&
4'8'/2
■=-:' \~''-i''
1
4-9^2
49*8
4-9Vg
4-9
4-8J/4
4-8V
(E> Data for Table "S' were derived from Plan Basic No. 792B.
<F) Dau for column -2 pairs all wheel bases' are applicable to locomotives . with one or more pairs of
blind center drivers. ••All wheel bases'' refers to practical limit of approximately 14'0" measured from
(a) See Plan Basic No. 790 for flangeways and other data when gage
is not widened for curvature,
(a) See Appendix "A", Section 33. for permlssable variations in
manufacture.
American Railway Engineering Association
(G)
(H)
• I)
Drircr* or
Columof
«beel ba«
Caget are
drivert, ar
boxes and
Otga pel
txui latgi
fluio line
fioating ax
•P- give m.
■» for guard
ehren to th
<r V,~ to }/
tig-ht setting
Series 'A'
e locomotive
ocomotives
es ar
iximu
sd po
e nea
16" fc
of ou
may
f ope
do no
not
n wh
tion
rest c
rj p
iside
be u
ate 0
opei
counted as
eel bases f
of curves t(
ne-eighth
aits, and V
drivers.
sed for ge
ver it. Gaj
ate.
flange
or plai
be Of
nch w
s" to '
neral c
cs per
d driv
n ungu
eratcd
th an
4" for
onditic
Scries
rs nor in the rigid wheel base.
arded curves and columns "G " give maximum
on gages and degrees of curvature as per table.
allowance of approximately Vs" for 3 pairs of
5 pairs, as total gain in lateral play at journal -
ns in main line tracks unless it is known that
•'B^' may be used in yards and sidings where
Construction and Maintenance Section
Association of American Railroads
TABLES OF PRACTICAL
GAGES AND FLANGEWAYS
FOR CURVED TRACK
PLAN NO. 791-59
(b)
in Railway Engineering Association
(c)
ruction and Maintenance Section
2_p^ociation of American Railroads
ExiRAPH SHOWING MINIMUIVI
3_F,,GAGES AND FLANGEWAYS
Pia FOR CURVED TRACK
4— IN'
[Diesel Locomotives)
(a),
PLAN NO. 792A-59
Gjorded Curves
Goge and Flongewoys — Curved TrocW — Diesel Locomotives
Diggroms for 6 Wheel Truck Locomotives
Deqree of Cucvol-ure
*f ^1' ^,^' "' ^.r ^.°' '.^' ^.^' \*' ^^' '°' '"' '^' **' '2* 10* 8" 6' 4" 2" 0'
Unguarded Curves
Degree oF Curvot-ure
40* 38* 36* 34' 32* 30* 28* 26* 24' 22' 20' le* 16' 14* 12* IQ- 8' 6* 4' 2* Cf
« -:r i-sVe goge fhe flongewoy is l^^S for fhe inner rail
c-«d 2' for ^he ou^e^ roil tc provide the st'ondord guord
•'see 2:ae ssecif^ied on Plcjn Bosic No.790.
NOTES
1— DATA AND INFORMATION.
(a) Dagrims are based on maximum wheel diameter of 42",
back to back of flanges 4'-5'/8" and average total lateral
pUv m middle and end axles of 6-wheel truck amounting
to ^-.
(bl Althoogli the diagrams include the maximum gage of
4-_9y^-. most of the road diesels when hauling trains are
limited to a maximum curvature of 21 degrees or 22
degrees-
(c) Foot wheel truck diesels with a maximum truck wheel
base of lO'-O" do not require widening of track ^age on
curves to reach the limiting curve of the locomotives.
2— Posilioo of inwrsection between diagonal wheel base line and
actual dezree-lme with reference to horizontal lines gives the
EXACT MISIMU.M GAGE required.
V— For •'PRACTICAL GAGES recommended." see Table "D".
Plu B»«i£No. 791.
4— TNTHIPOLATION— For other Gages.
•:> Eacb aiagram may be interpolated for intermediate lengths
of wheel bases and average total lateral play in middle and
rri jilei <yf tr-jck averaging other than Yg .
-(continued)
(b) Track, gage for other thar
in middle and end axles
graphically in either diagr
the line at the
axle
alue of
Ys" average total lateral play
of truck, can be determined
n by drawing a line parallel
truck wheel base and starting
ige total lateral play per
(c) Track gage for UNGUARDED CURVES, for trucks hav-
ing wheels spaced back to back of flanges i'-i'A" or
4'-5V8". can be determined by adding the increased
amount of track play, Va" or %", to the average total
lateral play per axle.
(d) Track gage for GUARDED CURVES, for trucks as out-
lined in Note 4(c) shall be equal to the flangeway deter-
mined from the graph plus the standard guard check gage
A'-^Vs" required for car trucks. This width of flangeway
shall be used for the inner rail for all trucks and also for
the outer rail for those having wheels spaced back to
back of flanges 4'-^V4". but the width of flangeway of the
outer rail is increased Va" for trucks having wheels spaced
back to back of flanges 4'-^Va". except when the gage
on the graph is 4'-8i/2". Comparable adjusted gages and
widths of ffangeways are listed in Note 5. Plan Basic No.
791.
-For basic information and formulas used in this analysis, see
AREA Proceedings, Volume 59. Pages 1011 to 1017.
American Railway Engineering Association
Construction and Maintenance Section
Association of American Railroads
GRAPH SHOWING MINIMUM
GAGES AND FLANGEWAYS
FOR CURVED TRACK
(Diesel Locomotives)
PLAN NO. 792A-59
^MOTIVES
J'
COMOT/\^eS
moED Curves
OF CURMTURE
' /sr /e' 14" 12^ /cr 8^ (cT 4^ e* cr
in Railway Engineering Association
ruction and Maintenance Section
iociation of American Railroads
iRAPH SHOWING MINIIVIUIVI
GAGES AND FLANGEWAYS
FOR CURVED TRACK
(Steam Locomotives)
PLAN NO. 792B-59
GAGES AND FLANGEWAVS— CURVED TPACK—STEAM LOCOMOTIVES
D/AGRA/WS FOR RiGID \A/MEEL - BaSE LoCOMOT/\>^£S
Guarded curves
DECREE OF CURl^A TURE
Sr JC ^'^' 3<'22^BCr /8' /6' /4' /^^ ICf ST (b' 4" 2° C
UNGUARDED CURVES
DEGREE OF CURi/ATURE
sr JO' 2sr ae" ?r32- 2(r lar /6° ir /^ fcr a' c 4' a- cr
±9^
IHmmuu Basic Gase = Gage to Guard Distance
(4'-6^a' Basic) plus th/ckmess of wheel flange at
Contact Level (l%'2]^ i'-8^z'-
/4^^o»+'>»/vCf f^o/i Pl Ay AT Journal. Bo\es
Af^D C^oss Serr/A^c of Ours/0£ Drivers
« Foo. i'-B^/a Sage the FianGEwAy is P/e for the Ihner
RilL AND 2' FOB THE OUTER RAIL TO PBOVIDE THE StAMARD
^••taD Face Gase specfied oh Plan Basic Uo790.
I— DATA AND INFORMATION.
(a) Indication on diagonal
lines of length of wheel
base and number of
drivers.
NOTES
Rigid Wheel Base in Feet No-Ft-3
No.Ft-4
No-Ft-5
NoFt-5X
3 Pair
4 Pan
•i Pair
5 Pail
All Flanged Dr
Center Driver Blind.
<b) Front and rear trucks must have sufficient swing for degree of curve to operate on gage and widths
of flangeways given.
2-Pos.fon of intersection between diagonal wheel base line and verl.cal degree-line with reference to hori-
»nul lines gives the EXACT MINIMUM GAGE required.
J— For •PRACTICAL GAGES recommended', see Table ■S'. Plan Basic N... 791.
4— Each diagram may be interpolated for other lengths of wheel bases
i — For basic information and formulas used
to ««6 and Volume 23. Pages 614 to 616.
analysis, see AREA Proceedings. Volume 22, Pages 679
American Railway Engineering Association
Construction and Maintenance Section
Association of American Railroads
GRAPH SHOWING MINIMUM
GAGES AND FLANGEWAYS
FOR CURVED TRACK
(Steam Locomotives)
PLAN NO. 792B-59
Track 789
release the platens until the distance between them is 0.030" greater than th6 gage
reading taken at the 40,000-lb load and record the reactive load remaining. The same
specimen after two additional preloads of 60,000 lb between hardened steel blocks shall
then be released from a load of 60,000 lb to this same reactive load and the release
distance recorded. The average release distance so obtained for the six specimens shall
conftitute the release point for all reactance acceptance tests of that design and size
of washer.
Ductility Test
This test shall be conducted in accordance with Art. 4, Par. (a) of the current
specifications, except double-coil washers shall first be cut off to form a single coil
washer.
Proportion of Tests
Art. S of the current specifications shall govern, except that three specimens will
1)6 tested for each lot of 1000 or more of finished spring washers.
Your committee also recommends approval of the following minor revisions in
Appendix A:
Page 3, Par. 405 (e). Insert "more" between "not" and "than" in second line.
Page 4, Par. 409. Change second word in first line from "or" to "of".
Page 6, Par. 90S. Change second line to read "the specifications referred to in Para-
graph 902." Par. 906 (a). Change second line to read "Shapes shall be within the
limits of the specification referred to in Paragraph 902." Par. 1002 (a). Insert "process"
after "hearth". Par. 1006 (c). Change dimension (J^") to (iV").
Page 7, Par. 1301. Substitute the following: "Rolled .steel joint bars of standard
design for joints in rails of standard T-rail section".
New Errata Section for Portfolio of Trackwork Plans
We invite your attention to another matter which has received extensive considera-
tion by your committee — namely, the best and most economical way to take care of
minor inconsistencies or errors on the plans in the Trackwork Portfolio. The method
of handling this matter is considered to be editorial and as such does not require
convention approval. The subject was taken up with the executive secretary of the
Association who suggested that the procedure for handling these minor revisions be
described in detail as part of the "Foreword" on page 1 of the Table of Contents.
We acknowledge our appreciation for his suggestion.
For your ready information, we are submitting the new Foreword, as written by
the executive secretary, which describes how these minor errors and inconsistencies will
be handled in a new "Errata Section" at the end of the Table of Contents.
FOREWORD
This Portfolio of Trackwork Plans and Specifications is a part of the Manual of
Recommended Practice of the American Railway Engineering Association and is pub-
lished separately, in loose-leaf form, for convenient use and to facilitate the making
of additions and revisions. It is sponsored by Committee S — Track, of the Association,
the deliberations of which, respecting the contents of the Portfolio, are reported in the
Annual Proceedings of the Association. The Standardization Committee of the Man-
ganese Track Society collaborated in the preparation of these plans and specifications,.
The Portfolio contains plans for switches, frogs, crossings, and their appurtenances,
790
Track
together with a Table of Contents, specifications and definitions. Each plan has a Basic
number, followed by a serial number to indicate the year of its adoption or of its latest
revision. A footnote in the lower left-hand corner shows the dates of previous actions
on the plan by the Association. A few plans are included as information only, for
convenient reference.
These plans and specifications are applicable to tee rails weighing 90 lb per yard
and heavier, with preference given to rail sections and joint bar designs and drillings
recommended by the Association. Each trackwork item can be completely specified by
reference to its Plan number, and the bill of material when necessary, provided the
rail section and joint bar details are stated. The alternate constructions presented on
some of the plans can be incorporated in the item by reference thereto.
Periodic Supplements to Keep Portfolio Up to Date
Supplements to the Portfolio are issued periodically in the form of additional or
revised sheets to incorporate new plans or revisions in existing plans adopted by the
Association, and each such Supplement is accompanied by a revised Table of Con-
tents to show reference to any new plans and changes in serial numbers of revised
existing plans.
Important to Check Errata Section for
Latest Revisions Not Shown on Plans
To avoid the expense, and cost to holders of the Portfolio, of reissuing plans in
periodic Supplements merely to correct minor errors or to incorporate minor revisions
or additions that may become necessary by the adoption of other plans, page 3 of the
Table of Contents includes an "Errata Section" which lists the plans requiring correction
and, for each plan, shows the corrections to be made.
To direct attention to the plans requiring such revisions, the letter "E", followed
by a serial number indicating the year the revision was approved by the Association,
is shown after the plan Basic number in the Table of Contents. For example, the
designation 190-55 E-59 in the Table of Contents indicates that Plan Basic No. 190,
which was adopted or revised in 1955, must be corrected by the user as indicated in the
Errata Section to bring it up to date (1959), unless Plan 190, itself, already bears the
printed designation E-59, which means that the corrections called for in the Errata
Section have already been incorporated in the plan. Accordingly, to avoid oversight,
owners of the Portfolio are asked to show the "E" designation, where called for, di-
rectly on copies of the plans affected (unless any of these plans already bear this desig-
nation in printed form), or preferably, in addition, to bring these plans completely up
to date by making on them the corrections shown in the Errata Section.
When it becomes necessary to reprint any of these plans to incorporate major
revisions or additions, the present minor revisions called for in the Errata Section will
be incorporated at the same time, and new sheets bearing up-to-date serial numbers
will be issued to all Portfolio owners in a Supplement, to replace existing comparable
sheets. At this time all reference to these specific plans will be removed from the
Errata Section.
Having acquainted you with the "Errata Section", we now recommend for your
approval the adoption of the following data to be shown in the Errata Section of the
Portfolio. These constitute minor revisions on 32 plans.
Track 791
Plan No.
190-55 E-59 Add Plans Basic No. 181 and 220 in note.
213-52 E-59 Substitute for the last sentence in Note 1, the following:
"RAIL AND JOINT BARS. Purchaser shall specify weight and designa-
tion of rail section and joint drilling and shall supply complete details
of joint bars."
320-55 E-59 In Note 2 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
322-55 E-59 In Note 2 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
323-55 E-S9 In Note 2 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
324-55 E-S9 In Note 2 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
401-55 E-59 In Note 2 — Fillers,substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
405-55 E-59 In Note 2 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
407-55 E-S9 In Note 2 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
408-55 E-59 In Note 2 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
505-40 E-59 In Note 7 delete Plan Basic No. 503.
600-55 E-59 In Note 5 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
621-55 E-S9 In Note 4 — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for "prefer-
ably single groove section".
671-55 E-59 On Section D-D, change upper dimension line indicating height of cast-
ing, from top of wing to top of point area.
701-55 E-S9 In Note 2 (c) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
702-55 E-59 In Note 2 (c) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
703-55 E-59 In Note 2 (c) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
704-55 E-S9 In Note 2 (c)— Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
705-55 E-59 In Note 2 (c) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
706-55 E-59 In Note 2 (c) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
708-55 E-59 In Note 2 (d) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
710-55 E-59 In Note 2 (d) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
755-55 E-59 In Note 2 (c) — Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
757-55 E-59 In Note 2 (c) — Fillers, substitute phrase "Per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
792 Track
Plan No.
761-55 E-59 In Note 2 (d)— Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
768-55 E-59 In Note 2 (d)— Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
769-55 E-59 In Note 2 (d)— Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
771-55 E-59 In Note 2 (e)— Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
772-55 E-59 In Note 2 (e)— Fillers, substitute phrase "Per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
773-55 E-59 In Note 2 (e)— Fillers, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic No. 325" for
"preferably single groove section".
782-55 E-59 In Note 2 (e) — Fillers, second sentence, substitute phrase "per Plan
Basic No. 325" for "preferably single groove section". On Section C-C
show 1^" height from top of casting to outer edge of upper fishing
surface and the angle of this surface as 14°.
783-55 E-59 In Note 2 (e) — Fillers, second sentence, substitute phrase "per Plan Basic
No. 325" for "preferably single groove section". On Section C-C show
1^'" height from top of casting to outer edge of upper fishing surface
and the angle of this surface as 14°.
The collaboration of the Standardization Committee of the Manganese Track So-
ciety in the above recommended changes and additions, as well as in other subjects
under consideration for future action, is gratefully acknowledged.
Your committee also submits, as information,the following report prepared by the
research staff of the Engineering Division, AAR: Appendix 3-a — Service Tests of Designs
of Manganese Steel Castings in Crossings at McCook, 111.
Appendix 3-a
Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel Castings,
in Crossings at McCook, 111.
This report, presented as information, concerns the performance of designs of man-
ganese steel castings in the crossings between the double-track lines of the Baltimore &
Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway at
'McCook, 111., 13 miles from the Santa Fe passenger terminal in Chicago.
Foreword
Since June 1957 (Vol. 59, 1958, page 1010), only one of the three 1952 castings
has remained in service. All of the designs that have been investigated since 1943 were
of the solid manganese type for the end position of the crossings, having a height
of 6^4 in, the same as 110 RE rail, and an angle of 75 deg 48 min. The Santa Fe
tracks carry high-speed passenger and freight traffic and the B&OCT hauls heavy
freight traffic at moderate speeds.
Ramapo Deepened Flangeway Casting
When the Ramapo depth-hardened deepened flangeway casting was inspected on
August 12, 1958, its total service was 5.85 years. This casting is located in the same
_^ Track 793
corner of the crossing in the westward main tracks of both railroads. The test crossing
is supported on the longitudinally framed timbers placed in 1952. There was a total
of 26 in of fiangeway cracks, including 6 in. in the flangeway fillets. Corresponding
cracks reported last year were 18 in, including 6 in. in the fillets. Most of the cracks
were in the flangeway floor near the center line. The casting had one crack on the
running surface of the Santa Fe receiving corner, which extends down the side wall 2 in
to the hole cast in the wall. The crack on top was repaired and was not visible in the
path worn by the wheel tread. This casting can be repaired by recapping the two
receiving corners and should be serviceable for several months.
Acknowledgement
The Association is grateful for the splendid cooperation and assistance rendered by
the B&OCT for almost 15 years and extends thanks to the suppliers who by their keen
interest and cooperation have greatly improved the serviceability of Hadfield manganese
steel castings.
Report on Assignment 4
Prevention of Damage Resulting From Brine Drippings
on Track and Structures
Collaborating with Committee 15, and Mechanical Division, AAR
W. E. Griffiths (chairman, subcommittee), J. Ayer, Jr., M. C. Bitner, H. F. Busch,
W. E. Cornell, P. H. Croft, L. W. Green, C. C. Herrick, J. S. Parsons, Troy West.
This is a progress report, submitted as information, on an investigation seeking
to find and evaluate non-toxic brine corrosion inhibitors for use in refrigerator car
bunkers. This work is being conducted for your committee at the AAR Research Center
by S. K. Coburn, research chemist, assisted by K. J. Morris, chemist, under the general
direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research.
Inhibitors for Brine Corrosion
The use of small quantities of materials, either pure compounds or proprietary
mixtures of pure compounds, as corrosion inhibitors is an attractive means for mitigating
corrosion. An examination of the many forms of corrosion and the many substances
which are corrosive reveals what appears to be a vast number of distinctly different
situations until they are classified. Of the substances considered to be aggressive cor-
roding agents, such as sulfuric acid, used in steel pickhng; fuming nitric acid, used to
power rockets and missiles; hydrochloric acid, used to disintegrate oil well obstructions
as well as to clean out heat exchanger tubes in chemical processing plants; and other
chemicals of commerce, many can be inhibited for the most part. But the mildly
neutral sodium chloride — table salt or rock salt — is the most aggressive substance of all.
It carries out its corrosive action at a slower rate than these other substances, but our
knowledge and our capacity to minimize its aggressive tendencies have not been too
successful. Even such high-priced alloy steels such as the stainless steel family are
vulnerable to pitting by salts such as sodium chloride and sodium sulfate.
In previous reports methods for the testing and evaluation of the various materials
selected for study have been detailed. Many substances, both individually and in com-
bination, have been studied in this fashion. After examining the obvious combinations
794 Track
of water-soluble inorganic compounds and mixtures with interesting results, it was con-
clud^'d that the economics of the various systems would not be advantageous. More
recently a number of organic chemicals were investigated. These were materials which
have been found successful in down- well applications in the oil fields. Experimental data
from a number of these tests are described in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 59, pages
1018-1028.
Recently several new materials have been made available in experimental quantities.
One of these is derived from the waste water originating in a corn and soybean refining
process. Its most attractive feature is its lack of toxicity. Its most unattractive feature
is that it operates best in a somewhat acid media. Several compounds of the series are
available, which will be thoroughly studied in order to utilize the best of them. Another
compound which showed possibilities in some classified research work during World
War II is now available. In combination with other materials, whose toxicity is some-
what in doubt, it has performed interestingly and will be carefully studied.
During the past year progress has been steady in readying our newly received
cycling relative-humidity accelerated-corrosion cabinet, which will soon be ready for
calibration tests.
Tie Plate Corrosion Resistance
Among other activities undertaken by the corrosion research staff is the joint ex-
amination of tie plates on the Pennsylvania Railroad. It has been observed for some
time that the low-alloy high-strength steels, recognized by such trade names as Cor-Ten,
Mayari R, Yoloy, and the like, are capable of withstanding certain corrosive atmospheres.
Among the reasons for this resistance is the presence of a small amount of nickel and
copper (in a concentration above 0.20 percent). The Pennsylvania Railroad placed some
of these tie plates in track in both a rural and an industrial area approximately 12
years ago. The industrial area is located on a river in an industrial valley opposite two
steel mills and a coke plant, as shown in Fig. 1. The tie plates with low copper con-
centratiolis were characterized by deep pits and thin sections. The tie plates with the
higher copper content were considerably less effected by the industrial atmosphere. This
is evident in Figs. 2a and 2b. When the plates are placed one above the other, the
contrast in section is readily observable. When the plates are placed adjacent to one
another, the severe surface pitting in the plate of low copper content is evident. Fig. 3
shows the contrasting condition in track. The plate in the foreground has little copper
and shows a knife edge condition, while the plate marked by the rock and those
beyond reveal a thicker section, approximating the original dimensions and relatively
unaffected on the surface.
In the rural forested area the distinction is not as great, though there is evidence
to show that the presence of a higher concentration of copper makes the plate more
resistant to atmospheric corrosion.This might be attributed to the fact that some half
dozen years earlier a paper mill IS miles away had ceased to pollute a small nearby
stream. However, during that period sulfite wastes undoubtedly contributed some sulfur
dioxide to the atmosphere, resulting in the corrosion of the tie plates of lower copper
content, shown in Fig. 4. The regular PRR specified tie plate is on the left side marked
with a "P". The high-copper-content tie plate, on the right, shows up clearly with the
manufacturer's markings.
The basis for carrying out this test was predicated on the observations made in
this country and in the industrial areas of England that atmospheres containing sulfur
in any form tend to combine chemically with the copper in the steel (when present
Track
795
Fig. 1 — Industrial valley characterized by two steel mills and a coking plant.
Fig. 2b — Contrasting sffftace ap-
pearance between tie plates of low
and high copper concentrations.
Fig. 2a — Contrasting thickness in
section between tie plates of low and
high copper concentrations.
in concentrations above 0.20 percent) to form a series of copper compounds. Such
copper compounds have been isolated from rust by a number of investigators. The
relatively thin, dark, tightly adherent rust scale which forms acts as a protective coating
over the steel and minimizes further corrosion. Sulfur-laden atmospheres, of course, are
common to steel mill and paper mill environments.
Laboratory Evaluation of Copper-Bearing Steel
Also completed during the course of this year's work was a controlled laboratory
investigation to determine whether a low-alloy high-strength type of steel might serve
satisfactorily in the presence of fairly high concentrations of brine drippings.
Specimens of such a steel along with specimens from a hot-worked high-carbon
rolled tie plate of standard 7-.-\ design were subjected to the standard room temperature
796
Track
Fig. 5 — Hot-worked tie plate steel
and low-alloy high-strength steel
after 90-days exposure.
Fig. 3 — Thin corroded plate in
foreground (low in copper) followed
by thick, non-corroded plates in
background (high in copper).
Fig. 4 — Low copper containing plate (P) and high copper containing
tie plate (c) in rural area.
Track 797
cycling relative humidity brine corrosion test for periods of 45 and 90 days. As a con-
trol, a medium-carbon steel used in routine inhibitor evaluation testing was used. The
specimens were immersed twice daily for a few minutes in a S-percent brine solution
and placed in containers through which the relative humidity was varied from 80 to
20 percent. At night the specimens were exposed to 100 percent relative humidity.
On Fridays they were rinsed in distilled water simulating the washing action of rain
and allowed to stand in an atmosphere of 100 percent relative humidity. The partial
compositions of steels tested are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 — Compositions of Steels Evaluated Against Brine Corrosion
Carbon Manganese Chromium Nickel Copper
Hot-Worked Tie Plate Steel 0.81 0.88 0.05 Trace 0.18
Low Alloy ffigh-Strength Steel 0.09 0.40 0.76 0.14 0.25
After each of the exposure periods separate groups of specimens were descaled and
their weight losses determined. The data follow in Table 2.
Table 2 — Weight Loss for Corroded Specimens
Average Weight Loss, Percent, After
45 Days 90 Days
Control, Medium-Carbon Steel 15.5 25.5
Hot-Worked Tie Plate Steel 14.5 27.2
Low-Alloy High-Strength Steel 14.3 25.6
It is clearly evident from the data in Table 2 and observations of the specimens
in Fig. 5 that the variation in concentration of such elements as copper, nickel, and
chromium contributed nothing toward increasing the resistance of the steel in question
against liquid brine drippings. It is possible that such compositions might be capable
of increased resistance against a brine atmosphere, such as occurs in an area adjacent
to the ocean. Such observations have been made with substances like Cor-Ten, Mayari R
and Yoloy in the test racks at Kure Beach, N. C.
Rail Corrosion in Tunnels
A condition was investigated in a tunnel in the Northwest in which one entrance
fronts on a body of salt water and the remainder of the tunnel proceeds some 5100 ft
in a semi-circle to the station. It contains a reverse curve and thus is not "open" to
full natural ventilation. Aggravating the situation is a 0.2 percent up grade leading
to the center of the tunnel and a similar down grade out of the tunnel. There often
are leaks from the ceiling of the tunnel, resulting in a considerable flow of water. Th'e
relative humidity ranges from 65 to 90 percent for the greater part of the year. As a
result rail life has been reduced considerably due to conditions which are optimum
for stress corrosion failures. Figs. 6a, 6b and 6c show side, top and bottom views of a
corroded section of rail. Fig. 6a illustrates the pitted regions in the web area which lead
to stress fractures. Fig. 6b shows an unusual form of head corrosion. In Fig. 6c there
is an example of severe pitting in the rail base.
In an effort to reduce the rate of corrosion an examination was made to determine
the feasibility of applying cathodic protection, since certain requirements for such an
application were present. Unfortunately, the necessary prerequisites for such an applica-
tion were not always present and this concept was ruled out. The current approach
was to use recognized protective coatings applied to surfaces prepared in accordance
with the recommendation of the Steel Structures Painting Council. A neoprene-based
798
Track
SPS»S?*"e**^*
Fig. 6b — Unusual pitting corrosion
on head of rail.
Fig. 6a — Pitted rail section.
Fig. 6c — Pitted rail base.
coating was selected for application to the rails after careful laboratory evaluation by
the test department of the railroad involved. In addition, three other coating systems
were appfed to a few test rails based on the recommendations of the chemical research
staff of the AAR Research Laboratory.
Some 70 rails were sandblasted almost to white metal, as shown in Fig. 7, and
treated immediately with a neoprene primer. This was followed sieveral hours later by
the neoprene topcoat. Several similarly sandblasted rails then were coated with a pipe-
line enamel. Another group of rails was coated with a wash primer of the type con-
taining zinc tetroxychromate and a butyryl resin followed by a phenolic-based topcoat.
The final test paint was an asphalt-derived vehicle reinforced with corrosion inhibitors
and mixed with about 25 percent by weight of flake aluminum. This paint could be
Track
799
Fig. 7 — Sandblasting rust covered
and painted rail.
Fig. 8 — Painted rail in foreground containing aluminum pigment.
Painted rail in background coated with pipeline enamel.
called a non-paint paint since it does not dry by the conventional forms of oxidation
and polym'erization. It is characterized by the fact that it resists abrasion yet can be
removed merely by wiping with a solvent-soaked wiping cloth. Some of the painted
test rail can be seen in Fig. 8. The test specimens will be inspected periodically.
800 Track
Report on Assignment 6
Hold-Down Fastenings for Tie Plates, Including Pads Under
Plates; Their Effect on Tie Wear
Collaborating with Committee 3
J. S. Parsons (chairman, subcommittee), J. E. Armstrong, Jr., F. J. Bishop, M. C.
Bitner, E. W. Caruthers, H. B. Christiansen, W. E. Cornell, E. D. Cowlin, F. W.
Creedle, R. G. Garland, A. E. Hinson, L. H. Jentoft, T. R. Klingel, L. W. Leitze,
E. J. Lisy, Jr., C. J. McConaughy, M. P. Oviatt, J. A. Reed, M. K. Ruppert,
J. M. Salmon, Jr., T. R. Snodgrass, R. E. Tew, Troy West.
This is a progress report, presented as information, covering the service test installa-
tion of hold-down fastenings, tie pads, etc., on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad near
London and East Bernstadt, Ky.
Foreword
These tests are being conducted primarily for the purpose of determining the effec-
tiveness and economy of various types of hold-down fastenings, tie pads, etc. as related
to tie life, regaging and readzing curves. The original test sections in the northward
main between London and East Bernstadt were installed in August 1947 and are
described in the Proceedings, Vol. SO, 1949, pages 595-623. The traffic density was
approximately 20 milhon gross tons annually through 1953 and IS million gro.«s tons
per year since 1953. The line was completely dieselized in 1956. Progress of the test,
including additions and revisions, is contained in subsequent reports, the last previous
one being in Vol. 59, 1958, pages 1035-1056. Fig. 1 and Table 1 show the location
and description of all the test sections on the two 4%-deg curves and tangent track
between East Bernstadt and London. Fig. 2 and Table 2 show similar information for
the S-deg curve at the East Bernstadt depot.
Additions and Changes in 1958
Section 04
Bird 5-ply coated tie pads and Bernuth, Lembcke Company, Inc., gage lock spikes
and tie plate lock spikes were applied to three 39-ft rail lengths on the S-deg 36-min
curve in the northward main track 0.5 mile north of East Bernstadt, using existing
creosoted oak ties and 13-in double-shoulder tie plates, as shown in Fig. 3. The plates
on the east (outer) rail were flat bottom and those on the west (inner) rail were com-
pression bottom with 54-ii^ square anchor holes instead of present design of ii in
square. Prior to application of the pads, the plates were removed, spike holes plugged
and the tie surfaces hand adzed as needed. Type LD jute pads were applied on the
north 35 ties and SD duck and burlap pads on the south 37 ties. Holes were then
bored with a Raco machine so as to reverse the stagger from that of the cut spikes
removed. Two gage lock spikes and two tie plate lock spikes were then hand driven
in each plate. The track was in good gage and line, having been relaid with new 132 RE
rail with 6-hole joint bars on existing tie plates in March 1958 and surfaced out-of-face
on crushed limestone ballast in July 19S8.
Section OS
This section, established for control, is south of and adjacent to section 04 in the
northward track on the 5-deg 36-min curve. The rail is 132 RE on 13-in double-
Track 801
shoulder tie plates with two cut spikes each for line and anchor. The rail, tie and
ballast conditions are comparable to those in section 04, with which comparison of
track gage will be made based on initial measurements taken September 18, 1958.
Section 38
Bird S-ply coated pads were installed on 48 new ties in the 5-deg curve at East
Bernstadt, on August 26, 1958, replacing the entire section 38 containing Achuff sisal
fiber pads, but reusing the 14-in double-shoulder tie plates. The construction is similar
to that in section 04, shown in Fig. 3. The north 24 ties have type LD jute pads and
the south 24 ties type SD duck and burlap pads. Two each of gage lock spikes and
anchor lock spikes were used for line and anchors. The Achuff pads released were in
poor condition and no longer useful for test purposes, and it was felt that the section
could be better used to test a combination of the Bird pads and Bernuth, Lembcke
lock spikes.
Section 58
Railroad Rubber Products, Inc., 7- by ^Y^-'m double-shoulder canted rubber tie
plates, Fig. 4, were installed August 27, 1958, on 24 new creosoted oak ties with four
cut spikes for hne under 131 RE rail, north of and adjacent to section 52 in the tangent
south of the short 4^-deg curve.
Section 28
Tire-carcass double-coated pads manufactured by the Konvex Tie Pad Co. of East
St. Louis, 111., were installed on August 27, 1958, in the south J^ of section 28 on the
long 45/2-deg curve south of East Bernstadt, replacing Western Felt Works wool felt
pads. The Konvex pads were placed on 24 new creosoted oak ties using new 14-in
double-shoulder tie plates and two cut spikes each for line and anchor (Fig. 5). These
pads, 1^ in thick, exclusive of the coating, have a minimum of S pHes, but may contain
6 or on occasion 8 plies. The manufacturer of the newly-developed coating expects that
it will remain pliable in winter as well as summer and will provide a good seal with
the tie.
Section 35
The north 30 alternate ties installed July 1950 were recoated on August 27, 1958,
using Koppers' No. 16 tie sealing compound spread over the top surface only and
covered with j4-in stone chips, as shown in Fig. 6. The compound was applied at the
rate of 1 gal for 2 ties. The subcommittee felt that recoating ^2 the section should
develop some data on the value of recoating part of the section for comparison with
the ties not recoated.
In connection with the new sections, initial readings for information pertaining to
tie abrasion, gage, alinement, etc., were obtained September 18 and 19, 1958.
Maintenance of Hold-Down Fastenings
From a detail.ed inspection of the hold-down fastenings by the AAR staff during the
week of July 7, 1958, it was determined that a general retightening would not be justi-
fied. The maintenance which appeared desirable consisted of an out-of-face tightening
and replacement of a Umited number of missing or broken washers in sections 10, 14
and 22 of the pine tangent.
Section 10 with round-head cut spikes and single-coil washers had 47 percent loose
washers and the last out-of-face retightening was in 1955. All of the anchor spikes were
802 Track
removed and redriven with tie plugs in the same holes to determine if the fastenings
would be more efficient in reducing plate cutting and resisting the uplift by the washers.
Section 14 with two through bolts and single-coil washers had 21 percent loose, broken
and missing washers. It was decided to retighten all bolts and replace the washers where
needed. The last out-of-face maintenance was performed in May 1953. Section 22 with
Oliver tie plate drive spikes and single-coil washers had 38 percent loose washers and
all were tapped down. This spike has a Httle tendency to back out in the creosoted
pine tie section.
Table 3 is a summary of the maintenance of all special hold-down fastenings since
each section was installed. The tie plate lock spikes, Oliver hold-down drive spikes and
Racor studs (except for finish driving with a pneumatic hammer) have required the kast
maintenance. The table on the maintenance of the hold-down fastenings and last year's
report (Vol. 59, page 1035), showing their efficiency as to reducing plate cutting and
gage widening on the curves, should be helpful in determining the most economical tie
plate fastenings.
Gage of Test Curves
Gage of the test sections on the two 4J^-d'eg curves is shown in Fig. 7. In general,
the change in gage on two 4^-deg curves since 1957 has been very small. Sections 14
to 17, incl., continue to hold excellent gage since installation in 1947. Sections 10 to 13,
incl., are somewhat more irregular, but the average change in the past year is negligible.
Six-year-old sections 48 and 49 with Racor pads and/or studs have good uniformity
and little change. Gage of the single-shoulder Erie tie plate sections 18 and 19 continues
to be erratic, with section 19 showing greater change than the remainder of the curve.
On the short 4J/2-deg curve, section 26 with the DL&W diamond-bottom tie plate
continues to show the b'est uniformity, but the average change since 1957 is about the
same in all three sections. Section 21 and the north end of section 25 are giving less
trouble with widening since they were regaged in 1956. Complete dieselization in 1956
has, no doubt, been helpful.
Fig. 8 shows the gage on the S-deg curve at East Bernstadt. It will be noted that
there were major changes in sections 40 and 41. This was influenced by the fact that
changes in the crossing protection circuits were made and the insulated joints relocated
after gage measurements were taken in 1957. Changes in other sections were small and
do not appear significant at this time.
General Inspection
The subcommittee held its annual inspection of the test installations on May 21
and 22, 1958. Some of the visitors were escorted over the service tests in the afternoon
of the first day by a member of the AAR research staff. T. G. Gill, chief. Seasoning
and Preservation Section, Timber Engineering Company, and another member of the
AAR staff, took the annual measurements on the two test sections having the Koppers'
No. 16 sealing compound applied to the hardwood ties to reduce checking, splitting
and weathering of the timber. Mr. Gill also served as the photographer on the second
day.
Forty-five Track committee m'embers and guests attended the inspection on the
second morning when 21 tie plates were removed to examine the condition of the pads
and other test materials, and the protection provided for the ties. The photographs
included in Figs. 9 to 26, incl., have remarks in the captions calling attention to the
details observed. The ^-in Dunne Rubber Company molded rubber pads in section 42
Track 803
on the 5-d'eg curve have been worn thin and torn, and the l-i-'m J-'M laminated
asbestos-rubber pads in the north half of section 25 have been abraded severely at the
field end of the outer rail plates in the short 4J/^-deg curw. It is judged that these pads
should have a minimum thickness of vis in for a more satisfactory service life. Other
pads of J^-in plus thickness — Racor fiber-rubber and %-m Fabco fiber-rubber — have
not been in these tests sufficiently long to pass on the adequacy of the thickness used.
The AAR staff has recommended a minimum thickness of ui in, exclusive of the
coating, to the suppliers that are in the process of developing an economical tie pad.
Tie Coatings
Sections 35 and 36 were established in July 1950 when Kopper's No. 16 sealing
compound was applied to the top and ends of new and existing creosoted hardwood ties
to investigate its capacity for retarding the splitting, checking and weathering of the
timber. In section 35, which included 120 new ties, the coating was applied to all adzed
surfaces before placing the ties and on top of the odd-numbered ties, leaving the even-
numbered ties for controls. In addition, the ends of the coat;d ties in the south half
of the section received an application of the coating. In section 36, consisting of 118
existing ties, the tops of all ties were coated and also tbe ends of the south 58 ties.
All coated ties were sprinkled with ^-in washed gravel for a protective covering. The
test sections are located on fast tangent track laid with 131-lb rail, 6-hole joints and
13-in waffle-bottom tie plates. The weather at the time of the annual inspection on
May 21, 1958, was mild with a temperature of 77 deg F. Information obtained regard-
ing weather conditions indicated heavier than normal rainfall in early spring, but normal
for a period just prior to the inspection. There was a light rain 36 hr before the
inspection.
The efficiency index of the coating for keeping the splits covered was determined
from the number of splits ^-in wide or larger on the top end faces of the ties. The
efficiency factors for the new ties in section 35 were obtained from the following
formula:
^rr, ■ i. ,r,r, number of checks in coated ties , , ,„_
Efficiency, percent = 100— X 100
number of checks in uncoated ties
Because all of the existing ties were coated in section 36, the original number
of splits in the ties before being coated was used for computing the efficiency factors.
Values of the coverage efficiency of the coating for the eight-year test are tabulated
below.
Section 35 — 1950 Ties
Percent
Category 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
All coated ties 75 74 76 52 52 53 58 39
Ties coated on top only 70 bi 73 48 45 47 53 36
Ties coated on top and' ends 79 85 80 55 oO 60 63 42
Section 36 — Existing Ties
Percent
Category 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
All coated ties 82 82 70 48 55 48 48 44
Ties coated on top only 64 75 61 36 44 40 43 38
Ties coated on top and ends 97 89 79 60 66 56 54 51
Attention is called to the sharp drop in efficiency factors of the coated ties in
section 35 since 1957 which is the first appreciable change since the drop in 1954. There
804 Track
is also a slight drop in these factors for coated ties in section 36. This reduction no
rinubt reflects to some degree the decrease of moisture content as indicated below.
A Delmhorst moisture detector was used to measure the moisture content of the
top J4 in of the ties to determine the effectiveness of the coating for retaining moisture
in that portion of the tie. For the purpose of comparing coated existing ties in section
36 with uncoated tres, moisture readings were obtained from existing ties adjacent to
the south end of the section.
Section 3S — 19S0 Ties Section 36 — Existing Ties
Date Coated Uncoated Difference Coated Uncoated Difference
July 1951 16.5 10.2 6.3
June 1952 20.6 10.9 9.7 29.8 12.3 17.5
July 1953 18.5 11.8 6.7 24.7 11.5 13.2
July 1954 11.9 9.3 2.6 12.2 8.8 3.4
June 1955 13.1 11.5 1.6 14.0 11.6 2.4
June 1956 13.6 9.1 4.5 15.6 8.0 7.6
May 1957 16.9 11.3 5.6 18.5 9.3 9.2
May 1958 16.2 10.9 5.3 17.1 10.3 6.8
It will be noted that the average moisture content of the coated ties continues to
be higher than for uncoated ties with the difference being slightly more in the existing
ties than in the 1950 ties. In 1958, the moisture content of 1950 ties remained very
close to SO percent above that of uncoated ties, but for the existing ties, the differential
dropped slightly although not enough to be significant.
For the past several years the coverage factors have indicated that better results
were being obtained from the installation of new ties in section 35. The 1958 data, how-
ever, offset the previous trend and give an average coverage factor approximately equal
to that of section 36 over the eight-year test period.
The only tie renewals made prior to the inspection of May 1958 were four reported
for section 36 in 1957. While the coating was in generally fair condition, some has
been abraded from the ties by frequent surfacing of the track which involves unloading
and plowing off the ballast. Damage from that source has been greater on the existing
ties than on the 1950 ties. There has also been normal deterioration in both sections.
Data from the 1950 ties will be evaluated by comparing tie life with that in other
comparable AAR-L&N test sections, as in sections 2 and 9 with hardwood ties in
tangent track.
Repeated Load Tests of Tie Pads, Etc.
Two tie wear testing machines, one of AAR design. Fig. 27, and one designed by
Krouse Testing Machine, Inc., Fig. 28, are now on hand in the Engineering Laboratory
at the Research Center, Chicago. Each machine is designed for a 20,000-lb tie plate
load with horizontal forces on the rail alternating from 5000 lb inward to 10,000 lb
outward of tbe track. In two to three weeks a test of five million loads can be com-
pleted. It is anticipated that these machines will develop valuable information in making
accelerated tests of tie pads, hold-down fastenings, etc.
Economic Studies for the Use of Tie Pads, Etc.
Expenditures for future savings, such as for extending the service life of ties, etc.,
without increasing the cost of a tie year, or preferably at a reduction in the cost of a
tie year, should be made on a conservative basis.
As an example, one southern road has the problem of using creosoted pine ties
out-of-face in its main track where the joint ties had a service life of 17 years, com-
; Track _80S
pared with 22, years for the intermediate ties. It is desired to increase the life of the
joint ties but it is not practical to use hardwood ties. The road's records of tie renewals
indicate that 70 percent of th.^ joint ties were removed because of plate cutting. Only
one tie pad will be required to extend the life of each joint tie from 17 to 23 years.
At the same cost per year, without considering interest, the added cost per tic justified is
23—17
35.3 percent of the cost of a tie in place, estimated at $6.00.
17
From the graph shown in Fig. 29 by the dashed lines, only 22 percent added
exj>enditure is justified to keep the annual cost, based on 4 percent compound interest,
the same. Since only 70 percent of the joint ties fail from plate cutting, the added cost
should be limited to 0.7X22 = 15.4 percent, or 0.154 X $6.00 = $0.Q2. This sum is
adequate for purchasing a suitable tie pad plus a charge of $0.30 for labor applying
the pad. The curves in the figure are based on the lower diagram on Manual page
3_4_3. A member of the Track Staff transposed the data in to the curves in Fig. 29 foi
rapid analysis of a given set of conditions.
Generally, a large proportion of the tie pads used by the railroads can be placed in
connection with bridge tie renewals or relaying rail. This will eliminate the labor charge
against the pads, except for a few cents for handling, etc. However, it is probable that
when pads are replaced on the same ties the labor charge will require amortization.
Consequently, except for expensive bridge ties or other special timbers, the second pad
installation may not be economical. Therefore, in the test curves of the AAR-L&N
tests, assuming present conditions of operation, the pads should protect the ties from
plate cutting for at least 15 years.
General Remarks
While still in service, there are a number of tie pads which are no longer considered
satisfactory or acceptable for use, as indicated below:
(a) The one-ply duck pad, section 3, has insufficient strength against tearing and
ripping at the spikes and is deficient in protecting the tie from plate cutting.
(b) The 1948 Burkhart, i^-in thick fiber pad, uncoated, in section 27, failed
because of severe abrasion and some stretching.
(c) Western Felt Works, ^-in wood felt pads, uncoated, in section 28, are badly
worn, displaced and torn. The service life is too short and the pads are too
expensive.
(d) Dayton Rubber Company's cast steel tie plates with raised rubber insert
pads, sections 44 and 45, are not suitable because they concentrate the tie
plate load on about % the area of a conventional tie plate and are prohibitive
from a cost standpoint.
(e) Achuff sisal fiber pads, section 38. The impregnant became unstable in hot
weather and the pads failed due to mashing, ripping, dislocation and disin-
tegration.
(f) Johns-Manville rubber-vegetable pads, uncoated, section 39, had a high per-
centage with moderate splits at the anchor spikes and were superseded in
1950 by Johns-Manville rubber-composition pads with bottoms coated, which
had major transversie splits and tears at the anchor spikes and did not remain
sealed to the ties. Both pads have been superseded by J-M 1955 formulation
of fiber-rubber pads as installed in section 55.
806 Track '_
(g) The Taylor Fibre Company's rubber-vulcanized, uncoatcd, fiber laminated
pads, section 40, failed due to the hard fiber layers splitting and becoming
dislocated.
(h) The Dunne Rubber Company's 3^^-in molded rubber pad, section 42, has
insufficient thickness and, because of pad abrasion, the service hfe will be
too short.
(i) Johns-Manville %-m laminated rubber-asbestos pads, uncoated, north 23
ties, section 25, are wearing thin account insufficient thickness.
The Fabco uncoated, pads, section 21, are showing major abrasion and tearing
under the outside rail of the short 4^-deg curve. They are, however, still useful in
protecting most of the ties from abrasion.
The Bird duck-burlap pads in sections 4 and S, on the long 4J'2-deg curve are
showing some delamination and dislocation, but are still effective against tie wear.
It has been shown that two types of pads J^-in. in thickness were too thin to give
a satisfactory service life under the L&N operating conditions. Generally, with the
exception of the ^-in plus Racor pad and the J^-in Fabco pads, roads having similar
or more severe operating conditions will require fa in, or more, pad thickness for a good
service life. Possibly roads with lighter traffic density and smaller average wheel loads
than in the test track can obtain a satisfactory service life with some of the thinner
tie pads. In these tests a satisfactory pad life should be a minimum of IS years of
protection from tie abrasion.
The ^-in Dunne Rubber Co. molded rubber pads in the 5-deg test curve appear
to be failing from abrasion. Because this make of rubber pad has a tensile strength
of only 600 psi in the transverse and longitudinal directions, possibly a pad made of
rubber (not fiber-rubber) should have a minimum of 1000 psi. Practically all of the
fiber-rubber pads tested in the laboratory had in excess of 1000 psi tensile strength in
the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the fiber-rubber pads have a tensile strength
of % to Vs of the longitudinal value. On two occasions the tensile tests on fiber-rubber
pads indicated they were cut wrong because the greater tensile strength was in the
transverse direction.
The inspection of pads on the creosoted pine ties has emphasized, as heretofore,
the advantage of using pads with good sealing quaUties.
Last year's report included tie abrasion measurements and relative efficiency data
of each type of tie plate fastening and this report contains a summary of the mainte-
nance work. These two yardsticks should be of value in selecting a hold-down fastening
that will meet the requirements on any particular railroad. The effective service life of the
several hold-down fastenings has not been established. This factor can be estimated
for the operating conditions prevaihng where the spikes are to be used.
Acknowledgement
The Association is grateful to the L&N for its aid and cooperation in conducting
the test and also to the supply companies for their interest and assistance.
Track
807
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Track
Fig. 2.- Plon ot Test TrccK
TABLE 2. DESCRIPTION OF TEST SECTIONS SHOWN IN FIG. 2.
Section
No. of Creo.
Date
Number and Type oi Hold-Down Fastenings per Tie Plate and Tie Pad
No.
Oak Ties
Built
AREA Flat Bottorr, 14-in Tie Plates, 131-lb RE Rail
37
48
7-50
2 each of cut spikes for line and anchors
3B
48
8-58
Bird 5-ply coated pads (on new ties) with 2 Bernuth, Lembcko Gage Lock Spikes for line
and 2 Bernuth, Lembcke Tie Plate Lock Spikes for anchor (North 24 ties LD jute pads)
(South 24 ties SD duck and burlap pads)
3!)
22
7-50
Johns-Manville rubber-vegetable and asbestos fiber pads, uncoated (North 22 ties)
39
22
11-51
Johns-Manville rubber-comp. pads with coating on the bottom side, replacing original J. M.
pads placed 7-50
40
24
7-50
Taylor Fibre Company's rubber-vulcanized fiber laminated pads (North 24 ties)
40
24
5-56
Bird 5-ply LD pads (Jute), coated (on 1950 ties)
41
23
7-50
Fabco pads, uncoated (North 23 ties)
41
12
7-51
Fabco pads with an oxidized asphalt coating compound on the bottom side. (These pads re-
placed pads placed in 7-50 with Baker's K-2 cement on the bottom side)
41
12
7-50
Fabco pads coated on both sides with Baker's S-72 cement (South 12 ties)
42
48
7-50
Dunne Rubber Company's molded rubber pad, 1/8-in thick uncoated
43
47
7-50
2 each of cut spikes for line and Racor Studs for anchors
4r,
24
U-51
Racor . ubber-fiber pad, uncoated
4fj
25
11-51
Racor rubber-fiber pad with asphaltic coalmg on both sides
47
48
6-52
Burkart fiber pads, coated on bottom side
53
13
6-55
No.t-Rust tie seals under tie plates (solid sheet of Protek-Tie, .approximately 1/s-in thick)
34
3r.
6-55
Railroad Rubber Products natural rubber pads 1/4-in thick, uncoated. The adzed surfaces oi
the south 10 ties wore coated with Super Seal, a liquid rubber sealant
55
35
6-55
Johns-Manville fiber-rubber pads, 1/4-in thick, bottom coated
56
36
6-55
Fabco pads, bottom coated, 1/4-in thick on north 18 ties and l/6-in thick on south 13 lies
57
24
6-56
2 each of out spikes tor line and Spring Lags tor anchors
571
Total
; All pad sections have 2 each of cut line and anchor spikes. All sections, except Nos. 46 and 47, were installed with new
AREA Plan 12 tie plates. Sections 46 and 47 have SH 14-in AREA Plan CB tie plates. Plan 6B was withdrawn trom the
Manual in 1948.
Each test section has an oval tag oii the north tie showing the section number, and every tenth tie from the north has a
smaller tag showing the tie number.
Track
811
>^-^V^
Fig. 3 — Section 04, Bird 5-ply tie pads, coated, and two each of gage
lock spikes and tie plate anchor lock spikes in three panels of existing ties,
13-in tie plates in 5-deg 36-min test curve. This construction is the same
as that installed in Section 38 in the 5-deg test curve except for new ties
and 14-in tie plates.
Fig. 4 — Section 58, double-shoulder rubber tie plates (7 by 9J4 in)
installed in one panel of new creosoted oak ties in tangent track.
812
Track
Fig. 5 — South half of Section 28, 3/16-in double-coated tire-carcass tie
pads, 14-in tie plates, new creosoted oak ties in the long 4^-deg curve.
In three weeks the stabilized rubber coating had filled the plate holes well.
Fig. 6 — Section 35, view of 1950 ties after the 30 alternate coated hard-
wood ties in the north half of the section had been recoated first time
with Koppcrs' No. 16 Sealing Compound in tangent track.
Track
813
TABLE 3. SUMMARY OK SPKCWl. HdLD-LHlVS-N KASTKNINC.S TAPl'ED IXnVN OH RKllGH lENEl) FROM TIIK
DATE OE INSTALLATION THROUGH SEPTEMBER 19.->8 ON THE LtN RR. , NEAR LONDON, KY.
Sec.
No.
Hold-Down Fastenings
Date
Built
Long
4°-30' Cur\e
Tangent
Ci-eo. Oak Ties
Tangent
Creo. Pine Ties
Total For Each
Construction
(1)
(-'1
(1)
(■i)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
10
2-Round Head cut spikes with single-
coil spring washers
8-47
180
80
74
39
588
300
842
39
11
2-Round He.id Dowel studs with double-
coil helical spring washers
8-17
9.i
40
-
1
230
122
327
54
12
2-Oliver hold-down drive spiVces with
double-coil helical spring washers
8-47
0
0
0
0
56
29
56
9
U
2-Elastic spikes, design No. 93
8-47
^
1
0
0
108
129
110
65
13
2- Tie plate lock spikes (North 12 Ties)
S-47
0
0
-
-
-
-
0
0
14
2-111^ bolts with single-coil spring
washers (field)
S-47
188
lOO
90
100
184
211
468
137
15
2- Thru bolts with single-coil spring
washers (shop)
8-47
192
100
96
100
86
110
374
102
16
2-Screw spikes with double-coil spring
washers
8-47
248
103
4
2
220
115
472
76
17
2-AAR spring rail clips and screw
spikes
S-47
2.5 S
lie
354
233
236
137
848
161
19
2-Screw spikes and double-coil spring
washers with 13 in Erie RR. diamond
bottom tie plates
S-4 7
2.54
lOS
"
"
■
"
254
108
22
2-Oliver tie plate drive spikes with
single-coil spring washers
8-47
-
-
72
38
438
230
510
134
31
G2.H Controls No-Creep rail anchors
and 2-Oliver tie plate drive spikes
without spring washers on anchored
ties only, 14-in tie plates
^-Vl
96
100
96
100
34
Tie plate lock spikes - Asphalt coating.
14 in tie plates
9-4f,
-
0
0
-
-
0
0
4S
2-Racor studs - Racor lie pads, 14 in
tie plates
8-32
0
>'
-
-
-
-
0
0
4::
2- Cut line spikes, 3 Racor studs. 14
in tic plates
8- .5 2
0
"
-
-
-
-
0
0
4!i
2-Cut line spikes, 4 Racor studs, 14
in tie plates
2-R.icor studs, 14 in tie plates
S-.-,2
7-.'iO
V
o" C
"
0
188
0
100
ISS
(a)lOO
'
2- Cut line spikes, 2 spring l.igs, 14
in tie plates
6-.)(i
0
0
-
-
0
0
.Notes Col. (1) Number of hold-down fastenings retightened or tapped down. Col. (2) Percentage of hold-down fastenings re-
lightened or tapped down'.. All tie plates have a flat bottom and 13-in length, except as-indicated above, (a) Racor studs in section
43 were tappeddowTi with an air hammer in July 1951, because they were not driven home when origin.iUy applied with a maul. All
maintenance work on the special hold-down fastenings, except the Racor studs, was^performed manually. The work of retlghlen-
ing the special hold-down fastenings has required 121 man-hours. In addition, 35 man-hours were ret|uired for applying No-Ox-Id
"A" Special twice to the dowel studs in section 11 and the thru bolts in sections 14 and 15 to protect the exposed threads from corro-
sion. For more details of this work, see AREA Proceedings Vol. 53, 1952, page 792; Vol. 54, 1953, page '.057; Vol. 55, 1954, page
728; Vol.56, 1953, page 842; Vol. 57, 1956, pages 713-715; Vol. 59, 1956, page 1055 and Maintenance this report. Section 6,
previously reported, was discontinued In 1957 at the request of the supplier.
814
Track
pjopuOlS UJ** \JpiiO>A9Q
Track
815
^ — (U
?. CO
3P!/V\ IM^Ii 3P!/V\
3609 pjDpuOtS UJOJJ U0]|0!A3Q
1461.1
816
Track
Fig. 9 — Section 53, Nox-Rust tie seal under tie plate, 35 months of serv-
ice, inner rail 5-deg curve. This material did not seal all of the vacant tie
plate holes. Approximately Y4 of the underplate area showed the dark color
of the seal. This tie plate had taken a good seat and there was little sand
under it. The 1957 report indicated the excess tie wear in the inner rail
was only 11 percent.
misms^^stoia^*
Fig. 10 — Section 54, 14-in Railroad Rubber Products rubber pad, 54 i"
thick, uncoated, with adzed surface coated with a liquid rubber sealant,
35 months of service, inner rail 5-deg curve. Some sand was under the pad,
all sealant was gone except outside the pad area. Pad condition was good
but the sealant was of little value.
Track
817
Fig. 11 — Section 42, 14-in Dunne Rubber Company molded rubber pad
Ys in thick, uncoated, 94 months of service, inner rail 5-deg curve. More
than a normal amount of sand was under the pad. Some compression of the
wood was observed and the adzed surface was damp under the pad. The pad
was worn very thin and was torn at two locations. The thickness of ^ in
is deemed inadequate for protecting ties over a satisfactory service life.
The shallow grooves in both sides of the pads may have been a factor in
the deterioration of the material.
Fig. 12 — South portion section 46, 14-in Racor tie pad, coated, 78 months
of service, inner rail 5-deg curve. There was a little sand under the pad
and slight wood compression was observed. The pad condition was good
but it was not sealed to the tie.
SIS
Track
Fig. 13 — Section 47, 14-in (1952) Burkart fiber pad, coated, 71 months
of service, inner rail 5-deg curve. The pads had stretched some lengthwise
and the spike holes had elongated. Some sand and free water were found
under the pad. Pad condition was fair.
Fig. 14 — Section 55, 14-in Johns-Manville fiber-rubber pad, ^4 i^i thick,
coated 35 months of service inner rail 5-deg curve. Pad was not sealed to
the tie but the underpad area was clean except for a little sand at the gage
end. About ^ of the coating had adhered to the adzed surface and partly
filled some of the splits in the tie. Pad was in good condition.
Track
819
Fig. 15 — South portion section 56, 14-in Fabco fiber-rubber pad, Yg in
thick, coated, 35 months of service, inner rail 5-deg curve. Pad was in good
condition. It was sealed for about 7/s of its area and had a strong bond only
on the gage end.
Fig, 16 — North portion section 4, 13-in Bird Vinyl pad, coated, 71
months of service, outer rail long 4i^-deg curve. Pad had a good seal for
2/3 of its area and was in good condition. The 1957 tie wear measurements
in control Section 2 indicated 22 percent greater wear on the outer rail
than on the inner rail.
820
Track
Fig. 17 — South portion Section 4, 13-in Bird 5-ply duck-burlap pad,
coated, 117 months of service, outer rail, long 4V2-deg curve. Pad had a
strong seal for about ^ of its area. There was a little compression of the
wood. Pad condition was satisfactory.
Fig. 18 — North portion Section 5, 13-in Bird 7-ply duck-burlap pad,
coated, 117 months of service, outer rail, long 4^-deg curve. This pad had
a good seal and was in good condition. Two other pads were inspected
where the tie plates had been bent by one derailed truck, July 1952, and
were not sealed to the tie.
Track
821
Fig. 19 — South portion Section 5, 13-in Bird 7-ply duck-felt pad, coated,
129 months of service, outer rail, long 4^-deg curve. This pad was ^ sealed
and was in better condition than the average. There was a little sand at
the field end and slight wood compression. Some of these pads are badly
delaminated and dislocated.
Fig. 20 — Section 48, 14-in Racor fiber-rubber tie pad, coated, two Racor
studs, 69 months of service, inner rail long 4i/2-deg curve. Pad had a fair
seal with a little sand at the gage end. The pad coating covered about Ys
of the underpad area. The pad was in good condition.
822
Track
Fig. 21 — North portion Section 25, 13-in Johns-Manville laminated
rubber-asbestos pad, % in thick, uncoated, 117 months of service, outer
rail, short 4^-deg curve. This pad had abraded the tie at the field end almost
% in. The field end of the pad was abraded to a feather edge. These pads,
as expected, are failing because of abrasion. The % in thickness is inade-
quate for a good service life.
Fig. 22 — Section 50, paddle coat of "Anker Seel" applied to the adzed
surface of oak ties, 14-in tie plates with four cut spikes, 58 months of serv-
ice, tangent track. Note that the "smear" is still in the four vacant plate
holes. Obviously there was no seal to the tie. The underplate area was rea-
sonably free from sand, etc. This smear has performed better than the
others tested. However, when the smear is effective it keeps out sand and
water, which are accelerators to tie abrasion.
Track
823
Fig. 23 — Section 4, 13-in Bird 5-ply duck-felt pad, coated, 129 months
of service, creosoted pine ties, tangent track. The pad has no bond with
the adzed surface but the underplate area was clean. There was about
1/16-in compression of the wood at the gage end of the plate. The pad
had some damage from delamination and was in better condition than the
average of this section.
Fig. 24 — Section 21, 13-in Fabco pads, ^ in thick, uncoated, 129 months
of service, creosoted pine ties, tangent track. In the upper view there was
free water on the adzed surface and much sand on the bottom of the pad.
Abrasion and compression of the wood were moderate. The pad was in
moderately good condition. The lower view shows the second pad removed.
The wood under the pad was wetter than in the upper view and the wood
compression and abrasion was twice as deep as found under the Bird pad
in Fig. 23. The pad in the lower view was stretched and abraded some. The
above comparison of the Bird tie pad and the second Fabco pad demon-
strates the advantage of having sealed pads on softwood ties.
824
Track
Fig. 25 — Section 35, 1950 creosoted oak ties coated with Koppers No, 16
sealing compound with a covering of 54-i" washed gravel, 94 months of
service, tangent track. Top view — top of ties 58 and 5.7 (even numbered
ties were left uncoated for controls) between the rails. Bottom view — west
ends of ties 46 and 47. Before placing the tie, a paddle coat of the sealing
compound was applied to all adzed surfaces. Tie plate 19W was removed
for inspection (no picture). The 13-in wafBe-bottom tie plate had trapped
the compound under it and the underplate area was clean and partly covered
by the coating. The 1957 tie wear measurements in this section indicated
for 120.1 million gross tons of traffic a reduction of 24 percent below
that of control Section 2 with oak ties and 13-in flat-bottom tie plates.
Track
825
Fig. 26 — Section 36, Koppers No. 16 sealing compound applied to exist-
ing creosoted hardwood ties in 1950, 94 months of service, tangent track.
Top view — top of ties 2 and 3 between rails. Bottom view — west end of
ties 30 and 31.
826
Track
Fig, 27 — AAR design tie wear testing machine.
Fig. 28 — Krouse tie wear testing machine.
Track
827
ISOO 3ii (0 |U3DJ3d
p3i)i|Snr |u3ai(?3Au| lOuoijippv
828 Track
Report on Assignment 7
Effect of Lubrication in Preventing Frozen Rail Joints
and Retarding Corrosion of Rail and Fastenings
R. G. Garland (chairman, subcommittee), John Ayer, Jr., E. G. Brisbin, J. T. Collin-
son, W. E. Cornell, W. E. Griffiths, G. W. Miller, L. A. Pelton, M. K. Ruppert,
G. R. Sproles, R. E. Tew, Troy West, B. J. Worley.
This is the final report covering the eight-year service tests of the 1950 applications
of metal preservatives in the joints of the northward main and of the five-year inves-
tigation of the spray method for preserving joints in both main tracks of the Illinois
Central Railroad. This report is submitted as information which may be used at some
later date as a basis of recommended practice in the protection of rail joints from cor-
rosion and the prevention of frozen rail joints. This assignment will be continued, but
with greater emphasis on reducing the corrosion of all other parts of the track structure.
This investigation is being made by the AAR research staff under the general
direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. H. E. Durham, research
engineer track, is in direct charge of this assignment and is being assisted by other
staff members.
Introduction
Originally the AAR-IC test installations included only the ten test sections (Nos.
1-10, incl.) made in the northward main in June 1950, as shown in Fig. 1, except for
sections 3 and 10 which were changed to spray coat tests in July 1953, when that
phase of the subject was initiated. It will be noted that the 1950 tests are located in
two stretches of the northward main, south of Chebanse and Ashkum, 111.
Because of the early failures of the brush coat applications of Dixon's 1924 Quick
Drying Lubricant in section 3 and Farbertite in section 10, those sections were used to
start the spray coat tests in 1953, as indicated in Fig. 1. In August 19SS the spray coat
tests were started in the southward main between M.P. 74 and 76 where the 1944—
131 RE rail had been laid with a brush .coat of Texaco 45 on the 6-hole joints. No
reapplication of a preservative was made inside the joints prior to the AAR tests. In
the autumn of 1954 the joint bars in the 1944 rail were reversed, but no preservative
was applied to the joints. Each spray coat test in the southward main includes th'e
joints in one-half mile of rail. Extending south from M.P. 74 the four sections in the
west rail are as follows: controls, Texaco 1965, Conoco 151 and No-Ox-Id 100, respec-
tively numbered U-W, 12-W, 13-W and 14-W. The east rail had only two sections south
of the mile post: 11-E for controls and 12-E with No-Ox-Id 201. The control sections
were used to compare the rail gaps with the lubricated sections.
This report includes the results of the inspection of the subcommittee, the per-
formance of the test during the last service period of 12 months, ended August 1958,
and a resume of the more important developments. During the last test period the
northward main carried 23 million gross tons, making a total of 243 million since the
initial readings were taken in September 1950. The southward main carried 18 million
gross tons in the last sfervice period, making a total of 60 million since the tests were
started in September 1955.
Maintenance of Way Report
During the last service period the IC reported that the track bolts in these tests
had not been retightened out-of-face, and there were no stripped joints or broken
Track 829
bolts, but some of the bolts had been replaced for other reasons. In sections 1-10,
incl., of the northward main, one bolt was replaced in the north portion of section 1
and one bolt was found loose in section 8. In the southward main between M.P. 74
and 76, one bolt in section 12-E with No-Ox-Id 201 and six bolts in section 12-W with
Texaco 1965 were replaced.
Inspection of Dismantled Joints
Eight committee members and guests were present at the inspection of 13 joints on
April 21, 1958. Th'e group included two representatives of two suppliers, four represen-
tatives of two railroads and two members of the AAR research staff. A light rain fell
at the beginning of the inspection, and some of the photographs were taken while
some areas of the joints were wet. Photographs of the joints are shown in Figs. 2 to
11, incl. The captions in the figures for the 1950 installations (Figs. 2 to 8, incl.)
include comments on the conditions observed. As determined from previous inspections
and this one, section 7 having the joints packed with Texaco 90S graphite grease and
Plastic "H" end plugs has provided by far the best protection against corrosion of the
1950 installations. Section 8 with joints packed with Petrolatum (Dark) and Plastic H
end plugs is ranked second. No hard rust slabs were found in the lower rail fillets of
the joints packed with a preservative and end plugs. Some rust slabs covered by the
end plugs in the joints without lubrication have been observed at previous inspections.
Figs. 7 to 11, incl., show the condition of the joints and spray compounds in-
spected, except the photographs of Joint No. SSO in section 12-E, SB main with 1944
rail, were missed. This one-half mile rail had the joints sprayed with No-Ox-Id 201,
June 1956. The application was made with Dearborn Chemical Company equipment
which had nozzles that would not pass by the bolts. This method is said to be used
by railroads that protect the ends of the joints in the zones where the brine is blown in.
All other sections since August 1955 were sprayed with a ^-in P 3504 flat jet nozzle
and sufficient J^-in pipe to push the nozzle to the second bolt from the joint ends.
This design of nozzle has a 3/64-in orifice and diverts the spray 40 deg upward and
develops a horizontal spray angle from 20 deg at 15 psi pressure to 41 deg at 100 psi.
This method provided complete coverage inside the joint. The Dearborn method did not
fully cover the middle foot of the joint where the rail web failures generally occur.
A summary of the service performance of the spray compounds with respect to the
capacity of each for controlling corrosion on the rail web in the joints is presented in
Table 1. The performance factors of years of service per spray coat are given in the right
column. Because the service conditions of the joints in the two main tracks were differ-
ent, the factors are not suitable for precisely comparing the spray compounds in one
track with the other one. The table will be helpful in determining the most economical
spray compound to use for controlling corro.sion of the rail web and unfreezing a suffi-
cient number of joints to avoid broken bolts and stripped joints.
Summary and Conclusions
When the 132 RE rail was laid in the northward main in 1950, the rail was end
hardened shortly after temporarily applying the joint bars. Approximately 10 to 20 min
later the bars were removed and all of the metal preservatives were applied to the hot
rail and bars, except that the end plugs were applied after completion of the relay work.
The joints were pumped full of grease in sections 7 and 8 after the end plugs were
applied. All of the brush coat applications on the hot rail and bars were seriously dam-
aged in the middle foot of the 36-in headfree joint. This condition affected adversely
the brush-coat application of Conoco Anti-Rust Compound, No-Ox-Id "A" Special,
830 Track
(both petrolatum based) Stanolind Petrolatum (dark), Dixon's 1924 Quick Drying Lubri-
cant and Farbertite. The last two compounds failed in two years and the sections were
used for investigating the spray method of preserving and unfreezing joints.
Although the three petrolatum compounds were affected by the heat from the rail
end hardening, each should be satisfactory as a brush coat on joints where the rail is
end hardened in the mill. On the three compounds, petrolatum (dark) was inferior to
the other two. Field end hardening of rail should be done before any rust preventive
is apphed to the joints.
There was some advantage to applying a brush coat to the rail ends and bars as
opposed to treating the rail ends only. After four years of service, joints with the double
application had better coverage on the rail and more preservative on the joint bars.
Corrosive conditions in these tests were not severe, and only the rail ends needed a
brush coat. Where brine drippings, sulfur droppings, brackish atmosphere, certain indus-
trial contaminants or other corrosion accelerators exist, it seems justified to brush coat
both the bars and rail ends.
From the condition observed in the joints having a brush coat of Conoco Anti-Rust
Compound and both ends plugged, it was evident that the preservative was more effec-
tive and had a longer life than in joints without end plugs. Either with or without
lubrication there were no adverse effects observed from plugging both ends of the joint
bars. However, where no lubricant was used, a few rust slabs were found behind the
end plugs in the lower rail fillets, which in later years could reduce the available take-up
of the headfree bars.
In track with severe corrosion which causes the bolts to fail, the use of plastic H
plugs in the receiving end of the joints, or in both ends if required, is a practical method
of preserving the bolts. These tests have shown that square end plugs have better reten-
tion and require less material than the beveled ones.
The best joint preservation was obtained in section 7 where the joints were packed
with Texaco 905 graphite grease and plastic H plugs. Section 8, where the joints were
packed with petrolatum (dark) and plastic H plugs, provided the next best control of
corrosion within the joints. After seven years of service, the plastic joint packing (for-
merly 1950 formula RMC packing) had become very dry and flaked out of one to three
joint bar ends in most of the joints. A little oil was observed on the lower portion of
the joint. The bolts were well preserved, but there was some corrosion on the rail web.
Although the packing was packed at the ends of the bars to keep the ends closed, the
material had become dry and was no longer serving as a good end plug. No fatigue
cracks were found in the rail ends. The IC has reported no rail or joint bar failures in
the 1950 installations.
The spray method was found to be an economical and effective operation for pre-
serving and unfreezing joints. Table 1 gives a summary of the test. Two of the com-
pounds, Texaco RCX-236 and No-Ox-Id 100, were difficult to heat sufficiently to get
good atomization in warm weather with the Fairmont W 61, series B, oil sprayer.
The spray operation, as previously described, gave complete coverage in the joints
and on the rail beyond the ends. With a better design of sprayer affording more latitude
for heat and pressure, the same coverage should be obtained by pushing the nozzle just
beyond the first bolt instead of the second.
The rail gaps measured in the test sections indicated that the gap uniformity was
not significantly improved by the use of any preservative. There was a little improve-
ment in one of the spray sections and in section 7 with Texaco 905 graphite grease.
In this test, as in the original test on the Burlington Railroad, the preservatives
Track m
used in the 1950 sections did not reduce joint wear as reflected by the joint-bar pull-in
measurements. Section 7 was outstanding for a few years in having the most lubrica-
tion on the fishings. This section was in the upper range of pull-in values. The average
pull-in values for sections with lubrication was slightly more than the average of the
two sections (S and 6) without lubrication. It, therefore, is obvious that when the joint
slippage resistance becomes low because of good lubrication on the wearing surfaces, or
from inadequate bolt tension, joints with low slippage resistance have more daily slip-
page movement due to the change in rail temperature. This excess wear apparently in
some instances offsets the effect of lubrication. It is concluded that the chief benefits
derived from the metal preservatives w-ere reducing corrosion, preventing hard rust slabs,
possibly avoiding corrosion fatigue failures in the rail and keeping a sufficient number
of joints unfrozen to eliminate bolt breakage.
The bolts in all test sections were retightened on an annual basis except during the
last service period. Very few of the bolts required replacement or became loose during
a service period. There were no stripped joints. Because of this good performance, it is
believed that the 10-4 rail anchorage arrangement per 39-ft length was adequate. A
grease-type rust preventive that has good weather resisting properties should be applied
to all track bolts when assembling joints.
In the test on the Burlington Railroad between Leland and Earlville, 111. (Vol. 52,
page 575), the rail ends were not hardened in the field and there was no damage to the
brush coat applications. Furthermore, the test was not in the track subjected to brine
drip, except a small amount blown by the wind from the adjoining main track. Of the
brush-coat applications No-Ox-Id "A" Special and Petrolatum (Dark) were superior as
to weather resisting properties in the five-year test. Leadolene No. 385 was classed as
second best as to resisting the elements and controlling corrosion on the rail. In general,
the petrolatum-based products have given good protection for about five years, except
when damaged by the heat from end hardening rail.
Acknowledgement
The Association gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance rendered by
the IC and extends its appreciation to the suppliers for their assistance in conducting
these tests.
832
Track
■^ ;? ^
U) t\i Ci
Ui
Chebc^nse, III.
-^RMC Plastic Jo'ml Packing f^lew Formula) ""- -i
/ A/or//? 30Jo//?ts wi/h /Middle 12 in. Length Om// fed. I
2. A/exf SOJoints /dent/cal/o /fe/v/ except Brusf? I "
Petrolatum C/^aH<) an M/MIe /2 In. of Joint.
3. Sout/7 4-3 Joints Pacl<ed ■Solid. I
64:5
^f— -1:64.46
V
Conoco /ir7tl-Ru.5f Compound
Brush Coat
P/asf/ctl Plugs, Both Ends Middle. Zi Jh\
f esy.^.
lexc/co Ab. 9^1 Spmy Coat, IVes/ /?a// i ,
c ®
®
,Sig.Br. ®Borco/e A/o. 60O , Joroy Coat ,
■^ Open Deck ^^J^ /Ti?//
h/o-Ox-ld "A" Special
Brush Coat
A/o-Ox- Id Plugs, Both Ends
Plajfic H Plugs, /deceiving End
Plastic II Plugs. Both Ends
r i
-XZ-Sps.48'-6"
^'"■''■''■^- t^o Lubrication
_^ fVo End Plugs
— ■ 67!',
Jnd
Relay
® Firs/ spray app/zCa/Za/p Clifton. Hi MP 69.Z
tvas r^aJe Ju// Z9, /9SJ.
® Second spray application &-S-S4
C m-rd spray Spplicatior, 8-/0-SS^^^^^^- J"' ^^ ^^-^
-o.
<>^
-^,—.^67.eo
-<>
Joints Pacl<-ed with Texaco 905
Graptyite Grease
Plastic H Plugs. Both Ends
Sig. Br.
Joints Packed with Petrolatum CDark)
Plasticit Plugs^ Both Ends
74.57
'_B£p^
Relay
Petrolatum CDarl<)
Brush Coat
P/astIc H Plugs, Receiving End
1
7^/i
Texaco PC){-236,Jpr^y Coot
Spray appliLation of TexQco TA-2420 , 7-29-53
Spray application of Texaco RCX-236 , rep/ocing
Texaco TA -2420. 6-5-54
fRespray application of Texaco f?CX-Z3&i 8-IO-SS
76.IS I
^^\^r?d_
6S7 ^ Relay
-1^74.40
-o.
-o.
-^ 76.35
o.
Dan forth, III A/t.P 77.3
Track
833
Fig. 2 — North portion Section 4. Brush coat of No-Ox-Id "A" Special
on rail and joint bars with No-Ox-Id end plugs. All end plugs were missing
except a part of one. Joint was wet from rainfall and fairly free of debris.
Extent of corrosion was moderate and no hard rust slabs were found in the
lower rail fillets.
Fig. 3 — South portion Section 5. Texaco plastic H plugs in both ends,
no lubrication. All plugs were in place, but receiving end plugs were loose.
Top view indicates rail gap had opened sufficiently to push the plugs from
the bar ends. This joint was wet from rain. There were no slabs in lower
rail fillets to reduce joint bar take up. The end plugs in this section had
hardened from oxidation, but about 50 percent were intact.
834
Track
Fig. 4 — Section 6. No lubrication or end plugs. There was a little dam-
aging corrosion in this joint. The hard rust slab at the receiving end of
the field bar would prevent full take up of the headfree bars.
Fig. 5 — Section 7. Packed with Texaco 905 graphite grease and plastic
H end plugs. Although approximately 75 percent of the grease had whipped
out, this joint was the best preserved one of the 1950 installations inspected.
The bolts had a good coating of grease. The square end plugs used in Sec-
tions 7 and 8 have better retention than the beveled one.
i
Track
835
Fig. 6 — Section 8. Packed with Stanolind Petrolatum (Dark) and plastic
H end plugs. Most of the grease had run out of the joint in hot weather,
but there was a protective film left on rail web. The joints and bolts have
had good protection but was somewhat inferior to that provided in Section 7
(Fig. 5).
Fig. 7 — West rail section 3. Three years of service after three annual
spray coats of Texaco 941.
836
Track
Fig. 8 — Section 10. Three years of service after one spray coat of Texaco
TA-2420 and two annual coats of Texaco RCX-236.
Fig. 9 — Section 12-W. Two years of service after two annual spray coats
of Texaco 1965 on 1944 rail. SB main.
Track
837
Fig. 10 — Section 13-W. Two years of service after two annual spray
coats of Conoco 151 on 1944 rail, SB main.
^^^z~- ■—.,i:;T-,- — !i»7 ^-
y &
^m-''^
'^m ■ «^^^^k.^«K.A:i^i..K ^k^tm^m. timk
Ms
Fig. 11 — Section 14-W. Three years of service after the first spray coat
of No-Ox-Id 100 on 1944 rail, SB main.
838
Track
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF THE SERVICE PERFORMANCE OF SEVEN SPRAY COMPOUNDS
Years of Effective Service
Estimated
No. of Annual
Prior to
Additional
Years per
Name of Spray Compound
Spray Coats
Aug. 1958
Life
Total
Spray Coat
NB Main 6-hole 132 HF Joint Bars
in 1950 Rail
Texaco 941
3
5
1
6
2.0
(1) Texaco RCX-236
3
5
1
6
2.0
Leadolene Barcote 600
2
3
0
3
1.5
SB Main 6-hole 131 HF Joint Bars in 1944 Rail
Texaco 1965
2
3
1
4
2.0
Conoco 151
2
3
0
3
1.5
No-Ox-Id 100
1
3
1
4
4.0
No-Ox-Id 201
1
2
1
3
3.0
Notes: The spray tests were started when the 1950 rail was three years old and when the
1944 rail was 11 years old. Effective service is based on controlling rail web corrosion
in the joints.
(1) One coat of Texaco TA-2420 was followed by two coats of RCX-236. Because the W 61
Fairmont oil sprayer failed to furnish adequate heat and pressure for this heavy material,
only the third coat had proper atomization. Two coats for the service life shown would have
been sufficient if good atomization could have been obtained for each application.
During the service tests, a little brine corrosion was observed in the southward main, but
there was none in the northward main.
Track 839
Report on Assignment 8
Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints
J. B. Wilson (chairman, subcommittee), J. P. Barker, F. J. Bishop, M. C. Bitner, H. F.
Busch, H. B. Christiansen, W. E. Cornell, P. H. Croft, J. W. Fulmer, L. W. Green,
A. B. Hillman, L. H. Jentoft, C. N. King, L. W. Leitze, M. P. Oviatt, J. M. Sal-
mon, Jr., V. M. Schwing, G. R. Sproles, J. R. Talbott, Jr., Troy West, D. J.
White.
This is a progress report on the service tests of tight rail as compared to rail laid
with normal bolt tension and expansion on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, the
Erie Railroad, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad. The tight rail on the L&N is
not end hardened, while the Erie and B&LE have end hardened and beveled rails. Bolt
tension varies from 35,000 lb on the 1-in bolts of the Erie to 45,000 lb on the IJ^-in
bolts of the L&N and B&LE.
The investigation is under the supervision of G. M. Magee, director of engineering
research, and H. E. Durham, who has charge of the assignment.
TEST ON LOUISVILLE & NASHVILLE RAILROAD
Introduction
The Louisville & Nashville Railroad laid a tangent section of tight rail near Chapel
Hill, Tenn. in November 1953, with 132 RE section rail, 6-hole headfree joint bars, 1%-in
track bolts, and 45,000 lb average tension on the bolts. The anchorage of this rail is
described in Fig. 1.
Since October 1955, the AAR staff has obtained three periodic sets of data on the
tight and normal rail, the last cycle extending from August 22, 1957, to August 7, 1958,
ending a 0.94-year service period. The traffic carried by the test sections amounted to
10 and 39 milHon gross tons for the last service period and the total test period, respec-
tively. Northward traffic was slightly heavier.
A complete description of the test is reported in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, 1956,
pages 760-764.
Bolt Tension Measurements
The bolt tension measurements on 10 joints in the tight-rail installation were taken
on August 7, 1958, ending a 2-year service period in 5 joints in the east rail and a 0.94
year service period on the 5 joints in the west rail. The 1-year cycle of applied 45,000 lb
initial tension on the VA-m. bolts was prolonged on the joints in the east rail to study
the effect of a probable longer maintenance cycle of tightening.
The bolt-tension-loss table presented below shows that the middle bolts of the joints
in the west rail had lost 40 percent of the applied tension in 0.94 year. Intermediate and
end bolt losses were 21 and 19 percent, respectively. This compares with 40, 24 and 31
percent losses on the middle, intermediate and end bolts in 1957.
On the bolts in the east rail joints for a 2-year span, the losses had increased to
60 percent on the middle bolts and 41 percent on the remaining bolts. Average loss for
the joints was 47 percent or 23,500 lb remaining tension after 2 years. One-year loss
averaged 27 percent for the joints or 32,600 lb remaining tension. From an analysis of
the joint gap pattern occurring during the prolonged period of bolt maintenance, it
appears that the 2-year span had no adver.se effect on the general maintenance of the
installation.
840 Track
Bolt Tension Test in Tight Rail on Louisville & Nashville Railroad
Near Chapel Hill, Tenn.
(Six-Hole 132-lb Headfree Joint Bars, 1% in Bolts, Single Coil Spring Washers)
Average Bolt Tension in 1000 Lb
Bolt Position Initial Final Loss Percent Loss
East Rail 8-8-56 to 8-7-58 Two Year Loss
Middle Bolts 44.4 17.6 26.8 60
Intermediate Bolts 4S.3 26.9 18.4 41
End Bolts 44.3 26.0 18.3 41
Avg. All Bolts 44.7 23.5 21.2 47
West Rail 8-22-57 to 8-7-58 One Year Loss
Middle Bolts 44.2 26.5 17.7 40
Intermediate Bolts 45.7 36.2 9.5 21
End Bolts 43.7 35.3 8.4 19
Avg. All Bolts 44.5 32.6 11.9 27
Rail Joint Gaps and Cumulative Rail Creepage
Creepage of the rails and winter rail gaps for the tight and normal rails were re-
corded by the L&N staff on January 8, 1958, with a rail temperature of 12 deg (Figs. 1
and 2). Patterns of the summer rail movement and gaps of both installations, taken by
the AAR on August 6, 1958, at an average rail temperature of 126 deg, are shown in
Figs. 3 and 4.
The tight rail gaps, as shown in the lower left portion of Fig. 2, indicate 16 open
joints in the east rail with an average gap of 0.014 in at 12 deg. This compares with 14
open joints averaging 0.13 in at 22 deg in December 1956. The average gap for the 211
joints decreased from 0.009 in. in December 1956 to 0.001 in. in January 1958. The
normal rail gaps dropped from an average of 0.21 in to 0.17 in during the same period,
indicating an increase in the joint sHppage resistance. Only one of the tight rail joints
has repeatedly been open during the last three winters.
Fig. 4 represents the rail gap pattern for the tight and normal rail taken at 125 deg
and 128 deg, respectively. The average gap in the tight rail for 5 open joints was 0.055
in as compared with 6 joints open at 0.015 in at 111 deg last year. The average gap for
all the joints was 0.001 in as compared to 0.0004 in last summer. During the same period,
the average rail gap in the normal rail increased from 0.06 in to 0.084 in.
The pattern of rail movement as indicated for the tight and normal rail in Figs. 1
and 3 shows little change from the previous cycle of measurements. Normal rail creep-
age during a year is moderately greater than the tight-rail movement. The anchorage
on the normal rail consists of 8-8 drive-on anchors boxed per rail; whereas, the tight
rail has compression clips for anchors and is confined at each end with eight panels of
drive-on anchors, which are boxed on all ties except at the joints.
The bolts in the normal rail joints were retightened in October 1957 with a tension
ranging from 15,000 lb to 25,000 lb. A tension of 45,000 lb was applied in August 1958
to the tight rail joints.
From a study of the joint gaps taken during the last cycle, it appears that the de-
ferred tightening of the tight rail for a two-year duration had no adverse effect on the
number or size of the gaps.
Rail Surface Profiles
Fig. 5 of this report indicates the difference in the profiles of 20 joints in each of
the tight snd normal rail installations between October 1955 and August 1958. Most of
Track 841
the tight-rail profile has dropped below the original profile this year which represents a
substantial change from the last cycle when the profile from the 2-in point outward had
bowed up above the original. The average rail-end batter on the non-hardened tight
rail at the J4-in points has increased to approximately 0.02 in.
The normal rail has continued to show some progressive wear. However, the end-
hardening of the rail in this installation has apparently retarded the batter at the ^-in
points which remained at 0.005 in, the same as last year.
Rail End Chipping
Because of the break-out or chipping of the metal in the rail ends of the tight
joints, it was necessary to gas weld 65 of the 211 joints during the previous service
cycle. Inspection of these welds this year revealed that the majority were performing
well. Among the joints which had not been welded were some which continued to show
additional chipping of the rail ends. In some of these cases, the rail steel had flowed
and partially filled the chipped-out portion of the rail end.
The normal rail ends have little batter and will not require repair by welding for
several years.
Maintenance of Way Report
Maintenance costs on the tight and normal rail, as reported by the L&N, was
$11.51, for tamping a low joint in the tight rail. The bolts in both test sections were
retightened during the last service period, but no work was performed on the tight rail
compression clips.
TIGHT RAIL TEST ON THE ERIE RAILROAD
Introduction
In July 1957 the Erie Railroad installed 1.74 miles of tight rail in the eastward
main track near Crown Point, Ind., using 115 RE rail, 6-hole long-toe bars, 13-in tie
plates. 1-in track bolts with spring washers, and an average bolt tension of 40,000 lb.
Subsequent retightening of the bolts was for 35,000 lb tension. All the rail ends were
hardened, beveled, and end milled with slight undercut. An additional amount of 675 cu
yd per track mile of crushed rock ballast was provided to increase the shoulder width,
and each rail was anchored with compression clips on all ties, except both ends of the
joint ties, averaging 19 clips per rail. End zone anchorage consisted of IS rails with
clips (see Vol. 59, page 1074).
West of the tight-rail section, a track mile of normal rail, laid previously in April
1957, similar to the tight-rail construction except for eight forward and two back-up
grip-type anchors, was included in the test as a basis of comparison. The normal rail
ends were not end milled. The normal rail was laid with the temperature ranging from
60 to 80 deg (average 70 deg) while the tight rail ranged from 66 to 90 deg (average
80 deg) on the south rail, and 70 to 111 deg (average 97 deg) on the north rail.
On the afternoon of May 14, 1958, 20 members and guests of the Track committee
made an inspection of the Erie tests. The Erie furnished bus transportation from Ham-
mond, Ind. and members of its staff and the AAR escorted the group over the test track.
Traffic over the test track during the service period covered by this report was 7.7
million gross tons, including all freight and passenger cars and locomotives.
Rail Joint Gaps and Cumulative Rail Creepage
Initial measurements of the tight rail gaps were recorded on September 17, 1957,
at a rail temperature of 104 deg. Of a total 266 joints, there were 34 open joints in the
842 Track
north rail with an average gap of 0.10 in and 26 open joints in the south rail with an
average gap of O.OS in, as shown in the upper half of Fig. 6. The over-all average gap
for the north and south rails was 0.02 in and 0.01 in, respectively. Normal rail gaps taken
at 100 deg rail temperature averaged 0.04 in on the north rail and 0.06 in on the south
rail with 135 joints in each rail, as shown in the lower half of Fig. 6.
Fig. 7 depicts the creepage of each rail throughout the normal and tight rail tests as
measured at the end points, J^ points, and centers of the test miles on December 11,
1957. Both of the sections show moderate amount of movements measuring as much as
Yz in during the winter. The north rail moves with the traffic, but the south rail for the
most part moves west or against traffic.
The first winter gap readings are categorized in Fig. 8. At 4 deg rail temperature,
167 out of 266 joints were open, and 99 or 37 percent were closed completely. The
average gap was 0.16 in for the open joints and 0.10 in for the whole section. In com-
parison, the normal test at IS deg rail temperature averaged 0.21 in gap for 270 joints.
For a closer analysis of the first winter gap readings. Fig. 9 is presented to show
the pattern by separate rails. The diagram indicates that there are seven fewer open
joints in the south rail than in the north rail of the tight rail section. This, therefore,
causes a higher percentage of closed joints to occur in the south rail where the rail was
laid at 80 deg as compared to 97 deg for the north rail. The normal north rail lacks
uniformity in gaps; whereas, the normal south rail, as shown in the lower right corner
of Fig. 9, indicates better uniformity. Both rails were laid at 70 deg initially.
Figs. 10, 11 and 12 repeat the same type of measurements as previously men-
tioned, as recorded on September 22, 1958, at 114 deg and 111 deg on the tight and
normal rail, respectively. The bolts were retightened in the tight rail to 35,000 lb ten-
sion on August 22, 1958, at which time the bolts were released to closie the open joints
and then retightened. There was only one joint that would not close. It will be noted
in Fig. 10 that during the higher temperatures, the creepage was eastward with the
traffic for both rails. The number of open joints during the summer had reduced to 63
(Fig. 12); 37 with an average gap of 0.08 in. in the north rail, and 26 in the south
rail with an average gap of 0.06 in. Again, the large number of tight joints occurred
in the south rail because of the lower rail-laying temperature.
The summer normal rail gap readings, also taken at 111 deg, as shown in the
lower half of Fig. 12, indicate more closed joints in the north rail having an average
joint gap of 0.02 in. Average joint gap for the south rail was O.OS in. The bolts in the
normal rail were retightened to about 20,000 lb September 4, 1958.
Rail Surface Profiles
In the tight rail, the profile of the rail surface, as shown in Fig. 13, shows no
increase in batter from the original profile but indicates a general decrease in the height
of the rail surface over the joint. The normal rail indicates no increase in batter and
Shows a relatively slight decrease in rail height. This increase in joint droop in the
tight rail may have been influenced by the high bolt tension used. Both of the normal
and tight-rail sections have long-toe headfree joint bars. There was no significant
difference in the rail end batter of the two test sections.
Maintenance of Way Report
The Erie retightened, raised and lined the joints in both tight and normal rail
sections during the last service period at a labor cost of .$619 for the tight rail and
$679 for the normal rail. The expense for raising and lining should not recur frequently.
There was no expense maintaining the anchors or respacing ties. There were no loose,
broken or missing bolts.
Track 843
TEST ON BESSEMER & LAKE ERIE RAILROAD
Introduction
The tight rail service test installation on the B&LE near Grove City, Pa., was
laid in October 1957 (See Vol. 59, page 1075). The rail is 140 RE with 140 AREA
6-hole head-contact joints, bolt hole spacing 7-6-5^-6-7 in, 1^-in bolts and plain
11/64-in carburized washers. Typical joints are shown in Figs. 14 and IS and described
in Fig. 17.
Following a meeting in Pittsburgh on the morning of April 16, 1958, 26 com-
mittee members and guests journeyed to Grove City for inspection of the tight rail
test during the afternoon.
The initial test measurements of top of rail profile, joint gap, out-to-out of joint bars,
bolt tension and rail creepage were obtained by the AAR research staff on November
20 and 21, 1957. The B&LE took, winter readings of joint gap and rail creepage on
February 10, 1958, and a complete set of measurements were again made by th« AAR
on August 11 and 12, 1958. The traffic for the first service period beginning November
20, 1957, was approximately 6.8 miUion gross tons, of which about 60 percent was
southbound made up chiefly of loaded ore cars of 90-ton capacity. Because of the
limited steel mill operations during 1958, the tonnage has been considerably less than
normal.
Bolt Tension Measurements
As in the L&N test and as stated in the previous report, 45,000 lb tension was
determined as a practical maximum for IJ^-in bolts. The power wrench was set
accordingly during laying of the rail and for subsequent tightening about one month
after laying in 1957 and during early summer 1958.
On November 20, 1957, six joints were set up to determine loss of bolt tension
and these were checked on August 11, 1958. The results obtained were as follows:
Average Bolt Tension in 1000 Lb
November 20, 1957, to August 11, 1958 Percent
Bolt Position Initial Final Loss Loss
Middle Bolts 44.9 25.7 19.2 43
Intermediate Bolts 45.6 32.5 13.1 29
End Bolts 44.5 29.9 14.6 33
Avg. All Bolts 45.0 29.4 15.6 35
It will be noted that the middle bolts lost 43 percent compared with 29 and 33
percent, respectively for the intermediate and end bolts during the first test period
consisting of 0.72 year. At the time of laying, all bolts were dipped in Texaco 904
grease before application of the nuts for the purpose of obtaining the proper bolt tension
with the minimum torque and to avoid damage to the threads.
Rail Joint Gaps and Creepage
Initial gap readings obtained on November 21, 1957, are shown in Fig. 16. At the
time of laying, all rail ends were bumped tight, but loss of bolt tension in the first
month after laying was sufficient to permit considerable opening of the joints with
relatively low temperatures during the period. Steel bars were driven into the ballast
at the ends and each J4 niile to obtain cumulative rail creepage.
The winter gap readings, obtained on February 10, 1958, as shown in Figs. 18
and 19, show a pattern similar to the initial readings with an increase of 18 percent
844 Track
in the number of open gaps in the end-hardened rail and IQ percent increase in the
plain-iend rail. The increase in average gap was 49 percent in the end-hardened rail
and 3i percent in the plain-end rail. It would appear that the anchorage on the
plain-end rail was somewhat more effective than that on the north 1/2 mile.
The rail creepag3 when the winter readings were taken (Fig. 17), indicated that
the rail was pulling into the test mile at each end an average of 0.19 in on the north
end and 0.15 in on the south end. The movement at the intermediate points was small.
Summer gap readings obtained on August 11, 1958, are shown in Figs. 21 and 22.
The difference between winter and summer temperatures was 113 deg for the north
one-half of the test and 110 deg for the south one-half. It will be observed that there
was a decided change in gap pattern in both sections; 91 percent of the joints being
closed in the plain-end rail and 77 percent closed in the end-hardened rail.
It is somewhat difficult to evaluate the summer gaps from the standpoint of
slippage for the reason that the B&LE loosened the joint bars and permitted the rail
to close the gaps during June 1958. Fourteen of the open joints in the end-hardened
rail were found closed at the base, and four in the plain-end rail were similarly closed
at the base although a slight gap existed at the head due to the end milling not being
uniform.
Rail creepage on August 11, 1958, shown in Fig. 20, indicates movement out of the
test mile at each end, an average of 0.19 in at the north end and 0.23 in at the south
end. Relatively little movement occurred at the intermediate points.
Rail Surface Profiles and Joint Bar Pull-In
Fig. 23 shows the rail surface profiles measured in November 1957 and August
1958. This test mile has two short curves of ly^ deg and 1 deg on the 'end-hardened
rail and plain-end rail, respectively. Profile readings were taken at 10 joints of each
rail, both curve and tangent on end-hardened rail and plain-end rail. The traffic was
approximately 1.5 million gross tons from the time of laying the rail until the profile
readings were taken in November 1957. It will be observed that the plain-end rail
had already acquired a small amount of end batter, which changed very little in the test
period of 0.72 year although the profiles are a little lower. End batter on the end-
hardened rail is slight, but the profiles have lowered about the same as in the plain
end rail.
Maintenance
The only maintenance on the test mile since laying of the rail and final surfacing
was retightening of the bolts in November 1957, just before setting up the test and
releasing the bars to close the gaps, following by retightening on June 20, 1958, when
all of the open joints were closed by first releasing the bolt tension.
GENERAL REMARKS
In the L&N tight-rail test the average loss in bolt tension was 47 percent for a
two-year period. During the second winter of that period, only 16 open joints were
reported when the rail temperature was 12 deg. These open joints had gaps of either
0.01 in or 0.02 in. Because of this good performance, the L&N has agreed to retighten
the 1^-in bolts to 45,000 lb biennially.
After the L&N tight-rail test section was three years old and had carried about
40 million gross tons of traffic, it was necessary to build up by welding 65 of the 211
test joints. This work was caused by deep chipping. The rail ends had been end-milled
Track 845
with too much undercut which concentrated the compressive thermal force in the upper
portion of the rail head.
Members of the AAR research staff inspected fiw test locations of tight rail on
the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, three of which had carried 40 million gross tons prior
to the observations made in May 1958. The three tests were laid with the rail ends
milkd but not hardened or beveled, the same as in the L&N tests. There was no
chipping of the rail ends. This was attributed to having the rail ends prepared with
good square cuts and minimum undercut for closing the rail gap at the running surface.
From this observation, it is evident that to avoid chipping of the soft rail ends in rail
laid tight with frozen joints, preparation of the rail ends must be done accurately.
In the three test locatons, only the tight-rail section on the Erie was laid at an
unfavorable rail temperature for freezing the joints. The first summer temperature
check of the rail gaps was made in September 1Q57 at an average rail temperature
of 104 deg, and 23 percent of the 266 joints were open. On September 22, 1958, there
were 24 percent open joints at a rail temperature of 114 deg. All of the tight-rail
bolts had been retightened and all joints found open were closed, except one on August
22, 1958. The check of the gaps on December 11, 1957, at a rail temperature of 4 deg
indicated 63 percent of the joints were open, with an average gap of 0.16 in. If in the
coming winter there is no significant increase in the number of frozen joints, considera-
tion should be gi\'>en to dri\ang up the rail tight at a mean rail temperature of 55 or
60 deg.
The AAR staff suggested the use of head-contact bars in the B&LE tight rail test
because these joints build up a slippage resistance greater than the headfree type. This
should accelerate the "freezing" of the joints. Because high bolt tension with coil-
spring washers is damaging to the nuts, and to the bolts to a lesser extent, carburized
plate washers as used with high-tensile bolts in structural steel were also suggested. In
the first month of service and the next nine months, the loss in bolt tension is judged
to be higher than in other tests. Additional information on the loss in bolt tension
will be developed during the second year of service.
Acknowledgement
The AAR is grateful to the L&N, Erie and B&LE for their assistance and coopera-
tion given in these tests.
846
Track
2
''4
I
\
0
'4
I
%
21-
-»— Noshville (N.B.)
13? RE RotI
(SB.) Birrnjnqhom •
T"-
-^
East Rail
rr^'^ — r^s^
■Not End Hardened or beveled
(a) I (b) I (c)
1830 ft. — 4- 1270 ft. 4- 1465 ft
• 4095 ft (AAR)
Tigtit Roil
L
West Roil
*J645
- End Hardened and Beveled
4075 ft (AAR)
Normal Roil
000
Truck Profile -^
^Public Rood Grossing
Note-- Roil laid tight is ancliored witti cornpression clips as follows-, (a). Field end of oil tie plotes,
except at thie joints, (b). Field end of alternate tie plotes. (c). Gage end of olternote fie plotes.
End zone oncfioroge consists of 8 frock panels witti all lies boxed, except of ttie joints.
Normol rail is onchored witfi 8-8 grip type anctiors boxed per roil.
Fig. I. Roil Creepoge, Jonuory 8, 1958. L & N RR, near Chapel Hill, Tenn.
100
90
80
c 70
O)
o
a>
Q. 60
c
a 50
o
o
o
1 30
o
S 20
Tight Rail
Roil Temp. 12* Avg. Joint Gap 0.001'
211 Joints
Avg. Gop tor 16 Open Joints 0.014"
All open joints were in the east roll.
Normol Roil
Roil Temp 12° Avg. Joint Gap 0.170'
210 Joints
n n
'I- a> V a> ■*
^^'^a^r^~^r^~ar~Q'^~o\^^ar^~^~^<^ 2: 2 ."J S5
OJ CM rO rO
^ lO in O O O
— lO o m
't <f
O O
CO
CO
to
rO
1-
o
in
CO
O
fO
O
1-
Joint Gap in 0.01 in.
Fig
2. Joint Gop Measurements for Tight and Normal Rail, Jonuory 8,1958,
LBN RR, near Chopel Hill, Tenn.
Track
84?
2
I '
0
5 I
:d
o ,
1/5 I'/,
Nashville (N.B.)
132 RL Roil
(S.B) Biraiinghom — ^ ^j
East Rail
::i-^ L- — ^
r^--s^
\'
West Roll
Not End Hordened or beveled -
(c)
1465ft
4095 ft (AAR)
(0) I (b) I
— 1830 ft. — 4- 1270 ft. ^
Tigtit Roil
-J 645
End Hordened ond Beveled
4075 ft (AAR)
Normal Roil
0 00
Trock Profile -^
-Public Rood Crossing
Note- Roil laid tight is onchored with compression clips as follows . (o) Field end of all tie plates,
except at the joints, (b). Field end of alternate tie plates, (c) Goge end of olternate tie plates
End zone onchoroge consists of 8 track panels with oil ties boxed, except of the joints.
Normal roil is anchored with 8-8 grip type anchors boxed per rail.
Fig. 3. Roil Greepage, August 6, 1958, LSiN RR, near Chapel Hill, Tenn.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Tight Roil
Roil Temp. 125° Avg Joint Gop 0.001"
211 Joints
Avg Cop for 5 Open Joints 0055"
No. of Open Joints
3 I I
Normol Roil
Roil Temp 128° Avg. Joint Gap 0.084"
210 Joints
mm
ilL
CD ^ 01 'J
o o
— in o T)
o o - -
01 <j 01 ^ m ^ CD o ^ ai <a^ a> ^ oi ^r gj 22 '^ <5
CM CJ rO rO
_ in o lo o
O O - - CM
o >n
Joint Gap in 0.01 in.
Fig. 4. Joint Gap Measurements for Tight ond Normol Roil, August 6,1958,
LSN RR, neor Qhopel Hill, Tenn,
848
Track
CSJ
/
i
E
o
CP
c
£
CVJ
L
/
'
CD
1;
s
CO
c.
c
<
/
T3
C
Hi
\
/>
O
5
a.
r ^
^^
cr
<<
^O
V
^
„_
/
^
o
#* o'
E
/.
tr^
e
{(
t-
If
Z
\\
<u
r
I ?
o
1
1
,-
L
Q
r
in
lO
"
\
CO
^ 1
iD 1 T
CO
in
1
3
<
^ 1
3
<
CJ
1
11
OQ
'
in
o
o
J
•uj ui uo!jDAa|3
Track
849
Initiol Gop Reodinqs- September 17,1957
IMor^h Ro<l
Tigh* Rod LOid June -July 1957
South Roil
100-
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Avq. RQii Temp. 104°
Avq Joirtt Gap 0.02"
132 Joints (Laid Qt 97° roi) temp.)
Avg. Gap for 34 Open Joints 0.10"
No. of Open Joints
^ A
12 5 7 7 3
nn n
A v^. Re 1 1 Temp. I04°
Avg. Join! Gop O.Ol"
134 >,oints (Loid ot 80° roil temp.)
n Avg. Gap for 26 Open Joints 0.05"
No. of Open Joints
A
16 5 3 2
H^
North Roil
Normol Roi! Loid April 1957
South Roil
100
- 90
«>
n
3 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Avq. PgiI Temp. 100°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.04"
135 Joints (Loid ot 70° roil temp.
n n
Avg. Roil Temp. I00°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.06"
135 Joints (Laid ot 70° roil temp.)
il
n n
o •*
o o
o^ f <n
o - —
~ inOir>Oir»OinOin
O O— — C>JCVirOrO«T^
OOO — — (MCMfOrO
O in O in
<\l 00 rO rO
'J- (Ti
to m
O in
m in
Joint Gop in 0 01 m.
Fic. 6. Joint Gop Measurement.'^, m Tight and Normol Roil,
Erie RR, neor Crown Point, Ind.
850
Track
Crown Point
Track Profile
rr== Over Heed Bridge
Eost Bound
O'lS'Cv
Traffic
Note; Roil loid tight is onchored with 19 compression clips per roil. Normal rail is
onchored with 8-2 grip type onchors per roil. All rail is end hardened and beveled.
Fig. 7. Roil Creepoge, December II, 1957, Erie RR, near Crown Point. Ind.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Tight Roil
Roil Temp. 4" Avg, Joint 6op 0.10"
266 Joints
Avg. Gop for 167 Open Joints 0.16"
No. of Open Joints
, ^ ,
28 29 25 20 32 21 8 I 3
nnllRn,
Normol Roil
Roil Temp. 15° Avg. Joint Gap 0.21'
270 Joints
nJl
Rr
j3 a i_i_
O ^ 0> ^ „,
O O O — — CJ
O O ^ fl
■*
fo
ro
in
in
O TT
o o
O
<
<J>
CJ
CJ
^
7
ro
in
CJ
o
in
ro
O
in
O
in
in
in
o
in
O
o
o
o
CVi
in
CJ
o
ro
in
ro
^ V i^ in
o «>) o in
N ^ m m
Joint Gap in O.Ol in.
Fig. 8. Joint Gop Measurements for Tight ond Normol Roil, December 11,1957,
Erie RR, near Crown Point, Ind.
Track
851
Winter December II, 1957
North Rail
Tight Rail Loid June -July 1957
South Poll
100-
90-
80
70-
60
50
40
30
c
a>
S 20
e 10
M
a.
o
0 0
c
^ 100-
o
^ 90-
5
1 80-
70-
60-
50
40-
30-
20
10 -
0
Avg. Rail Terrip. 4°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.11"
132 Joints (Laid Qt 97° roil temp. J
Avg. Gap for 87 Open Joints 0.16"
No. of Open Joints
A
13 15 II 12 18 13 3
no
Avg. Ruil Tfcrr.p. 4°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.09"
134 Joints (Laid ot 80° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 80 Open Joints 0.15"
No. of Open Joints
A
15 14 14 8 14 8 5 I I
1
nlinn
North Roil
Normal Roil Laid April 1957
South Rail
Avg. Roil Temp. 15°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.18"
135 Joints (Laid of 70° roil temp.
H
M
IL^
Avg. Roil Temp. 15°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.24"
135 Joints (Laid at 70° roil temp.)
o •♦
o o
Jl
fllL^
a> ^
m O in
oj po n
m
'J-
to
CD
ro
^
^
<J>
1-
>n
in
O
in
o
fO
o
in
O
m
m
•n
Joint Gap m 0 01 m
Fiq.9. Joint Gap Meosurementr. in Tight and Normol Roil,
Fne RR, nenr ( rcwn Point, Ind.
852
Track
2
^ 1
0 I
0
1 '
1'/,
Chicogo
[MP237
I
■5304 ft (AAR)
Normal Roil
=--- Over Head Bridge
115 RE Roil
Eost Bound
Crown Point
|mP235|
Norfti Rail
;^
5226 ft (AAR) -
Tigtit Rail
O^IS^Cv,
y
Traffic
Note: Rail loid tight is anchored with 19 compression clips per rail. Normal rail is
onchored with 8-2 grip type anchors per roil. All roil is end hordened and beveled.
Fig. 10. Rail Creepage, September 22, l958iErie RR, near Crov»n Point, Ind.
100
90
80
c 70
«>
o
01
Q- 60
c
S 50
o
o
-a ^0
o
->
^ 30
o
1 20
E
2 10
Tight Rail
Roil Temp. 114° Avg. Joint Gop 0.02"
266 Joints
Avg. Gap for 63 Open Joints 0.07"
No. of Open Joints
. A .
22 20 13 5 3
M
ji
Normal Roil
Rail Temp. Ill" Avg. Joint Gap 0.04"
270 Joints
n nn r. ■■■
O *
O O
<j> 't (T) ^ 0»
— CJ C\J rO to
I I I I
O U1 O i«
Oo2_CMWroto
O _
O O
S 1
— cMCJiorof'Tinio
oo_iGcMCMtoio'4-
Joint Gop in 0.01 in.
Fig. II. Joint Gap Measurements for Tight and Normol Roil, September 22,1958,
Erie RR, near Crown Point, Ind.
Track
853
Summer September 22, 1958
North Roil
Tight Roil Laid June-July 1957
South Roil
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
c
w
y 20-
v
Ol
£ 10-
v>
a.
o
0 0 ■
c
J? 100-
"o
- do-
E
1 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Av'j. Roil Ten. p. 114°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.02"
132 Joints (Laid Qt 97° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 37 Open Joints 0.08"
No. of Open Joints
A
12 10 9 5
a
Avg. Roil Temp. 114°
Avg. Joint Gop OOl"
154 Joints (Laid at 80° roil temp.)
P-,Avg. Gap for 26 Open Joints 0.06"
No. of Open Joints
. A .
10 10 4 2
Mi
North Roil
Normal Roil Laid April 1957
South Rail
Avg. Roil Temp. 111°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.02"
135 Joints (Loid at 70° roil temp.)
n .. ^
Avg. Roil Temp. |||°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.05"
135 Joints (Laid ot 70° rail temp.)
o -r
o o
S — —
'T o^ ^ <ri
CM CNJ (O ro
O lO O in
CM <M rO ro
ill^
^ <T> t <J\
^ T IT) in
O in o m —
'T ^ in in O
Joint Gap in 0 01 in.
(Ti ^
- (\J
CO
in
in
n O
- CJ
in
CO
O
in
o
1-
o
in
m
F15. 12. Joint Gap Measurements in Tight and Normal Hail
Erie RR, neor Crown Point, Ind.
854
Track
'U| u| uo!(OA»i3
Track
855
Fig. 14 — B&LE typical tight joint in north one-half mile.
End-hardened beveled-end rail.
Fig. 15 — B&LE typical tight joint in south one-half mile. Plain-end rail
not hardened or beveled.
856
Track
Initial Gop Readings- November 21,1957
100-
90-
80-
70-
6C
50-
40-
30
c
i 20-
Q.
a.
o
0 0 ■
c
^ 100-
"o
^ 90
a>
e
1 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Eost Rail
North 1/2 Mile
End Hardened and Beveled Laid Oct. 1957
West Rail-
Avg. Rail Temp. 41°
Avg Joint Gop 0.059"
69 Joints (Loid ot 74° rail temp.)
Avg. Gap for 55 Open Joints 0.074"
No. of Open Joints
23 17 9 3 2
JUL
Avg. Roil Temp. 41°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.042"
69 Joints (Laid at 60° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 54 Open Joints 0.054"
No. of Open Joints
. A .
28 21 2 2 I
n n
Eost Roil
Soutti 1/2 Mile
Plain End Laid Oct. 1957
West Roil
Avg. Roil Temp. 41°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.034"
67 Joints (Laid ot 77° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 40 Open Joints 0.057"
No. of Open Joints
, A ,
23 10 4 2 I
Avg. Rail Temp. 41°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.042"
67 Joints (Laid at 61° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 45 Open Joints 0.063"
No. of Open Joints
14 25 6
o ■*
o o
55 1" (r>
t <n ^ O)
PJ CM fO ro
^r <7> ^ CT>
t ^ m m
O ^
o o o
at V <Tt "* (Ti t at ^ (n
— (vjcjiom ■^ f tn tn
•V ^ tn \n o
Joint Gap in 0.01 in.
o lo
Fig. 16. Joint Gap Meosurements in End Hardened and Beveled Roil
and Ploin End Rail - Not Hardened or Beveled,
B a LE RR, near Groi/e City, Po.
Track
85 7
— -3
6 o I
North Bessemer
140 RE Rail
Greenville
|nB66I
"1
Ploin End-NofHordened or Beveled
*- 2652 ft. *
Tight Roil
0.0
7"
TracK Profile — ^
OverHeod Bridge
West Roil
Eost Roil
End Hordened ond Beveled
2640 ft
Tight Roil
I'cv. ;i I^SO'cv.
S Two Woy Troffic N -^
PS Filer Siding
T
Note Plain end roil -not hardened or beveled, is onchored with compression clips on
every tie, olternotely on goge and field side except at joints. End hardened
and beveled roil is anchored v»ith Fair anchors both roils, boxed every tie except
ot joints.
Fig. 17 Roil Creepage, Februory 10, 1958, BSLE RR, near Grove City, Pa.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
lOl-
Plom End -Not Hordened or Beveled
Roil Temp. 3° Avg, Joint Gop 0.051"
134 Joints (Loid ot 69° rail temp.)
Avg. Gop for 104 Open Joints 0.066"
No. of Open Joints
A
47 38 12 2 I 3
H
End Hardened ond Beveled
Roil Temp. 2° Avg. Joint Gop 0075"
138 Joints (Loid at 67° roil temp.)
Avg. Gop for 127 Open Joints 0.081°
No. of Open Joints
A
49 51 12 2 4 3
4 I
Jl
ji n ■ jn_^
OO — — cJCJrofO'tTi^
— ino.loinotnOino
Joint Gop in 0 01 in
Fig. 18. Joint Gap Meosuremf^ntc for Plain End Roil- Not Hordtined or Beveled ond
End Hardened and Eieveled Roil, Februory 10, 1958,
BBLE RR noor G^ovp City, Pn.
858
Track
Winter February 10,1958
100
90
80
70
6C
50
40
30
20
Eost Rail
North 1/2 Mile
End Hordened and Beveled Laid Oct. 1957
West Roil
Avq. Roil T^mp. 2°
Av9 Joint Go p 0.076"
69 Joints (Loid ot 74° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 62 Open Joints 0.084"
No. of Open Joints
A
25 20 9 I 3 I
2 I
Avg. Rail Temp. 2°
Av-j. Joint Gap 0.074"
69 Joints (Laid ot 60° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 65 Open Joints 0.079"
No. of Open Joints
A
24 31 3 I I 2
n a
100-
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
East Roil
South 1/2 Mile
Plain End Laid Oct. 1957
West Roil
Avg. HlII Terr.p. 3°
Avg. Joint Gcp 0.051*
67 Joints (LOfC ot 77" roil temp.)
Avg. Gop for 53 Open Joints 0.064"
No. of Open Joints
. A _
30 1 1 8 I I 2
Avg. Rail Terr.p. 3°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.051"
67 Joints (Laid at 61° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 51 Open Joints 0.067'
No. of Open Joints
A
17 27 4 I
(^ ^ (J) '^ <T>^ai'<J'
O — — O'lCNjrOro^
in O iT)
OJ rO ro
O If)
tn ID
o in
>r) If)
v'cri^(Tt^<T>rfcn\T<n^ci
o o
— C0C\JrOro**«nin
— mOvnOinOui
OO — — cMrJrom
O in
m in
Joint Gap in 0.01 in.
Fiq. 19. Joint Gap Measurements in End Hordened oni Beveled Roll
and Plain End Roil - Not Hordened or Beveled,
SSLE RR, near Grove City, Ro.
Track
8SQ
2
J''
i|'
- •>fe
S^ 0
O £
— 3
O O
North Bessemer
140 RE Roil
Greenville
(nB66I
1
/
East Roil
^West Roil
Plain End-Not Hardened orBeveled
' 2652 ft. *
Tight Roil
0.0
Trock Profile
37"
OverHeod Bridge
I cv.
End Hordened ond Beveled
2640 ft.
Tigtit Roil
I 30cv.
— -S Two Woy Troffic N -^
PS Filer S
iding-^
Note Plain end rail -not hordened or beveled, is anchored with compression clips on
every tie, olternotely on gage ond field side except ot joints. End hordened
ond beveled roil is anchored with Fair anchors both roils, boxed every tie except
ot joints.
Fig. 20. Roil Creepoge, August II, 1958, BSLE RR, near Grove City. Po,
100
90
80
c 70-
0)
u
a>
Q- 60
c
S 50
o
o
- 40
c
o
->
^ 30
o
E
2 10
Ploin End-Not Hordened orBeveled
PI Roil Temp. 113° Avg, Joint Gop 0003'
134 Joints (Laid at 69" roil temp.)
Avg. Gop for 13 Open Joints 0036"
No. of Open Joints
10 3
End Hardened and Beveled
Roil Temp. 115° Avg. Joint Gop 0.009'
138 Joints (Loid at 67° roil temp.)
Avg Gap for 31 Open Joints 0.039"
<J^ T <T> "^
O — — CJ
^ <T) Tj- en
^ «r IT) in
No. of Open Joints
, A ,
25 4 II
_n , , ^
OO— —PJCdrorO'^'^
->i u. ''■ (J^ ^ ai '^ <Ti ^ <n
oo__wcvjforo'r'^inin
Joint Gap in 0.01 in.
Fig. 21. Joint Gap Meosuremento for Plain End Roil - Not Hordened or Beveled and
End Hardened and Beveled Roil, August II, 1958
BSLE RR neorGrovP City, Pa.
860
Track
Summer Augus) II, 1958
100-
SO-
SO
70
6C
50
40
30
c
y 20
Eost Rail
North 1/2 Mile
End Hardened and Beveled Laid Oct. 1957
West Roil
Avg. Rail Temp. 115°
Avg Joint Gap 0.012"
69 Joints (Loid ot 74° rail temp.)
Avg. Gop for 23 Open Joints 0.036"
No. of Open Joints
^ /^ ^
18 4 I
Avg. Rail Temp. ||5°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.005"
69 Joints (Laid at 60° roil temp.)
Avg. Gap for 8 Open Joints 0.045"
No. of Open Joints
7~
% 100-
"o
V- 90-
«
G
I 80-
70-
60
50
40
30
20-
East Roil
Soutti 1/2 Mile
Ploin End Laid Oct. 1957
West Roil
Avg. Rcil Temp. 113°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.003"
67 Joints (Laid at 77° rail temp.)
Avg. Gap for 7 Open Joints 0.030"
No. of Open Joints
JL
Avg. Rail Temp. 113°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.004"
67 Joints (Laid at 61° rail temp.)
Avg. Gap for 6 Open Joints 0.042"
No. of Open Joints
4 2
o ^
o o
'T <j> <tr cn t
CM (\j rO ro "jT
6
O in
m in
^ <Ti ^ <T>
o o - -
::: !i? O in
O O -
'J-
in
O
in
O
in
to
o
m
O
vn
18
Joint Gap in 001 in.
Fig. 22. Joint Gop Measurements in End Hardened ond Beveled Rail
and Plain End Rail - Not Hardened or Beveled,
e a UE RR, near Grpve City, Po,
Track
861
e ^
O TT
1
\
,
£
v
\
k.
\
o
1
2
\
1
5
or
\
1
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11
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Aj
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I
]]
11
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;
M
a>
\ \
CD
la
1
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i
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<u
c
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■o
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r
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1
X
,
"O
1
1
11
c
'
1
lij
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:
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x:
>
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3
£'
3
^
o
LlI
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PO
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s.
3
_ "o _
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(T
£
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6 _
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t J
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£5
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c
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S62 Track
Report on Assignment 10
Methods of Heat Treatment, Including Flame Hardening,
of Bolted Rail Frogs and Split Switches, Together
with Methods of Repair by Welding
S. H. Poore (chairman, subcommittee), M. C. Bitner, W. E. Cornell, F. W. Creedle,
R. M. Frev, W. E. Griffiths, M. J. Hassan, A. E. Haywood, C. C. Herrick, L. H.
Jentoft, C. H. Johnson, T. R. Klingel, R. E. Kuston, L. W. Leitze, E. J. Lisy, Jr.,
H. B. Orr, C. E. Peterson, J. M. Salmon, Jr., R. D. Simpson, T. R. Snodgrass,
J. B. Taylor, R. E. Tew, K. H. Von Kampen, Troy West, D. J. White, I. V. Wiley.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
The wording of the committee's assignment quoted above indicates that bolted rail
frogs and split switches constitute the basic items of track material for study under it.
Up to and including this report, research has been confined to the study of railroad
crossing frog construction. At the meeting of the subcommittee held in July 1958,
it was decided that, in general, the principles involved in the repair of frogs and
switches by welding could be explored through research in crossing panels, and that
the subcommittee should undertake to place the relative importance of bolted rail
frogs, split switches and crossings in their proper perspective. It was the opinion of the
subcommittee that turnout frogs and switches, being of so much greater magnitude
than crossing frogs investment-wise, some survey of this field should be made to deter-
mine the use of heat-treatment and the various methods of repair by welding so that
a proper appraisal could be made of the problem.
To do this, the subcommittee voted to circularize the member railroads of the
Association with an appropriate questionnaire. As of this writing the questionnaire had
not been distributed.
The following is a description of the work on the simulated crossing panels on the
Milwaukee Road at Mannheim, 111., together with research data accumulated since the
last report.
Service Tests of Simulated Crossing Units in the Milwaukee
Railroad at Mannheim, 111.
Foreword
This installation, consisting of 24 test units, is described in the Proceedings, Vol.
56, 1955, page 878. Subsequent reports in Vol. 57, 1956, pages 768 to 774, Vol. 58, 1957,
pages 903 to 950 and Vol. 59, 1958, pages 1076 to 1086, cover results of service test
from April 13, 1954, to May 31, 1957, involving 82 million gross tons of traffic. Fol-
lowing the measurements taken on May 31, 1957, plans for welding were made, and
the welding was performed September 9-11, 1957. A typical panel of bolted rail con-
struction made of the 132 RE section, of which there are three, comprised of eight
units each of simulated crossing flangeway intersections, is shown in Fig. 1.
The investigation is being conducted by the AAR research staff under the general
direction of G. M. Magee, director of engineering research. H. E. Durham, research
engineer track, is in direct charge, assisted by members of his staff.
Maintenance of Units, Including Welding
Following the original installation of the units in April 1954, the first grinding of
the tread corners was done in 1955, with heaviest grinding being necessary on the
Track 863
unhardened units. Subsequent grinding was needed in May 1956 and again in July
1957, at which times the greater flow was on easer rails due to false flanges of tread-
worn wheels. Grinding was also necessary on the gage side of the running rails on
some of the receiving arms and from between the running rail and the easer rail.
Welding of the 24 units carried out on September 9-11, 1957, was not required as a
matter of maintenance, but was done to expedite one of the most important phases
of the assignment. The details of the welding were described in Vol. 59, 1958, pages
1083 to 1086. Table 2 of this report describes the material used and welding procedures
followed.
Following the completion of the welding, the units were ground to restore, as
nearly as possible, the normal rail heights and surface contours. Subsequent grinding
was done out-of-face on November 6, 1957, January 14, 1958, and June 4, 1958, to
prcv^ent chipping due to excessive flow, primarily on the easer rails. Units showing the
greatest need for grinding have been: C-V east and center panels, BS Co. east panel,
RA east panel, P-M east p.^nel and OH center panel. The easer rails have exhibited
more lipping than the running rails as was the case after the units were installed in 1954.
Rail Wear, Batter and Brinell Hardness
Table 1 in four parts shows the results of test measurements in each of the panels,
including reference to the welding procedures shown in Table 2. Inasmuch as a new
test cycle commenced with the welding in September 1957, Table 1 does not include
wear or batter prior to the 1957 dates indicated. The normal rail wear in the period
of approximately one year was similar to that for hke test periods.
The test period September 1957 to June 1958, involving 28 million gross tons
of traffic, is not sufficient to draw any conclusions from the receiving corner batter
shown in the tables. All units are holding up well to date, but the OH CC unit in
the east panel and the C-V unit in the west panel appear, from visual inspection, to be
doing an outstanding job. There has been some chipping of the easer rail of the C-V
unit in the west panel, which may indicate too high Brinell hardness, but to date the
running rail shows no signs of failure.
The Brinell hardness of the normal rail surface changed very slightly in the service
period covered by this report. The values recorded for the flangeway corners appear
rather inconsistent in some instances, but in the brief test period of less than nine
months it would be difficult to make a worthwhile appraisal of the variations.
Another year of service with continued heavy tonnage should permit some evalua-
tion of welding techniques, although it now appears that good results will be obtained
from a majority of the welds.
Acknowledgement
The Association appreciates the cooperation of the Milwaukee Road and the
.suppliers in conducting tbe investigation during the past year.
864
Track
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865
f.\RT 1. SUMMARY OK RAIL HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND BRINELL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE NULWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS
WtSl PANEL
Test period. May 31, 19S7 through June 19, 1958
Brinell Hardness
Rail Head Wear and Batter
Increase |
Avg. Nor-
mal Wear
Designation
Welding
Batter
Only
Before
Welding
F. W.
of Unit
Procedure*
Location
in.
in.
in.
Traffic
9-11-57
6-19-56
Normal
Comer
Flar
ne Hardened Rail
Pettibone
4E
Avg. Both Ends
.006
312
368
56
Mulliken
Rec. Cor.
.029
.023
302
340
38
Corporation
Lv. Cor.
.024
.018
321
351
30
Ramapo Ajax Div.
3E
Avg. Both Ends
.004
360
415
55
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.035
.031
327
321
-6
9ioe Company
Lv. Cor.
.015
.011
337
361
24
Weir-Kilby
3E
Avg. Both Ends
.004
328
384
56
Rec. Cor.
.U4H
. 04 5
382
371
-11
Lv. Cor.
.017
.013
321
335
14
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
3E
A\g. Both Ends
.006
33 E
380
41
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.036
.030
351
335
-16
Company
Lv. Cor.
.019
.013
332
364
32
Bethlehem Steel
4E
.\vg. Both Ends
.006
340
378
38
Company
Rec. Cor.
.036
.030
340
337
-3
Lv. Cor.
.022
.016
311
321
10
United States
4E
Avg. Both Ends
.003
310
367
57
Steel Corporation
Rec. Cor.
.031
.046
332
323
-9
Lv. Cor.
.010
.005
332
321
-11
other Rails
Used Chrome-
7AE
Avg. Both End£
.006
366
374
V
Vanadium Rail
Rec. Cor.
.032
.026
438
444
6
Lv. Cor.
.024
.018
387
366
-21
C. C. Blue End
6E
Avg. Both Ends
.006
256
298
42
Rail as RoUed
Rec. Cor.
.046
.040
266
332
66
Lv. Cor.
.024
.018
252
327
75
* See Table 2 for descirtptlon of the Welding Procedures
866
Track
PART 2. SUMMARY OF RAIL HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND BRINELL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE MILWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS.
CENTER PANEL
Test period, May 31, 1957 through June 19, 1958
Brinell Hardness
Rail Head Wear and Batter
Avg. Nor-
Wear Plus
Batter
Initial
After First
Designation
Welding
mal Wear
Batter
Only
Before
Welding
F. W.
of Unit
Procedure
Location
in.
in.
in.
Traffic
9-11-57
6-19-58
Normal
Comer
Flame Hardened Rail
Pettibone
3E
Avg. Both Ends
.004
312
366
54
MuUiken
Rec. Cor.
.040
.036
302
338
36
Corporation
Lv. Cor
.011
.007
311
337
26
Ramapo Ajax Div.
2G
Avg. Both Ends
.004
338
388
50
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.036
.032
347
338
-9
Shoe Company
Lv. Cor.
.014
.010
364
356
-8
Weir-Kilby
IE
Avg. Both Ends
.006
321
374
53
Rec. Cor.
.055
.049
359
368
9
Lv. Cor.
.015
.009
269
351
82
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
IE
Avg. Both Ends
.004
336
375
39
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.046
.042
293
364
71
Company
Lv. Cor.
.023
.019
217
364
147
Bethlehem Steel
3E
Avg. Both Ends
.006
337
384
47
Company
Rec. Cor.
.045
.039
340
342
2
Lv. Cor.
.015
.009
321
359
38
United States
3E
Avg. Both Ends
.006
338
379
41
Steel Coi-poration
Rec. Cor.
.048
.042
359
377
18
Lv. Cor.
.018
.012
321
361
40
Other Rails
Used Chrome-
2AG
Avg. Both Ends
.004
362
378
16
Vanadium Rail
Rec. Cor.
.044
.040
266
313
47
Lv. Cor.
.010
.006
332
319
-13
C. C. Blue End
2G
Avg. Both Ends
.006
252
291
39
Rail as Rolled
Rec. Cor.
.046
.040
302
315
13
Lv. Cor.
.010
.004
340
364
24
Track
867
PART 3. SUMMAIJY OF RAIL HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND BRINELL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE MLWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS
EAST PANEL
Test period, M:iy 31, 11)57 through Juno 10, 1958
BrinL
11 llardnc
ss
RaU Heai
Wi-ar and liatlcr
ine ..,«.. 1
Avg. Nor-
Wear Plus
Batter
Initial
After First
Designation
Welding
mal Wear
Batter
Only
Before
Welding
I'. W.
of Unit
Procedure
Location
in.
in.
in.
Traffic
9-11-57
0-1U-5S
Normal
Comer
Flanr
e Hardened Rail
Pel ti bone
IC
Avg. Both Ends
.004
290
346
50
Mulliken
Rce. Cor.
.037
.033
302
319
17
Corporation
Lv. Cor.
.010
.000
302
321
19
Ramapo Ajax Div.
10
Avg. Both Ends
.004
344
389
45
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.049
.045
327
338
U
Shoe Company
Lv. Cor.
.011
.007
302
317
15
Weir-Kilby
10
Avg. Both Ends
Rec. Cor.
.004
.001
.057
303
317
303
302
02
-15
Lv. Cor.
.015
.011
321
315
-0
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
20
Avg. Both Ends
.004
329
370
47
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.040
.030
351
332
-19
Company
Lv. Cor.
.013
.009
347
423
76
Bethlehem Steel
10
Avg. Both Ends
.OOG
353
384
31
Company
Rec. Cor.
Lv. Cor.
.042
.012
.036
.006
262
293
306
298
44
United States
20
Avg. Both Ends
.000
304
364
60
Steel Corporation
Rec. Cor.
.035
.029
321
315
-G
Lv. Cor.
.008
.002
387
423
30
Other Rails
Used Chrome-
lAG
Avg. Both Ends
.005
301
378
17
Vanadium Rilil
Rec. Cor.
.048
.043
286
306
20
Lv. Cor.
.010
. 005
259
309
50
C. C. Blue End
IG
Avg. Both Ends
.006
240
294
48
RaU as Rolled
Rec. Cor.
.027
.021
293
284
-9
Lv. Cor.
.012
.000
293
300
7
868
Track
PAi.T 4. SUMMARYOF RAIL HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND BRINELL HARDNESS
READINGS TAKEN ON THE THREE SIMULATED CROSSING INTERSECTION PANELS
IN THE MILWAUKEE ROAD AT MANNHEIM, ILLINOIS
AVG. OF 3 PANELS
Test Period May 31, 1957 through June 19, 1958
Brinell Hardness
1
,
Increase |
Avg. Nor-
Wear Plus
Batter
Initial
After First
Designation
mal Wear
Batter
Only
Before
Welding
F. W.
of Unit
Location
in.
in.
in.
Traffic
9-11-57
6-19-58
Normal
Corner
Flame Hardened Rail
Pettibone
Avg. Both Ends
.005
307
360
53
Mulliken
Rec. Cor.
.035
.030
302
332
30
Corporation
Lv. Cor.
.015 .010
311
336
25
Ramapo Ajax Div.
Avg. Both Ends
.004
347
397
50
American Brake
Rec. Cor.
.040
.036
334
332
-2
Shoe Company
Lv. Cor.
.013
.009
334
345
11
Weir-Kilby
Avg. Both Ends
.005
317
374
57
Rec. Cor.
.055
.050
353
347
-6
Lv. Cor.
.016
.011
304
334
30
Heat Treated Rail
Cleveland Frog
Avg. Both Ends
.003
335
377
42
r
and Crossing
Rec. Cor.
.041
.036
332
344
12
Company
Lv. Cor.
.019
.014
299
384
85
Bethlehem Steel
Avg. Both Ends
.006
343
382
39
Company
Rec. Cor.
.041
.035
314
328
14
Lv. Cor.
.016
.010
308
326
18
United States Steel
Avg. Both Ends
.006
317
370
53
Corporation
Rec. Cor.
.045
.039
337
338
1
Lv. Cor.
.012
.006
347
368
21
Other Rails
Used Chrome-
Avg. Both Ends
.005
363
.377
14
Vanadium Rail
Rec. Cor.
.041
.036
330
354
24
Lv. Cor.
.015
.010
326
331
5
C. C. Blue End
Avg. Both Ends
.006
251
294
43
Rail as Rolled
Rec. Cor.
.040
.034
287
310
23
Lv. Cor.
.015
.009
295
330
35
Notes: All rail height measurements and Brinell readings were taken on the longitudinal center line of the running rail.
The data taken 10 in. from both ends of each unit were used for determining the normal head wear and work hardening
of the running rail. Rail head wear and batter of the tread corners were based on the readings taken 3/4 in. from the
adjacent side of each flangeway. Values of batter of the tread corners cover the period from September 11, 1957 through
June 19, 1958 for a gross tonnage of 28 million. Total tonnage tor the 4. 2 year service period Is 119 million. See Table
2 for description of the welding procedures. See Vol. 59, 1958, pages 1079-1082 for the test period prior to the first
welding.
Track
869
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870 Track
Report on Assignment 11
Economies to be Gained by the Railroads From the More
Extensive Use o£ AREA Trackwork Plans
W. R. Bjorklund (chairman, subcommittee), W. E. Cornell, Troy West, J. E. Arm-
strong, Jr., R. D. Baldwin, M. C. Bitner, R. J. Bruce, K. E. Dunn, C. R. Fears,
J. W. Fulmer, A. B. Hillman, C. H. Johnson, R. J. D. Kelly, J. S. Parsons, G. R.
Sproles, M. J. Zeeman.
Your committee submits the following final report, presented as information.
Economies are the primary purpose for adopting standards; their development
stems from the need for simpler and cheaper methods for performing an operation.
The standard will be accepted if it performs the function well. The development of a
standard depends on the concerted efforts of individuals, thoroughly experienced in the
problem at hand, working as a group. Such a group of men is available in the AREA,
and its recommendations for trackwork plans should be satisfactory for all railroads.
Large-scale production of a standardized item will result in economy. It is obvious
that volume production of a particular item will result in a lower unit cost compared
with small runs of many different designs only slightly at variance with each other
Retooling costs are saved as well as the expenses of training personnel in handling
the different designs. All branches of the railroads are becoming increasingly more
conscious of the need for standardization in the interest of economy.
The most feasible time for a railroad to adopt a standardized set of trackwork
plans would be with the adoption of a new rail section. Inasmuch as new rail sections
have been adopted periodically by the AREA and the various railroads on this con-
tinent, it behooves each railroad to seriously consider adopting an AREA recommended
section when a new section is desired. Another practical method for standardization
would be to purchase new turnout material in a few basic rail sections, replacing
turnouts complete and using the lighter material released for repair work. The turnout
plans of many railroads are so slightly at variance with current AREA standards that
there would be little difficulty in making a change.
The advantages of standardizing turnout material are as follows:
1. Design
a. Eliminate expense of design plans.
b. Better product due to industry-wide focus
c. Reduce tendency for inconsequential revisions.
d. Require industry approval for revision.
e. Simplify railroads plant inspection.
2. Placing Orders
a. Obtain bids quicker.
b. Keener competition.
3. Manufacturing
a. Mass-production techniques in shops.
b. Stockpile at shops for stable business cycle.
c. Reduce inventory of special plates, etc.
d. Reduce supervision in shops.
e. Save on manufacturer's engineering costs. - ...
f. Reduce manufacturer's labor turnover.
Track 871
4. Inventory
a. Better delivery from manufacturer.
b. Deliveries direct to job when required.
c. Reduce store stock on railroads.
5. Miscellaneous
a. Cost of turnout material will be reduced.
b. Coordinate delivery with track work program
c. Borrow from neighboring railroad.
d. Nation-wide testing ground for materials.
Your committee feels that the greatest economy can be achieved if a set of rec-
ommended plans for the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans can be developed that would
eliminate all alternates which affect the shop work. Alternates should be indicated only
for parts not basic to manufacturer of turnout material.
Report of Committee 4 — Rail
L. S. Crane, Chairman,
W. J. Cruse,
Vice Chairman,
A. P. Talbot, Secretary,
W. D. Almy
E. L. Anderson
S. H. Barlow
G. V. Begany, Jr.
F. W. BiLTZ
T. A. Blair
Blair Blowers
B. Bristow
C. B. Bronson (E)
R. M. Brown
J. A. Bunjer
T. F. Burris
R. E. Catlett
E. E. Chapman (E)
C. J. Code
C. A. COLPITTS
C. O. CONATSER
G. H. Echols
J. K. Gloster
C. E. R. Haight
V. E. Hall
C. J. Henry
W. H. HOBBS
S. R. HURSH
J. C. Jacobs
W. M. Jaekle
K. K. Kessler
N. W. Kopp
C. C. Lathey
R. F. Lawson
W. B. Leaf
H. S. Loeffler
Lee Mayfield
Ray McBrlan
B. R. Meyers
C. E. Morgan
L. T. NucKOLs
Embert Oslanu
W. H. Penfield (E)
G. L. P. Plow
R. B. Rhode
C. R. Rn-EY
J. G. RONEY
E. F. Salisbury
J. K. Shaffer
S. H. Shepley
W. D. Simpson
H. F. Smith
J. S. Wearn
H. F. Whitmore
R. P. WiNTON
Edward Wise, Jr.
J. E. Ye well
W. L. Young
Committee
(E) Member Emeritus.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, including recommended revisions page 874
2. Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint Bars in
research and other matters of mutual interest.
Progress report, including as Appendix 2-a, Report on Investigation of
Failures in Control-Cooled Railroad Rails page 878
3. Rail failure statistics, covering (a) all failures; (b) transverse fissures;
(c) performance of control-cooled rail.
Progress report, including statistics on rail failures reported up to Decem-
ber 31, 1597 (on net ton basis) page 88.^
4. Rail end batter, causes and remedies.
Progress report, presented as information page 90.^
5. Economic value of various sizes of rail.
Progress report, presented as information page Q03
6. Service tests of various types of joint bars.
Progress report, presented as information page 905
873
874 Rail
7. Joint bar \v«ar and failures; revision of design and specification for new
bars, including insulated joints, and bars for maintenance repairs.
Progress report, presented as information page 916
8. Causes of shelly spots and head checks in rail; methods for their prevention.
Progress report, presented as information page 916
Appendix 8-a — Report on service tests of heat-treated and alloy-steel
rails page 919
Appendix 8-b — Final report on service tests of l5S-lb heat-treated rail on
Pennsylvania Railroad page 930
Appendix 8-c — Report on shelly rail studies at University of Illinois . . . page 941
Appendix 8-d — Investigation into significance of the hydrogen level in
rail steel '. page 949
Appendix 8-e — Final report on a three-dimensional photoelastic inves-
tigation of the stress distribution in the head of a model of a railroad rail
along lines parallel to the axis of the rail page 951
9. Recent developments affecting rail section.
Progress report, presented as information page 970
10. Service performance and economics of 78-ft rail, collaborating with Com-
mittee 5 ; specifications for 78-ft rail.
Progress report, presented as information page 972
11. Rail damage resulting from engine burns; prevalence; means of preven-
tion; repair by welding.
Brief progress report, presented as information page 975
The Committee on Rail,
L. S. Crane, Chairman.
AREA Bulletin 549, February 1959.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
W J. Cruse (chairman, subcommittee), L. S. Crane, V. E. Hall, W. H. Hobbs, H. S.
Loeffler, Ray McBrian, G. L. P. Plow, R. B. Rhode, S. R. Shepley, J. S. Wearn,
H. F. Whitmore, Edward Wise, Jr.
Your committee submits the following revisions with the recommendation that
they be adopted and published in the Manual:
Page 4-1-13
Fig. 8 — Recommended Head Easement for Joint Bars.
Delete, substituting new drawing presented herewith.
Rail
875
Max Easement
f Tolerance for 4_ of Bar IS g )'
PART SECTION PART ELEVATION
NOTES
I- 'D'.si mm for Roil Sections 1191b and less;
and gi rnin for Rail Sections over 119 lb.
2 - Maximum displacement at "A" and "B" is j| .
J. - Deformation due to flow of material at points
'C" may be m addition to easement width
Mat Easement
(Tolerance for ^ of Bar is j )
PART SECTION PART ELEVATION
NOTES
/- "D", j2 """ ''<"' °i^ ^oil Sections
2- Maximum displacement at "A" is g
3 - Some deformation due to flow of material can
be expected at points "B" and "C". Deformation
at "C " may be in addition to easement width
PART PLAN
HEAD FREE JOINT BAR HEAD CONTACT JOINT BAR
Fig. 8 — Recommended head easement for joint bars.
Pages 4-3-1 to 4-3-14, incl.
RAIL RECORD FORMS
Page 4-3-7. Report of Rail Failures in Main Track, Form 402-A. Reapprove with
the following revisions:
Add in the upper right hand corner the following in a "box":
Div
Dist
Section
Location: M.P Plus Ft.
Nearest Station
Signal Number
Add the following note to the left of the above "box":
Block out on copy accompanying
accident report to ICC
Under the foregoing note, add a space, underlined, followtd bv the word "Rail-
road."
Eliminate the following words on first line of present form: Div., Dist., Section.
Eliminate present questions 3 and 4.
876 Rail
Revise numbers of questions 5 through 11, as follows:
5
to
read
3
6
"
4
7
5
8
"
6
Q
"
7
10
"
8
11
9
Eliminate present question 12.
Revise numbers of questions 13 through 22, as follows:
13 to
read 10
14 "
" 11
15 "
" 12
16 "
" 13
17 "
" 14
17a"
" 15
18 "
" 16
19 "
" 17
20 "
" 18
21 "
" 19
22 "
" 20
Revise question 23 to read 21 and add to (a) the words: "and whether break or
defect is over or between ties."
Under Instructions, add to "B": "also secondary or running tracks, the use of
which is controlled by operator or dispatcher".
Eliminate present instruction "C" and reletter the succeeding instructions as fol-
lows: Change present instructions "D" to "C", "E" to "D" and add instruction "E",
as follows: "Under question 17 report any welding or heating at or near point of
failure; whether shop butt weld, field butt weld, field end hardening, field building up
of rail end, building up of driver burn, or other field weld. State which."
On the back side of Form 402-A, delete the definition of Detail Fracture, including
paragraphs (1) and (2), and substitute the following:
Detail Fracture. — A progressive fracture originating at or near the surface of
the rail head. These fractures should not be confused with transverse fissures,
compound fissures, or other defects which have internal origins. Detail frac-
tures may arise from shelly spots, head checks or flaking.
Add definitions for shelly spots, head checks, and flaking, as follows:
Shelly Spots. — ^Where a thin (usually 5^-in. in depth or less) shell-like piece
of surface metal becomes separated from the parent metal in the rail head,
generally at the gage corner. See Fig. 7. It may be evidenced by:
(a) A black spot appearing on the rail head over the zone of separation.
(b) A piece of metal breaking out completely, leaving a shallow cavity in the
rail head.
In the case of a small shell there may be no surface evidence, the existence of
the shell being apparent only after the rail is broken or sectioned.
Head Checks. — ^Hair-line cracks which appear in the gage corner of the rail
Rail 877
head, at any angle with the length of the rail. When not readily visible the
presence of the check may often be detected by the raspy feeling of their
sharp edges. See Fig. 8.
Fl.aking. — Where small shallow flakes of surface metal, generally not more than
%. in. in length or width, break out of the gage corner of the rail head.
Page 4-3-12. .\nnual Report of Progressive Type Head Failures in Rail of All
Ages, Made by All Processes, Form 402-L. Reapprove this form with the following
revisions: Delete the first line under Detected Failures, which reads: "Transverse Fis-
sures verified by breaking", and change the next line to read: "All Transverse Defects,
including Transverse Fissures, Compound Fissures, and Detail Fractures."
Report on Assignment 2
Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint
Bars in Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest
L. S. Crane (chairman, subcommittee), G. V. Begany, Jr., J. A. Bunjer, C. J. Code,
C. A. Colpitts, W. J. Cruse, W. H. Hobbs, J. C. Jacobs, W. M. Jaekle, K. K.
Kessler, Ray McBrian. B. R. Meyers, L. T. Nuckols, Embert Osland, R. P. Winton.
This committee sponsors studies conducted at the University of Illinois under the
direction of Professor R. E. Cramer, who, under Appendix 2-a following, presents his
annual report on investigation of failures in control-cooled rails.
Research work on shelly rail studies, hydrogen content of rail steel, and photo -
elastic stress studies is presented as a part of the report on Assignment 8.
In cooperation with the manufacturers, an improved nomenclature to describe
various types of rail failures has been developed and will be progressed as a part of
Assignment 1.
Other items are now under study, including the use of radio-isotopes to investigate
"shelly spots" in rail steel, chamfering and peening of bolt holes, and standardization
of rail sections.
878
Rail
Appendix 2-a
Investigation of Failures in Control-Cooled Rails
By R. E. Cramer
Research Associate Professor of Engineering Materials, University of Illinois
Organization and Acknowledgement
This investigation is iinanced equally by the Association of American Railroads
and the American Iron and Steel Institute. Student assistants Robert B. Hoguc and
Ray A. Dahman worked on this investigation on a part-time basis.
Control-Cooled Rails Which Failed in Service
Since the last report on October 1, 1957, reports have been prepared on 25 failed
control-cooled rails. These reports go to the railroad engineers supplying the failed
rails and copies go to the rail manufacturer and the director of engineering research,
AAR, for the Association's rail failure statistics.
Table 1 gives a summary of the 25 failures and Table 2 lists each rail separately.
Table 1 — Summary of Failed Control-Cooled Ralls
Transverse fissures from shatter cracks 2
Transverse fissures from hot torn steel 6
Transverse fissure from slag inclusion
Engine burn fracture
Base break at seam
Detail fracture from shelling
Fractured base
Bolt hole break
Fracture at welded engine burn
Vertical split head
Shelling only
Total 25
Transverse Fissures from Shatter Cracks
Only two transverse fissures from shatter cracks were found. These were in rails
from the Algoma Mill and were both rolled before its containers were supplied with
tight-fitting lids late in 1950.
Transverse Fissures from Hot Torn Steel
Five of the transverse fissures from hot torn steel were from the Steelton Mill,
rolled in 1950, 1951, and 1952. The sixth was from the Lackawanna Mill rolled in 1950.
Fig. 1 shows fissures and etched slices from failed rails Nos. 973 and 976 which contain
numerous holes in the steel. Slice b from rail 973 also shows two other transverse fissures
in this rail head.
Transverse Fissure from Inclusion
Failed rail No. 979 is shown in Fig. 2. Part a is a photograph of the 30 percent
transverse fissure with a round inclusion as a nucleus. A specimen was cut for metal-
lographic examination and ground down to this nucleus as shown at 6X magnifica-
tion in Fig. 2b. The large nucleus is at the left end of the specimen. Directly in line
with this nucleus is another smaller inclusion. It is shown at 35 X magnification in
Fig. 2c. These inclusions appeared to be a glassy material like the slag produced in
Rail
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are rail 973, c and d, rail 975.
open-hearth steelmaking. It should be noted that even with this rather large inclusion
in the steel it took 14 years for the transverse fissure to develop.
Vertical Split Head from Rolling Defect
An etched cross section of rail 984 is shown in Fig. 3. This failure is a vertical
split head developed from a rolling defect sometimes called a fishtail. This defect is
near the bottom end of the bottom rail from the ingot. The rolling defect occurs at
this location when most ingots are rolled, but ordinarily the rails are cropped back
far enough to eliminate the lapped or fishtail condition. In this case it was not all
Rail
881
^.tl^iiii
Fig. 2 — Transverse fissure from inclusion. Failed rail No. 979.
a. Fissure showing round inclusion as nucleus.
b. Nucleus at left end and other inclusion at right end of micro
specimen. Magnification 6X, oblique illumination.
c. Inclusion at right end at 35X magnification.
cropped off the rail end, and the lapped condition in the rail head opened up after
about 9 years in service, resulting in a vertical split head failure.
Other Types of Rail Failures
Table 1 lists one failure each from engine burn fracture, base break at rolling
seam, bolt hole break, shelling only, fractured base, and two fractures at welded engine
burns. All of these are typical of their type except No. 980, classified as fractured base.
This fracture was a sudden rupture starting at the top of one edge of the base and
progressing about half way across the base. It was found before the rail was laid in
882
Rail
Fig. 3 — Vertical split head from rolling defect.
Rail No. 984. Lightly etched with acid.
track and is thought to have been the result of the rail having been dropped, as the
fracture was at almost the mid-length of the rail. It was not possible to determine
any details of how the base was fractured.
Summary
1. Twenty-five failed control-cooled rails were examined and reported.
2. Only two failures were transverse fissures from shatter cracks and were in
Algoma rails rolled before 19S1.
3. Six failures were from hot torn steel.
4. One failure, shown in Fig. 2, was a transverse fissure from an inclusion.
5. A vertical split head, shown in Fig. 3, developed from a rolling defect in the
bottom rail from an ingot.
6. There were only one or two each of several other common types of rail failures.
Rail
Report on Assignment 3
Rail Failures Statistics, Covering (a) all Failures; (b) Transverse
Fissures; (c) Performance of Control-Cooled Rail
C. J. Code (chairman, subcommittee), S. H. Barlow, G. V. Begany, Jr., F. W. Biltz,
B. Bristow, C. A. Conatser, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, J. K. Gloster, W. H. Hobbs,
N. W. Kopp, R. F. Lawson, C. E. Morgan, L. T. Nuckols, Embcrt Osland, G. L. P.
Plow, J. G. Roney, S. H. Shepley, H. F. Smith, H. F. Whitmore.
These statistics are based on the rail failures reported to December 31, 1957, and
are submitted as information. They include the service and detected failures reported
by 62 railroads on all of their main-track railway mileage, which constitutes the major
part of the main track in the United States and Canada. This report was prepared
by Kurt Kannowski, metallurgical engineer of the Association of American Railroads,
Engineering Division research staff, under the direction of G. M. Magee, director of
engineering research.
The accompanying tables and diagrams indicate the extent of the control of the
transverse fissure problem that. has been obtained by the use of control-cooled rail
and detector car testing, to give data on the quality of each year's rollings for the
various mills, and to show the types of failures that are occurring on the various rail-
roads as related to the mill producing the rail.
Transverse Fissure Failures
Fig. 1 shows in line "A" the number of service transverse fissure failures that have
occurred and have been reported by all 62 reporting roads from 1919 to 1957, incl.
It is gratifying to note that the number of these service transverse fissures have again
decreased in 1957 following the slight upturn in 1956 and continuing the trend of decline
of these types of failures started in 1943. With the increasing amount of control-cooled
rail and the continued use of detector car testing, the level of service transverse fissure
failure occurrences has been reducd to a point where further improvements are difficult
to effect. However, its importance warrants continued effort towards this goal. The
number of detected transverse defects, indicated by line "B", continued during 1957
at about the same level. The following table shows the number of track miles tested
by detector cars for the past several years, and it will be noted that there has been
no significant change in the amount of detector car testing.
Track Miles
Year No. of Roads Tested by
Tested Reporting Detector Cars
1953 59 212,280
1954 56 201,134
1955 56 186,322
1956 50 196,882
1957 57 212,082
The data on which lines "A" and "B" of Fig. 1 are based are given in Table 1
and in Table 2 similar data are given for 25 roads which break their transverse detected
defects for identification of the type of defect. When this is done it is possible to identify
those detected defects that are transverse fissures, and these are shown by line "D". For
these same reporting roads the number of service transverse fissure failures are indicated
884
Rail
by line "C". It is apparent from line "D" that the increasing tonnage of control-cooled
rail being placed in main line track is having an important effect in the reduction of the
development of transverse fissures.
Mill Performance
The number of failures that develop during the first five years of service are
considered to be a good criterion of the excellence of mill manufacture and quality.
Fig. 2 shows this failure rate from the 1908 rolhngs to the 1952 rollings, and certainly
the decline in this failure rate, which has continued again for this year's reporting,
is a tribute to the manufacturers' efforts. Another criterion of mill quality is reflected
in Fig. 3 showing the rail failure rate by each year's rollings from 1947 to 19S6, incl.,
separately for the different mills. As stated in the report last year, the relatively high
rate of failure for the Algoma 1955 rollings is due to an increase in vertical split head
failures and failures within joint bar limits reported by the Canadian Pacific. It is
interesting to note that the relatively high failure rates for Colorado, Gary and Lacka-
wanna Mills in 1947 will drop out of the picture in next year's report with the elimina-
tion of the 1947 rollings. When this is effected the failure rates for all mills, except
Dominion, for the rollings from 1948 to 1957, incl., will indeed be most favorable,
barring any unforeseen increase in the rate of failures for the 1957 rollings. Fig. 4,
showing the failures per 100 track miles for rolling 1947 to 1956, incl., indicates a very
significant reduction between the 1947 rollings and the 1948 rollings when the new
RE rail sections were introduced and generally used. To fully appreciate the significance
of this decrease, the following comparison is given showing the corresponding failure
rates for the old rail sections for the nine year service period up to 1947.
Failures Per WO Track Miles
Years of
Service
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
Old
New
ections
Sections
0.9
0.4
2.9
1.5
8.6
3.5
19.4
9.2
34.9
13.2
54.8
21.7
90.6
35.8
119.8
36.7
131.5
45.4
It will be noted that there has been approximately a two-thirds reduction in the
number of failures for the year with the new rail sections.
Types of Failures
Table 6 shows the number of failures reported in the last 10 years' rollings, classified
by type of failure and by mill. Comparison with corresponding data reported last year
shows that there has been a substantial reduction in the number of failures of all types,
in the CF and DF classification, and in web failures within joint bar limits. It is also
interesting to compare the failures of each type for all mills, as shown in Table 6,
with the corresponding failure rates for the 1938 to 1947 rollings, incl., and this is given
in the following tabulation:
Rail 885
Accumulated Failures
Type of Failure Old Sections New Sections
TF— verified by University of Illinois 52 40
CF & DF 4609 8468
VSH 1537 789
HSH 1412 640
Other head 1401 2144
Broken 1996 Mi
Web— in joint 890Q 4463
Web— other 3918 757
Base 801 809
All types 24635 18543
Failures per 100 track mile years 9.24 5.70
Comparison of the failure rate for the rollings of theje two 10-year periods, one
before the new rail sections and the other after the new rail sections were introduced,
shows a substantial reduction in vertical split heads, horizontal split heads, broken, and
web failures with the new rail sections. On the other hand, the number of CF and DF
and other head failures were substantial!}' greater in the new rail sections. However,
analysis of the reports shows that the major part of these failures actually occurred
in the old sections in the 1947 rollings before the changeover to the new sections. Also
the total number of individual types of failures is not adjusted for years of service,
and the comparison of failures per 100 track mile years of 5.79 for the new sections
and 9.24 for the old sections shows a ver^ significant reduction in the number of
failures.
Table 7 is of interest in comparing the failures by type, by mills and by individual
railroads. It will be observed that the Canadian Pacific reports a relatively high number
of vertical split heads, other head and base failures. Several roads report a relatively
high number of CF's and DF's and other head types such as the Norfolk & Western,
Southern Pacific, Union Pacific, Chesapeake & Ohio, and Great Northern. On many
roads the number of failures reported are surprisingly small.
Table 8, showing the rail failures in the web within the joint bar limits found
during 1957, shows that there was some increase in the use of defect detecting equip-
ment during the year. For rail rolled in 1937 and after, the failures reported for 1957
compared with those reported in 1956 show a substantial increase in the number of
detected failures with a small decrease in the number of service failures at the bolt hole
and a relatively large decrease in the number of service failures at the bolt hole and
a relatively large decrease in the number of service failures at other than bolt hole
locations.
All failures in control-cooled rail that are thought to be transverse fissures are
sent to the University of Illinois for verification by Professor Cramer as a part of the
cooperative rail failure investigation sponsored jointly by the AAR and the AISI.
Table 9 shows the results to date of the examination of the submitted failures. Of these
transverse fissure failures. 81 percent were from hot torn steel, 4 percent from inclusions
and 15 percent from shatter cracks due to improper control-cooling procedure. Ten
additional transverse fissures were reported this year and only two of these were
transverse fissures from shatter cracks, both occurring on the Canadian Pacific in
.•\lgoraa rollings from 1949 and 1950, respectively.
886
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889
TABLE 3 - TONS OF RAILS AND TRACK MILES OF EACH YEAR'S ROLLINGS 1947
REPORTED BY 58 RAILROADS.
1956 INCL.
Year
Rolled
OH CONTROL COOLED ONLY
TONS
TRACK MILES
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1,533,329
1,407,756
1, 254, 278
1,311,038
1, 229, 261
987, 006
1,207,782
823,831
883, 125
865,017
7, 236. 28
6, 60L31
5,966.41
6,335.78
5,908.58
4,796.63
5,683.69
3,833.60
4,085.60
4,024.40
TOTAL
11,502,423
54,472.28
SERVICE AND DETECTED FAILURES OF ALL TYPES EXCEPT ENGINE BURN FAILURES
ACCUMULATED FROM DATE ROLLED TO DECEMBER 31, 1957 PER 100 AVERAGE
TRACK MILES, CONTROL COOLED RAIL ONLY, IN ALL ROLLINGS, FROM ALL MILLS.
Year
Rolled
YEARS OF SERVICE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1947
0.9
3.1
6.5
13.6
25.5
39.6
62.5
83.4
106.0
127.6
1948
0.7
1.6
3.6
7.5
11.5
19.1
26.4
35.6
45.4
1949
1.7
4.1
7.2
10.0
15.8
21.7
28.8
36.7
1950
3.1
6.0
9.6
14.1
19.6
25.9
35.8
1951
2.0
3.4
5.0
10.4
16.3
21.7
1952
2.0
2.8
4.3
7.9
13.2
1953
0.8
2.0
4.0
9.2
1954
0.5
1.3
3.5
1955
0.7
1.5
1956
0.4
890
Rail
TABLE 5 - TRACK MILES AND 1957 FAILURES. ALL TYPES, IN ROLLINGS 1947 TO 1956, INCL.
OPEN-HEARTH CONTROL-COOLED RAIL ONLY
ROAD
TRACK MILES BY MILL
1957 FAILURES |
ALG
CARN
COLO
DOM
GARY
INLD
LACKA
STLTN
TENN
TOTAL
EBFs EXCL.
EBFs ONLY
AT4SF
2146
1115
268
3529
60
2
ACL
9
547
1090
1646
20
B8iO
681
367
5
105
689
1847
49
26
BiOCT
37
37
2
1
Ban Aroos
3
121
124
11
B&LE
67
67
Bos & Alb
101
101
BS.M
36
20
59
115
6
CP
3780
768
73
4621
755
C. ofGa.
301
301
C«iO(Sys.)
21
68
898
620
235
106
1948
30
4
C&EI
125
19
144
9
C&NW
606
143
174
923
3
CB&Q
1088
878
173
2139
8
CI&L
101
44
145
CMStP&P
1197
358
1555
7
CRISiP
96
842
256
1194
6
2
CCCtStL
-P4E
471
67
5
543
12
1
C&S
379
379
1
8
D&H
206
206
2
1
D&RGW
422
422
25
Erie
449
301
25
95
6
876
1
9
EEC
28
81
259
368
3
5
GTW
195
56
73
324
6
GN
540
767
291
248
1846
91
IC
1233
538
325
2096
11
JCL
157
157
KCS
256
34
12
302
LiiHR
31
31
L&NE
36
36
LV
301
301
LI
0
L&N
48
1278
1326
27
2
Me. Cent.
92
3
95
2
MStP&SSM
295
218
67
580
13
MKT
63
152
34
249
MP Lines
1179
664
172
219
2234
3
NC&StL
4
420
424
NYC-E
34
867
901
262
4
NYC-W
464
33
497
43
NYC&StL
100
417
79
206
802
180
NYNHtH
86
248
334
26
4
NtW
801
252
1053
313
23
NP
496
382
105
175
1158
25
2
PRR
733
227
62
970
1992
31
6
P&LE
142
142
3
2
Heading
475
475
RFtP
180
180
Rutland
0
St.L-SF
22
820
842
SAL
3
730
661
1394
4
1
SP
2906
2906
526
49
Southern
16
15
581
1311
1923
25
1
T&NO
654
124
778
19
T&P
289
158
447
UP
2218
889
128
3235
1389
5
Va.
92
147
239
14
1
W. Md.
150
236
386
10
TOTAL
3801
3448
12476
768
12944
3802
2837
5861
6978
52915
4033
159
NOTE: The following railroad did not report in 1958 and \
nitted from this table: DLSiW
Rail
891
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o
H
J
u
a
H
a
w
■rj
■fi
U
z
z
w
J H W
<
o
u
D
O
►4
H
< %
^°%
2 3
Zh - «
> X w
X X 5;
CO CO n
> X w
.2 " ?;
U O OJ
H O Q
892
Rail
TABLE 7 - ACCUMULATED FAILURES OF ALL TYPES FOR OH CONTROL COOLED RAIL, ONLY IN
ROLLING 1947 - 1956, INCL. , ACCUMULATED TO DECEMBER 31, 1957 SERVICE AND DETECTED,
SEGREGATED BY ROADS AND MILLS.
ROADS
TF
Ver
CF
&
VSH
HSH
Other
Broken
Web
Base
FAILURES TOTALS |
EBFs Excl.
EBFs Only |
In.
Accum.
Accum.
U of I
DF
Head
Jt.
Other
Total
1957
Total
1957
ALGOMA
CP
12
18
336
8
279
83
683
34
646
2099
491
0
0
TOTAL
12
18
336
8
279
83
683
34
646
2099
491
0
0
CARNEGIE
B&O
0
15
6
3
5
2
37
10
2
80
15
14
1
B&LE
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
B&M
1
3
0
0
9
3
0
0
0
16
1
0
0
C&O (Sys.)
0
12
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
29
5
4
0
Erie
0
1
0
2
0
1
3
0
0
7
1
7
4
NYC&StL
0
5
0
5
9
13
140
2
0
174
19
0
0
NYNH&H
0
4
1
4
0
1
39
0
0
49
19
0
0
N&W
0
570
4
9
33
2
37
12
7
674
229
34
15
PRR
0
15
1
4
7
1
14
0
1
43
15
107
1
P&LE
0
3
2
3
0
0
89
2
0
99
3
18
2
Va.
0
4
0
1
0
2
1
4
0
12
3
0
0
W. Md.
0
0
1
1
0
1
6
0
0
9
9
0
0
TOTAL
1
632
15
34
63
26
383
30
10
1194
320
184
23
COLORADO
AT&SF
0
88
16
10
14
0
49
0
0
177
54
0
0
CB&Q
0
3
0
1
2
0
1
0
0
7
3
1
0
C&S
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
14
8
D&RGW
0
57
1
1
0
0
3
0
0
62
25
0
0
GN
0
3
4
1
6
0
3
0
0
17
7
0
0
MP Lines
0
3
6
5
3
2
8
2
0
29
2
14
0
NP
0
0
1
0
45
6
7
4
0
63
12
4
2
SP
0
382
71
266
249
49
919
380
15
2331
526
237
49
T&NO
0
1
4
15
4
3
1
18
0
46
17
1
0
UP
0
5018
33
121
617
1
69
91
2
5952
1069
32
3
TOTAL
0
5555
136
420
941
61
1060
495
17
8685
1716
303
62
Rail
893
TABLE 7 - CONTINUED
ROADS
TF
Ver
CF
&
VSH
HSH
Other
Broken
Base
FAILUHES TOTALS |
Web
EBFs E
xcl.
EBFs
Jnly
In.
Accum.
Accum.
U oil
DF
Head
Jt.
Other
Total
1957
Total
1957
DOMINION
CP
0
0
63
2
53
7
469
8
35
637
248
0
u
TOTAL
0
0
63
2
53
7
469
8
35
637
248
0
0
GARY
AT&SF
0
0
1
2
2
0
9
0
0
14
6
2
2
B&O
0
2
7
0
2
1
7
2
0
21
2
33
4
CtO(Sys.)
0
100
9
■4
7
4
22
3
0
149
15
15
3
C&EI
0
2
1
0
9
0
28
0
0
40
9
0
0
CSiNW
0
1
0
1
12
4
42
3
3
66
2
0
0
CB&Q
0
0
1
3
3
0
3
0
0
10
3
0
U
CMStP&P
0
8
5
0
0
6
3
0
1
23
7
0
0
CRI&P
0
0
4
0
2
14
3
1
3
27
5
2
2
CCC&StL
0
13
3
0
20
1
26
8
1
72
12
14
1
Erie
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
GTW
1
0
13
1
3
8
7
0
1
34
3
0
0
ON
0
157
1
3
154
17
30
1
1
364
58
0
0
IC
0
8
3
1
6
2
14
4
0
38
7
3
0
KCS
0
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
L&N
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
MStP&SStM
0
0
4
0
1
U
1
0
7
24
7
0
0
MKT
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
MP Lines
0
1
4
2
2
1
198
2
1
211
0
1
0
NYC - E
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
NYC - W
7
9
4
3
8
17
148
11
1
208
43
29
0
NYC&StL
0
2
2
2
5
4
109
3
2
129
85
0
0
NP
0
0
4
2
11
13
16
5
0
51
10
4
0
PRR
0
2
1
0
0
0
4
0
0
7
2
4
4
UP
0
9:i6
8
42
253
0
82
36
4
1361
278
22
2
TOTA L i
1241
78
67
502
103
753
79
25
2856
554
134
23
894
Rail
TABLE 7 - CONTINUED
ROADS
TF
Ver
CF
&
VSH
HSH
Other
Broken
Web
Base
FAILURES TOTALS 1
EBFs Excl.
EBFs Only |
m.
Accum.
Accum.
U of I
DF
Head
Jt.
aher
Total
1957
Total
1957
INLAND
AT6SF
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
B&O
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
2
0
0
0
B&OCT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
2
2
1
1
C&O (Sys. )
1
44
6
4
3
9
11
9
2
89
6
13
0
C&EI
0
0
2
0
4
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
u
C&NW
0
0
3
3
1
0
7
0
1
15
0
0
0
CB&Q
u
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
3
2
0
0
CMStP&P
u
0
4
1
0
2
2
0
0
9
0
0
u
CRI&P
0
0
0
1
1
3
0
0
0
5
I
0
u
GTW
u
0
0
0
0
2
7
0
0
9
1
0
u
GN
0
24
4
1
19
0
B
0
2
56
19
0
u
IC
0
I
3
0
4
0
6
2
1
17
3
0
u
MStP&SStM
u
1
5
0
0
4
8
2
0
20
4
0
0
MKT
0
0
o'
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
MP Lines
0
2
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
7
1
0
0
NYC&StL
0
2
2
1
2
5
0
1
0
13
3
0
0
NP
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
3
0
0
0
PRH
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
u
StL - SF
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
UP
0
241
2
7
6
1
15
11
0
283
42
0
0
TOTAL 1
317
34
19
43
27
69
28
7
545
84
14
1
LACKAWANNA
B&O
0
2
5
0
3
1
20
4
0
35
11
12
2
Bos & Alb
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
B&M
1
12
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
16
5
0
0
CP
0
0
2
2
18
0
28
0
13
63
16
0
0
C&O (Sys.)
1
37
0
2
2
0
18
2
0
62
4
2
1
C&NW
0
0
0
2
4
4
1
0
9
20
1
0
0
GTW
0
0
32
1
5
6
2
0
4
50
2
0
0
GN
0
17
2
1
48
0
4
0
2
74
7
0
0
LV
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
8
0
0
0
Me. Cent.
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
MStP&SStM
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
1
8
26
2
0
0
NYC - E
1
49
14
4
36
2
487
2
4
599
262
8
4
NYC&StL
3
5
0
1
6
10
107
1
0
133
73
0
0
NP
0
0
0
0
1
4
7
0
1
13
3
0
0
TOTAL
6
123
56
13
126
44
676
10
48
1102
388
22
7
Rail
895
TABLE 7 - CONTINUED
ROADS
TF
Ver
CF
&
VSH
HSH
Other
Broken
Web
Base
FAILURES TOTALS |
EBFs Excl.
EBFs Only |
In.
Aceum.
Accum.
U of I
DF
Head
Jt.
Other
Total
1957
Total
1957
STEELTON
ACL
0
0
0
1
0
0
69
0
1
71
0
1
0
B&O
8
57
10
6
11
2
20
4
0
118
21
49
19
Ban Aroos
0
0
3
1
7
1
0
0
0
12
11
0
0
B&M
0
1
0
0
5
I
1
1
0
9
0
5
0
C&0(Sys.)
1
100
3
2
7
0
1
3
0
117
0
2
0
DtH
0
14
1
4
1
0
0
1
0
21
2
1
1
FEC
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
3
1
1
0
JCL
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
2
0
5
0
0
0
NYNH&H
0
2
4
2
1
0
17
0
0
26
7
15
4
N&W
2
187
2
5
12
1
17
3
2
231
84
16
R
PRR
0
49
3
3
10
2
11
0
0
78
13
107
1
Reading
0
2
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
6
0
0
0
RFS.P
1
1
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
SAL
0
0
6
0
2
0
0
0
9
2
1
1
Southern
0
0
2
1
2
0
0
0
5
3
0
f)
Va.
0
24
0
0
15
2
9
1
52
11
1
1
W. Md.
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
TOTAL
12
438
37
27
58
28
141
24
4
769
156
199
35
TENNESSEE
ACL
0
0
1
3
3
128
7
3
146
20
4
0
C. ofGa.
0
0
5
1
4
7
1
1
21
0
7
0
FEC
0
5
0
0
1
1
1
0
11
2
23
5
IC
0
2
2
6
0
2
0
0
14
1
0
0
L6N
0
130
14
25
8
3
34
26
2
242
27
10
2
MP Lines
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
1
0
NC&StL
0
3
2
19
2
6
1
2
41
0
0
0
StL-SF
0
1
4
3
4
5
1
0
24
0
0
0
SAL
0
1
2
1
1
0
0
0
7
2
0
0
Southern
0
2
4
37
36
42
2
3
127
22
26
1
T&NO
0
0
0
1
0
1
10
6
19
2
0
0
TOTAL
0
144
34
50
79
54
229
49
17
656
76
71
8
ALL MILLS
40
8468
789
640
2144
433
4463
757
809
18543
4033
927
159
896
Rail
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898
Rail
Roads
Mills
1935
1W6
1937
1938
1933
1940
1941
1942
1943
1044
1945
1946
1917
1949
1949
1900
1951
1952
Total
CN
Algoira
1 (a)
1
CP
Algoma
1 (bl
1 (al
2(b)
1 (a)
1 (al
2(b)
ilalKb)
1 lb)
6 (b)
5 (bl
22
Mich. C
Algoma
1 (b)
1 Ibl
2
PM
Algoma
I la)
1
NYNH8.H
Carnegie (ET)
1(C)
1
N&W
Camegie(ET)
1 (a)
1 (c)
1 (c)
3
ATiSF
Colorado
1 icl
1
CBS.Q
Colorado
1 (C)
I
CN
Dominion
1 (b)
1
AT8.SF
Gary
Kb)
1
CiNW
Gary
3 (b)
2(b)
5
CB&Q
Gary
3 (b|
3
GN
Gary
1 |b)
I
NYC
Gary
1 (b)
I
Wabash
Gary
1 (b)
1
AT&SF
Inland
2(a)
2
CBfiiQ
Inland
1 (a)
3 (a)
4
C&O
Inland
1(a)
3 (a)
6 (a)
1 (a)
1 (a)
1 (a)
1 (a)
2(a)
Ifi
CMStP&P
Inland
2(a)
2
CRIS.P
Inland
Ma)
I
MKT
Inland
1 (b)
1 (a)
2
UP
Inland
3 (a)
3 (a)
6
B&M
Lackawanna
1 (a)
1
CSiO
Lackawanna
1 (al
1 (al
2
LV
Lackawanna
3(a)
1(a)
4
NYC
Lackawanna
1 (a)
1 (a)
2(a)
4
NYCiStL
Lackawanna
2(a)
3 (a)
3 (a)
1 (a)
9
AT&SF
Steellon
3 (a)
3
B&O
steelton
1 (a)
1 (a)
3 (a)
1 (a)
I (a)
1 (a)
1 (a)
1 (al
3 (a|
3 (a)
4 (a)
20
B8.M
Steelton
2(a)
1 (a)
3
C otNJ
Steelton
1 (a)
1(a)
2
C8.0
Steelton
5 (a)
1 (a)
4(a)
3 (a)
1 (a)
1 (a)
15
D&H
Steelton
1 (a)
2(a)
I (c)
1 la)
1 (a)
6
MP
Steelton
1 (a)
1
N&W
Steelton
1(a)
4(a)
8 (a)
2 (a)
1 (a|
16
NYNHSiH
Steelton
3(a)
2(a)
1 (a)
1 (a)
2(a)
9
PBR
Steelton
2(a)
2
RFSiP
Steelton
1(a)
1 (a)
2(a)
4
SAL
Steelton
2(a)
1(a)
3
So. Hy.
Steelton
1(a)
2(a)
3
SP
Steelton
18(a)
3(a)
6(a)
5(a)
1(a)
33
TtNO
Steelton
2(a)
1 (a)
3
Va.
Steelton
2(a)
1(a)
1 (a)
4
C. otCa.
Tennessee
1 (C)
1
IC
Tennessee
1 (C)
1
L&N
Tennessee
1 (c)
1
SP
Tennessee
1 (b|
1
TOTAL
B
30
21
12
17
22
18
22
15
IS
2
7
7
6
8
10
S
S
229
TABLE 9 (Com.) - SUMMARY BY MILLS
MiUa
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
Total
Algoma
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
2
1
6
5
1
27
Carnegie (ET)
1
1
1
3
Colorado
•
1
1
2
Dominion
1
1
Gary
7
4
1
12
bland
1
3
3
3
8
1
7
1
2
1
1
2
33
Lackawanna
6
2
6
3 ,
1
1
1
20
Steelton
5
22
13
11
10
16
6
15
8
1
1
2
2
3
1
4
3
4
127
Tennessee
1
1
2
4
TOTAL
6
30
21
12
17
22
18
22
15
15
2
7
7
6
8
10
5
6
229
Note: (a) TRANSVERSE FISSURE from hot torn steel, (b) TRANSVERSE FISSURE from shatter cracks due to improper cooling, (c) TRANSVERSE
FISSURE from inclusion. Summary - 35 T. F. 's from shatter cracks, 9 T. F. 's from tncltialons, 185 T. F. 's from hot torn steel.
Rail
809
4000C
/
\
/
\
/
\
/
\
/
\
' —
"a" Transverse fissure service failures
62 roods since 1943, Toble 1
\
1
\
/
\
/
\
-
"E
i" Unverified tronsverse defects detected
includes transverse fissures and an unknown
proporfion of defoil fractures from shells
and head checks- 62 roods since 1943, Table
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M i J 1 l_
/
\
/
\
/
26000
1
/
/
"C" Tronsverse fissure service foilures- 25 roads, Toble 2
/
JO 22000
J 1 M M 1 1 1 M 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1
"^
"b"- Detected T.D.
t
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rro
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=! 18000
"D"- Detected T.F.
•
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/
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/
/
/
12000
lOOOC
/
/
/
/
--
/
/
V
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/
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\
/
1
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/
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\
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6000
4000
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7
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71
s
YEAR FAILED
l-ANNUAL SERVICE RAIL FAILURES DUE TO TRANSVERSE RSSURES AND TO DETECTED
TRANSVERSE DEFECTS AS REPORTED BY ALL RAILROADS.
000
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Rail 903
Report on Assignment 4
Rail End Batter: Causes and Remedies
K. K. Kessler (chairman, subcommittee), E. L. Anderson, Blair Blowers, B. Bristow,
R. M. Brown, T. F. Burris, R. E. Catlett, C. J. Code, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse,
J. K. Gloster, J. C. Jacobs, C. C. Lathev, R. F. Lawson, H. S. Loeffler, Lee May-
field, C. E. Morgan, G. L. P. Plow, R. B. Rhode, J. G. Roney, H. F. Smith,
A. P. Talbot, R. P. Wlnton, J. E. Yewell.
This is a report, presented as information, on the progress made during 1958 on
this assignment, which is outlined in the Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 929. Four
rolling-load machines have be:n in operation on this project during the latter part
of the year, with the result that the outlined program on the roUing-load tests has
been comp'eted. The metallurgical examinations of thesi tests are now in progress.
Since the results of the metallurgical examinations correlate closely with the results
and failures of the rolling-load tests, a report on the rolling-load tests, which now
might be misleading, will be postponed until all of the work is completed.
Report on Assignment 5
Economic Value of Various Sizes of Rail
J. C. Jacobs (chairman, subcommittee), E. L. Anderson, S. H. Barlow, Blair Blowers,
T. F. Burris, C. A. Colpitts, C. O. Conatser, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, G. H.
Echols, C. E. R. Haight, W. H. Hobbs, N. W. Kopp, W. B. Leaf, H. S. Loeffler,
Embert Osland, R. B. Rhode, J. G. Ronev, T. F. Shaffer, W. D. Simpson, H. F.
Smith, A. P. Talbot, J. S. Wearn, W. L. Young.
Your committee submits the following report of progress as information. It is a
continuation of Study A, reflecting changes in the test mileage and computed to show
averages after 14 years. The labor and material averages are computed to compensate
for the decrease in test track mileage.
Study A
Result of Study of Illinois Central Railroad Northward Track, Mattoon
TO Savoy, III. Test Sections of 112-Lb and 131-Lb Rail
112-Lb Rail 131-Lb Rail
MP 152.24-172.00 laid in 1942 and 1943 MP 132.00-152.24 laid in 1944
Original test included: Original test included:
19.76 track miles 20.24 track miles
18 turnouts 21 turnouts
1 railroad crossing 3 railroad crossings
22 public road crossings 22 public road crossings
2 private grade crossings 6 private grade crossings
24" joint bars 36" joint bars
Changes in rail mileage: Changes in rail mileage:
1950— MP 152.09-152.24 laid in 115-lb, 1950— MP 152.09-152.24 laid in Il5-Jb,
0.15 miles added to test. 0.15 miles dropped from test.
1952— MP 155.87-160.52 relaid in 132-lb,
4.65 miles dropped from test.
1953— MP 160.52-163.55 relaid in 132-lb,
3.03 miles dropped from test.
1954— MP 152.09-155.87 relaid in 132-lb,
3.78 miles dropped from test.
1QS6--MP 170.79-172.00 relaid in 132-lb,
1.21 miles dropped from test.
Average annual traffic density— 28,000,000
gross tons
904
Rail
Comparison of The Two Sections — Cost of Investment — 1944 Prices
Investment Charges per Mile
Item 112 Lb 131 Lb
Gross cost — rail and other track material $12,643 $14,413
Less estimated salvage Cr. 4,284 Cr. 5,01 1
Net cost— rail and other track material ? 8,359 $ 9,402
Labor cost to lay 1,338 1,473
Total cost $ 9,697 $10,875
Estimated life — based on 1957 condition 14 years 20 years
Anual cost — rail and other track material $ 597 $ 470
Labor to lay 96 74
Interest at 6 percent* 839 953
Total annual investment cost $ 1,532 $ 1,497
* On gross outlay for material and labor.
Maintenance Labor and Material Per Mile
112Lb
131 Lb
Miles
Miles
Year
Main-
Man-
Cross
Cu Yd
Year
Main-
Man-
Cross
Cu Yd
tained
Hours
Ties
Ballast
tained
Hours
Ties
Ballast
1943
19.76
2,480
716
628
1944
20.24
2,606
1,065
647
1944
19.76
413
5
17
1945
20.24
131
30
1945
19.76
701
236
251
1946
20.24
370
5
114
1946
19.76
1 , 166
416
579
1947
20.24
748
172
301
1947
19.76
645
208
273
1948-.-.
20.24
245
38
185
1948
19.76
1,005
186
294
1949
20.24
670
10
116
1949
19.76
1,574
541
423
1950
20.09
1,642
402
323
1950
19.91
694
174
159
1951
20.09
614
59
52
1951
19.91
667
48
193
1952
20.09
1,144
62
304
1952
15.26
748
30
140
1953
20.09
1,089
139
120
1953
12.23
1,110
91
292
1954
20.09
392
21
1954
8,45
543
44
83
1955
20.09
631
91
64
1955
8.45
239
32
159
1956
20.09
535
10
52
1956
7.24
Years
401
8
0
1957
20.09
394
Total 14
12,386
2,735
3,491
11,211
2,053
2,329
Average of 14 Years
112-Lh
ISl-Lb
Savings by Use of
131-Lb
Charge
Percent
Charge
Percent
Charge
Percent
M an-h ours
Cost at $1.19*
885
$1,053
195
$ 599
249
$ 249
55""
32
13
801
$ 953
147
$ 451
166
$ 166
01
29
10
84
$ 100
48
$ 148
83
$ 83
30
Cost at $3.07*
Ballast (stone and slag) cu yd
Cost at $1.00*
45
25
Total Maintenance
$1,901
$1,532
100
$1,570
$1,497
100
$ 331
$ 35
Percent
Investment charges.
100
Total Cost
$3,433
$3,067
$ 366
11.0
♦Average pricesjl943-1956.
Rail 905
Summary
The original test involved 19.76 miles of 112-Ib and 20.24 miles of 131-lb rail.
The study covers maintenance costs beginning in 1943 for the 112-lb rail and 1944
for the 131-lb. Eight and one-half miks of 112-lb rail were laid in 1942 and had one
year of service prior to the beginning of the test records. The last of the 112-lb section
was removed in 1957 after a maximum of 15 years of service, although the greater part
was removed after 14 years or less.
At the beginning of this study the estimate of service in the first location was 15
years for the 112-lb and 25 years for the 131-lb. Records have shown a life of IS
years for the 112-lb to be reasonable; however the anticipated service of the 131-lb
has been reduced to 20 years. Final reports of maintenance costs for the 112-lb rail
will be included in this report ne.xt year, but the study will be continued with respect
to 131-lb rail during the remainder of its life in its present location.
.\s pointed out in previous reports, the greatest savings realized through the use
of the heavier rail have been in cross ties, possibly due to the use of long and heavier
joint bars, larger tie plates and greater rail rigidity. Cross ties in both sections are
renewed in accordance with similar maintenance standards and conditions.
Report on Assignment 6
Service Tests of Various Types of Joint Bars
T. A. Blair (chairman, subcommittee), R. E. Catlett, Jr., C. J. Code, L. S. Crane,
W. J. Cru.-e, V. E. Hall, J. C. Jacobs, K. K. Kessler, N. W. Kopp, W. B. Leaf,
H. S. Loeffler, Embert Osland, G. L. P. Plow, E. F. Salisbury, J. K. Shaffer, S. H.
Shepley, J. S. Wearn, R. P. Winton.
This is a progress report, offered as information, covering two service tests of
joint bars for 115 RE and 132 RE rail, established in 1948 and 1949.
The investigation is being conducted by the Engineering Division research staff of
the Association of American Railroads under the general supervision of G. M. Magee,
director of engineering research. H. E. Durham, research engineer track, is in direct
charge of the assignment.
Description of Service Test Installation
These two service tests have been described in previous reports of the committee.
Details, including drawings of the cross sections, and physical properties of the joint bars
are given in Vol. 52, page 636. The rail in both tests was end hardened in the field.
Most of the test sections were installed in 1948, but some of the bars were not available
at that time and the remaining sections were added in 1949. The service tests were estab-
lished for the purpose of studying variations in joint bar design and the effects of the
new AREA bolt hole spacing, the old AREA bolt hole spacing and a four-hole spacing
of joint bars, 36 in long.
The service test sections of joint bars for 132 RE rail are in the eastbound main
track of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway near Streator, 111., 100 miks west of
Chicago. Each section is Yi mile in length, all located on tangent track. The test instal-
lation includes the following test sections:
Location V — 132 RE headfree, 36-in 6-6-75^^-6-6-in new AREA punching, 6-
hole bars, placed August 1948.
906 Rail
Location W — 132 RE headfree, 36-in 9-95^-9-in punching, 4-hoIe bars, placed
August 1948.
Location X— 132 RE headfree, 36-in 6^-6i^-5J^-6^-6^-in, old AREA punch-
ing, 6-hole bars, placed August 1948.
Location Y— 132 Rail Joint Company, K-42, headfree, 36-in, 6^-6^-5/^-63/2-
6^-in, old AREA punching, 6-hole bars, placed March 1949.
Location Z — 132 Rail Joint Company, K-44, headfree, long-toe design, 39-in, 6^-
65^-5i/^-5K-6>2 in, old AREA punching, 6-hole bars, placed March 1049.
As indicated in the above, this test installation includes a comparison of three designs
of joint bars for 132 RE rail, and for the AREA headfree joint bar includes three differ-
ent bolt hole spacings. Fig. 1, page 572, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 51, 1950, shows the
location of each test section related to mile posts and highways.
Rail surface profiles and measurements of out-to-out distances and camber were
taken in July 1958. From the date of installation until that time, sections V, W, and X
have carried 177 million gross tons of traffic, section Y, 167 million gross tons and sec-
tion Z, 158 milUon gross tons.
The service tests of the 115 RE joint bars are in the westbound main track of the
Chicago & North Western Railway near Sterling, 111., 106 miles west of Chicago on the
Omaha line. Each test section includes 100 joints and is approximately 2000 ft long.
This test installation includes the following sections, all on tangent track.
Location AA — 115 RE headfree, 36-in, 9-95^-9-in punching, 4-hole bars, placed
November 1948.
Location BB — 115 RE headfree, 36-in, 6-6-7^-6-6— in new AREA punching, 6-
hole bars, placed November 1948.
Location CC— 115 Rail Joint Company, K-22, headfree, 36-in, 6-6-7 ^-6-6-in,
new AREA punching, 6-hole bars, placed November 1948.
Location DD — 115 Rail Joint Company, K-4, headfree, 36-in, 6-6-7^-6-6-in, new
AREA punching, 6-hole bars, placed November 1948.
Location EE — 115 Rail Joint Company, K-24, headfree, long-toe design, 39-in,
6-6-7^-6-6-in new AREA punching, 6-hole bars, placed May 1949.
It will be observed that the above includes four different designs of joint bars, all
of which have the new AREA punching and, in addition, section AA with the new 115
RE headfree design has a 4-hole punching for a 36-in length bar. Fig. 2 on page 573
of AREA Proceedings, Vol. 51, 1950, shows the location of each test section related to
mile posts and highways. Figs. 1 and 2, this report, show views of typical test sections.
Measurements of this service test installation were taken in April 1958. The initial
or base readings for all sections of the C&NW test were taken in May 1949, and from
that time until the date of the April 1958 measurements the track had carriel 130 million
gross tons of traffic.
Discussion of Test Data
Santa Fe Test
Graphs of top of rail camber, rail surface profile and pull-in of the joint bars for
132 RE rail are given in Figs. 3, 4 and 5, respectively. The top of rail camber data
(Fig. 3) indicate very little change in the droop of the joints since the measurements
were taken in 1956. The changes observed were too small to be significant.
Rail 907
Whereas much of the rail end batter developed before field end hardening following
the laying of the new rail, the rail surface profiles indicate a trend toward the maximum
batter in sections V and W. The average batter of the leaving and receiving rails in
those two sections was 80 percent greater than the average of sections X, Y and Z.
This appears, in part at least, to be caused by the greater rail gaps in sections V and W.
The difference in the level between the leaving and receiving rails at the J4-in points
is approximately 100 percent greater in section W than in the other four sections which
are about equal. It appears that this difference may be due to the use of 4-hole joint
bars, as a similar condition exists in section AA containing 4-hole, 36-in bars on the
C&NW.
The change in out-to-out distance at the bottom of the middle of the joint bars,
reflecting the amount of fishing surface wear, has progressed in a fairly consistent manner.
The change in out-to-out was the greatest in section W with the 4-hole bars followed
by the 6-hole bars in section V. Likewise, the average batter and difference in level at
the J4-in points were the largest in section \V, with section V next in magnitude. The
least change is in section Z with the Rail Joint Company long-toe bars which has carried
11 percent less traffic than sections V, W and X and 5 percent less traffic than section Y.
There is still ample takeup remaining in all bars.
Since June 1956 four 132 K— 44 long-toe bars in section Z have developed transverse
cracks in the slots for the line spikes. These cracks have not progressed sufficiently to
warrant changing out the bars.
No out-of-face surfacing has been done on the test sections since the inspection of
June 1956.
Chicago & North Western Test
Graphs of top of rail camber, rail surface profile and pull-in lor the joint bars for
115 RE rail are given in Figs. 6, 7 and 8. The change in top of rail camber since June
1956 is very slight, with the greatest change occurring in the north rail of section AA.
This difference is consistent with the rail surface profile, but does not appear significant.
The rail surface profiles show an increase in height of the north rail of section AA
and the south rail of section BB. This apparently reflects the original camber in the bars
rather than some other condition. Other rails have remained approximately the same
since 1956 or have lowered slightly. The profiles of sections DD and EE are lower than
the others, in which respect they are similar to comparable bars in sections Y and Z
of the test of the AT&SF. The maximum batter occurred in sections BB and CC, but
the differences between these sections and the other three were small. On the C&NW
as in the Santa Fe tests, the 4-hole RE joints (section AA), had the largest difference in
level between the leaving and receiving rails at the Y^-vn points. This difference was 60
percent lager than that of the other four test sections.
The change in out-to-out distance, shown in Fig. 8, appears to have lessened during
the last test period which is, no doubt, due to the elimination of six high-speed passenger
trains per day during the last half of 1955. Section AA with the 36-in, 4-hole RE bars
continues to have less change than the other sections, which is contrary to the trend
of the 4-hole bars in section W on the AT&SF. The greater tonnage to date and greater
speed of both freight and passenger trains on the Santa Fe are no doubt a factor.
The 1958 inspection found all test bars to be in good condition with no visible
change having taken place during the last test period.
No out-of-face surfacing has been done since the beginning of the test.
908 Rail
Conclusions
After ten years of service the lest sections are showing good jierformance with little
difference except that the 4-hole bars are showing slightly more difference in the level
at the ^-in points of the rail ends. The long-toe bars on the Santa Fe continue to show
a slight tendency toward developing cracks in the spike slots, although the progression
is slow.
Acknowledgement
The Association is grateful to the Santa Fe and C&NW for their assistance and
cooperation in the conduct of the tests.
Rail
909
Fig. 1 — General view of section W on the Santa Fe looking east
along the eastbound track near M. P. 98.
Fig. 2 — AAR employee measuring out-to-out distance in section AA on the
North Western. View looking east along westbound track near M. P. 108.
QIO
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914
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916 Rail •
Report on Assignment 7
Joint Bar Wear and Failures ; Revision o£ Design and Specification
for New Bars, Including Insulated Joints, and Bars
for Maintenance Repairs
Embert Oiland (chairman, subcommittee), S. H. Barlow, G. V. Begany, Jr., T. A. Blair,
Blair Blowers, R. M. Brown, J. A. Bunjer, C. A. Colpitis, C. O. Conatser, L. S.
Crane, W. J. Cruse, C. E. R. Haight, V. E. Hall, C. T- Henry, W. H. Hobbs, S. R.
Hursh, C. E. Morgan, G. L. P. Plow, J. F. Shaffer, S. H. Shepley, H. F. Whitmore,
W. L. Young.
This is a progress report, presented as information:
Research work directed towards the development of an improved head easement
for joint bars has been completed, and a new drawing showing the recommended head
easement is being presented for adoption and pubhcation in the Manual under Assign-
ment 1.
Work is being continued in developing methods directed towards evaluating improved
designs of insulated joints.
Report on Assignment 8
Causes of Shelly Spots and Head Checks in Rail :
Methods for Their Prevention
W. H. Hobbs (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Almy, F. W. Biltz, T. A. Blair, B.
Bristow, T. F. Burris, C. J. Code, C. O. Conatser, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, C. J.
Henry, S. R. Hursh, W. M. Jaekle, K. K. Kessler, C. C. Lathey, R. F. Lawson,
W. B. Leaf, Lee Mavfield, Ray McBrian, B. R. Meyers, L. T. Nuckols, J. G. Roney,
J. S. Wearn, Edw. Wise, J. E. Yewell.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
During the past year this investigation has been limited, to that conducted by (a)
the Engineering Division research -staff, AAR; (b) Pennsylvania Railroad; (c) the Uni-
versity of Illinois, and (d) the Joint Contact Committee, AREA-AISI. The report on
another three-dimensional photoelastic investigation by Dr. M. M. Frocht, which relates
to the shelly rail failure, is also included as information.
The AAR provides funds to support the work performed by its Enginereing Division
research staff, and the AAR and AISI jointly provide funds to support the work con-
ducted by the University of Illinois.
The Joint Contact Committee, consisting of members selected by the Rail committee
and by the rail manufacturers, has met during the past year with the research inves-
tigators for the purpose of reviewing and guiding the conduct of the research work.
That portion of the work conducted by the AAR Engineering Division research
staff is covered by a report submitted by Kurt Kannowski, metallurgical engineer, which
is included in this report as Appendix 8-a. It covers inspections of service tests of heat-
treated and alloy rail installations at 11 locations. There are six tests of heat-treated
rail, four of chrome-vanadium alloy, three of high-silicon rail, and one of flame-hardened
rail.
The necessity of increasing the service life of rail on 2 to 6-deg curves from 9 to 12
months to 2 to 3 years has become very desirable. Standard carbon rail on the low side
\
Rail 917
of curves at certain locations has had a life of only 9 months and has failed because
of excessive head flow. This same rail on the high side has had a life of 18 months and
has failed from shelling.
In service tests on various curves with previous histories of shelling and head flow,
the use of fully heat-treated rail, chrome-vanadium alloy rail, high-silicon alloy rail,
and flame-hardened rail has lengthened the service period extensively, both on the high
and low sides of curves. In the case of the low rail, using heat-treated rail, the life has
been extended by 5-6 times and in the case of the high rail by 2-3 times. The chrome-
vanadium alloy rail has given the same performance to a slightly lesser degree.
Further observations of the service tests will develop more information. A trend
of better service performance of the high-silicon alloy rail installation has also been
observed. Insufficient tonnage over these installations at this date precludes any con-
clusions. Even though some advantage of the flame-hardened rail over the standard rail
could be noted, definite conclusion from the one installation could not be drawn. Indi-
vidual practices of the various railroads in rail laying on these curves influence the above
results.
The final report of service tests of lS5-lb heat-treated rail on the Pennsylvania
Railroad laid on the high side of a 6-deg curve in the eastward passenger and freight
track east of Tyrone, Pa., prepared by C. J. Code, is included in this report as Appen-
dix 8-b. The following conclusions may be drawn from this report:
1. Under the conditions encountered in this test, heat-treated rail is more resistant
to shelling than ordinary rail, although not completely resistant. It is credited
with giving SO percent more life than non-heat-treated rail. It also shows some
improvement in resistance to flange wear.
2. With the present extra for heat treating there is little to be gained by the
use of heat-treated rail on this location. Its use can probably generally be
justified where an increase in life of 50 percent or more can be obtained.
3. The rail end condition was better for the end-hardened, non-heat-treated rail.
For locations where rail end condition becomes the controlling factor in rail
renewals, the use of heat-treated rail will probably not be justified.
4. It is recommended that further consideration be given to the use of heat-
treated rail at locations where a moderate type of shelling takes place, but
to such an extent as to constitute an important factor in the life of rail.
Attention is directed to the fact that these conclusions are drawn from one test
of quite limited extent, and under somewhat special conditions. Results reported else-
where on tests of heat-treated rail on other roads have been considerably more favor-
able. There are locations where its use can be justified, such as have been reported by
this committee on the Norfolk & Western and Great Northern Railroads, where the life
of the rail in the curves had been extended from 4 to 6 times by the use of heat treat-
ment. The test on the Great Northern is still in progress.
That portion of work conducted by the University of Illinois is covered by a report
prepared by Prof. R. E. Cramer, which is included in this report as Appendix 8-c.
This report covers the results of (1) rolling-load tests to produce shelling in chrome-
vanadium alloy rails, (2) rolling- load tests to produce shelling in high-silicon and
extremely high-silicon rails, (3) rolling-load tests to produce shelling in induction-
hardened rails, (4) shelling produced in service, and (5) rolling-load tests to produce
detail fractures.
918 Rail __^
Prof. Cramer summarizes his report as follows:
t. Laboratory tests of chrome-vanadium rails give high cycles for failure but
with considerable scatter in results.
2. Rolling-load tests are reported on 6 extremely high-silicon rails with 1.63 per-
cent silicon. These specimens did not give as good results as previous tests on
rails with less than 1 percent silicon content.
3. Rolling-load tests are reported on six induction-hardened rails furnished by
Teleweld, Inc. These hard rails resist flow or abrasion on the gage corner but
develop shelling cracks in the laboratory tests sooner than standard carbon-
steel rails.
4. Pictures are shown in Fig. 4 of shelling produced in service.
5. One rail, laboratory No. 995, was examined which had developed complete
fractures in service at two detail fractures from shelling only 32 in apart in
the rail. This emphasizes the necessity of careful detector car tests of rails for
detail fractures.
6. Two detail fractures from shelUng were produced in laboratory rolling-load
tests of 136-lb chrome-vanadium rails with Brinell hardness of 368 and 373.
These two rails ran 2,827,900 and 9,258,500 cycles. This again shows the varia-
tions obtained in laboratory tests of chrome-vanadium rails but also empha-
sizes that some tests last five or more times as long as standard carbon-steel
rails.
That portion of the work conducted by the Joint Contact Committee, AREA-AISI,
is covered by report prepared by L. H. Winkler, which is included in this report as
Appendix 8-d. It covers "Investigation into the Significance of the Hydrogen Level in
Rail Steel."
Hydrogen determinations were made on random samples of rails taken from current
mill production and also on rails that have developed shelly spots in service These tests
fail to show hydrogen content in any significant amounts and indicate no evidence that
hydrogen contributes to shelling.
The final report on another three-dimensional photoelastic investigation, by Dr. M.
M. Frocht to study the internal stresses within the rail head due to wheel contact pres-
sures is presented in Appendix 8-e. This investigation was conducted under the sponsor-
ship of the AAR Joint Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment and is
included with the permission of the Joint Committee. The first report on this subject,
made by Dr. Frocht in June 1953, was published in the Rail committee report. Vol. 55,
page 854. It included stress determination directly under the wheel only. Subsequent
study indicated the possibility that more critical stresses, taking into account the range
of stress and amount of stress reversal, might occur in the rail a short distance pre-
ceding or following the center of the wheel contact pressure. As is shown in Dr.
Frocht's report, this condition was found to be true, and the diagrams presented in his
report give information on the range of stress, both direct and shearing stress, resulting
from the wheel contact pressure along the length of the rail. Also, Dr. Frocht has
translated the model stresses into the equivalent stresses in the full-size wheel and
rail, and from these has concluded for the conditions of his study with a typical worn
wheel and rail contour, and 33-in diameter wheel, that "a wheel load of 30,000 lb would
seem sufficient to put the rail in a state of incipient failure."
Rail 919
Appendix 8-a
Report on Service Tests of Heat-Treated and Alloy Rail
The following report was prepared by Kurt Kannowski, metallurgical engineer of
the AAR Engineering Division research staff, under the general direction of G. M. Magee,
director of engineering research.
;. Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Service Test of 132-lb Heat-Treated Rail
This test installation is described extensively in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 57,
page Sii. The 12 heat-treated (oil quenched) and the 12 non-heat-treated, end-hardened
rails near Martha, W. Va., were inspected May 6, 1958. These 132-lb RE rails were
laid in the high and low sides of the northbound (loaded) track in a 3-deg 6-min curve
on May 2, 1940.
The test rails have carried approximately 240,000,000 gross tons of traffic to date.
The only test rail without gage corner developments is the heat-treated rail 87581-D-ll.
Head checks and black areas as well as distinct black spots appear in the other five
heat-treated rails. The non-heat-treated rail 87S81-C-37 was turned end for end on
April 3, 1958, changing the field side to gage side. The change was made because of the
severe shelling. This is the first change in rails on this test installation. Two more of the
non-heat-treated rails have developed shells, and three had flaking and black spots.
Both the heat-treated and non-heat-treated rails in the low side of the curve arc in
excellent condition, with slightly more plastic flow on the non-heat-treated rails. Devel-
opments of gage corner defects have been relatively slow on this test installation. All of
the developments are high on the gage corner.
2. Norfolk & Western Railway Service Test of 132 RE Heat-Treated
Rail at Kermit
A final report on the service test of the 132 RE heat-treated rail at Kermit, W. Va.
was given in 1957 and may be found in the Proceedings, Vol. 58, pages 1030-1032. Since
8 of the original 12 heat-treated rails on the high side and 10 of the original 11 in the
low side of the curve are still in service, an inspection was made on May 7, 1958. The
remaining heat-treated rails are, generally speaking, in better condition than the adjacent
non-heat-treated replacement rails in both the high and low sides of the curve. In the
high side this is the third set of non-heat-treated rails while in the low side it is the
fifth set. These remaining test rails had carried an estimated 389,000,000 gross tons of
traffic at the inspection date. The heat-treated rail 87581-D-13 on the high side of the
curve still shows no development of gage corner defects. Flaking, black spots, and shell-
ing in various combinations are noted on the remaining rails on the high side. Only a
slight progression of the defects over last year's condition could be noted.
The condtion of the rails on the low side of the curve is good.
3. Norfolk & Western Service Test of 132-Lb RE Heat-Treated Rail
At Maher and Looney's Curve
These installations on a 6-deg curve near Maher, W. Va., at M. P. 481 -|- 210 ft
and on the 4-deg, 7-deg, 12-deg Looney's Curve at M. P. 455 -f 582 ft are described
extensively in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 57, pages 834-835.
Fifty-five heat-treated (oil quenched) rails were laid on the high side and 54 on
the low side of Looney's curve. The test rails had carried approximately 85,000,000
020 Rail
gross tons of traffic at the inspection date, May 8, 1958. The curve oiler was mt
operating very efficiently at this time.
In the high side of the curve, 24 of the rails are free of gage-corner developments,
while light flaking was noted on 18 and head checks on 3 of the rails. Of the remaining
10 rails, 3 had black spots and 7 had small shells. There has been a progression of the
gage-corner developments on the high and on the low side since last year's inspection.
It is of interest that after 45 months of this type of service the rails appear relatively
good, while non-heat-treated rails in this location had lasted only 15-18 months on the
high side and 6-9 months on the low side.
Sixty-six heat-treated rails were installed in both the high and low sides of the
6-deg curve at Maher, W. Va. These test rails had carried 149,000,000 gross tons of
traffic to May 1, 1958. There has been a progression of gage-corner developments since
last year in that 27 rails have medium flaking, 10 rails have heavy flaking, 6 rails have
black spots, and 1 is shelled.
One heat-treated rail, 81033-F-18, was removed from service prior to the 1957
inspection due to a detected defect by a Sperry rail inspection car. Another heat-
treated rail, 87062-D-35, was removed from service in the past year for a similar
reason. Both rails were from the high side of the curve.
4. New York Central System Service Test of 127 -Lb DY Chrome-Vanadium,
Heat-treated and Flame-Hardened Rails at Cedar Run, Pa.
This installation on the New York Central System in the 7-deg 51-min curve
No. 242 near Cedar Run, Pa., consisting of 127-Lb DY chrome-vanadium, heat-treated
and flame-hardened rails is extensively described in the Proceedings, Vol. 59, pages 957-
958. The rails were installed to compare the resistance to abrasion as well as the
resistance to shelling of these different metallurgies of rail steel.
At the time of this year's inspection in May, this installation had carried 142,541,000
gross tons of traffic.
In the high side of the curve, one flame-hardened rail had light flaking on half
of its length, one chrome-vanadium rail had two locations of small flaking spots while
another chrome-vanadium rail had a very small shell. No other gage-corner developments
were observed.
In the low side of the curve there has been considerable plastic deformation, with
more flow in the standard open-hearth and flame -hardened rails than in the chrome-
vanadium or heat-treated rails.
The curve wear has been heavy on most of the test rails, and wheel flanges are
contacting the joint bars at the joints of the standard open-hearth and flame-hardened
rails. This condition existed last year, but the expected removal of these test rails was
postponed due to a change in the maintenance of way program.
5. Pennsylvania Railroad Service Test of 155-Lb PS High-Silicon Rail
This test installation consists of lS5-lb PS high-silicon and standard carbon rails
on the 2-deg 37-min Bixler curve near M.P. 164 east of Lewiston, Pa. An extensive
description can be found in the Proceedings, Vol. 53, page 1029.
The test rails had carried approximately 110,000,000 gross tons of traffic at the
inspection date in May 1958. The high-siUcon and the standard-analysis rails had com-
parable light to medium flaking throughout the part of the curve which was at full
elevation. The test rails on the tangent of the receiving end of the curve showed no
gage-corner developments.
Rail 921
A slightly heavier amount of flange wear was observed on the standard-analysis
rails of the high side.
6. Pennsylvania Railroad Service Test of 140 PS Chrome-Vanadium
Alloy Rail
This test of 140 PS chrome-vanadium rail is described extensively in the Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 58, pages 1020-1030. It consists of 31 chrome-vanadium rails on the
high side interspersed with standard control-cooled rails and 16 chrome- vanadium rails
interspersed with standard control-cooled rails on the low side of a 3-deg 52-min curve
east of Torrance, Pa.
During this year's inspection at 110,000,000 gross tons of traffic it was noted that
very little change since last year had taken place. Two of the chrome-vanadium rails
had a black spot each — about 3 in long on one and 1^^ in long on the other. No other
gage-corner developments could be found. The standard rails had one rail with three
shells and another with two shells. Head checks and medium flaking were observed
on all of these rails.
7. Pennsylvania Railroad Service Test of 140-Lb RE High-Silicon Rail
This test installation of high-silicon 140-lb RE rail on the Mifflin Reverse Curve,
Stone House Curve and Casner's Curve between M.P. 152 and M.P. 153 in No. 4 track
east of Mifflin, Pa., was installed in 1956. At this year's inspection in May 1958 insuffi-
cient traffic had been carried to indicate any trend in gage-corner developments.
8. Service Test of Chrome-Vanadium and High-Silicon 136 -Lb CF&I
Rail on the Southern Pacific Company
At the request of W. M. Jaekle, chief engineer of the Southern Pacific Company,
an inspection of the service test installations of the chrome-vanadium and high-silicon
136-lb CF&I section was made in May 1958 in conjunction with a representative of the
steel producer. Since these types of alloy rails have shown considerable resistance to
shelling on other installations, it was considered to be of interest to obtain the contours
and data shown on Figs. 1 to 6, incl., from the Southern Pacific. Data obtained on other
test installations with a history of shelling has been on 2 up to 6 deg curves. All of the
curves on this service test are from 10 to 10 deg 10 min. These curves are on single
track on the San Joaquin Valley Line of the Tehachapi District with a 1.85 to 2.20-
percent grade and an elevation of 3 in. The maximum authorized speed in this area is
25 mph. The life of the carbon rail with transposing is 18 months on the average,
with an approximate annual tonnage of 44,000,000.
The chrome-vanadium alloy rails were produced by the Colorado Fuel and Iron
Corporation in the 136-lb CF&I section. The chemical analysis of the two heats is as
follows;
Heat No. Carbon Manganese Phos. Sulfur Silicon Chrome Vanadium
5-263 0.76 1.46 0.019 0.024 0.29 0.83 0.15
7-270 0.77 1.45 0.030 0.026 0.31 0.83 0.13
The high-silicon rails were produced by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Corporation
in the 136-lb CF&I section. The chemical analysis of the three heats is as follows:
Heat No. Carbon Manganese Phosphorus Sulfur Silicon
4-257 0.77 0.89 0.016 0.024 0.60
3-275 0.73 0.85 0.020 0.020 0.71
11-277 0.73 0.81 0.027 0.028 0.57
(Text continued on page 928)
A
922
Rail
RAIL CONTOURS
SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY LINE - TEHACHAPI DISTRICT
MAY 1958
Chrome Vanadium Rail
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. 7270-B-18
Wear = 0.48 sq. in.
Regular Carbon Rail
INNER
Heat No. 14236-E-ll
Wear = 0. 49 sq. in.
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No; 12221-E-18
Wear = 0.55 sq. in.
10° 00' Curve
Rolled: 4-56
Curve 77
+ 2. 20 Percent Grade - Milepost 349. 71 - 136 CF&I Section
Laid: 5-56 Traffic Carried: 89 Million Gross Tons
FIG. 1
Rail
02}
RAIL CONTOURS
SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY LINE - TEHACHAPI DISTRICT
MAY 1958
Chrome Vanadium Rail
INNER
Heat No. 5263-E-15
Wear = 0.55 sq. in.
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. 5 263 -C- 20
Wear = 0. 46 sq. in.
\
Regtilar Carbon Rail
INNER
Heat No. 1238-A-17
Wear = 0. 71 sq. in.
OUTER
Heat No. 13237-A-l
Wear = 0. 89 sq. in.
10° 10' Curve + 2. 08 Percent Grade - Milepost 355. 15 - 136 CF&I Section
Rolled: 4-56 Laid: 5-56 Traffic Carried: 89 Million Gross Tons
Curve 98
FIG. 2
924
Rail
RAIL CONTOURS
SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY LINE - TEHACHAPI DISTRICT
MAY 1958
Chrome Vanadium Rail
INNER
Heat No. 5263-E-2
Wear = 0. 43 sq. in.
GAGE
Regular Carbon Rail
INNER
Heat No. 13237-A-18
Wear = 0. 55 sq. in.
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. 13237-A-7
Wear = 0.63 sq. in.
10° 07' Curve +1. 825 Percent Grade - Milepost 359 - 136 CF&I Section
Rolled: 4-56 Laid: 5-56 Traffic Carried: 89 Million Gross Tons
Curve 122
FIG. 3
Rail
925
RAIL CONTOURS
SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY LINE - TEHACHAPI DISTRICT
MAY 1958
Chrome Vanadium Rail
INNER
Heat No. 5263-C-
Wear = 0. 38 sq.
11
GAGE
Regular Carbon Rail
INNER
Heat No. 16198-B-8
Wear = 0. 81 sq. in.
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. 5227-A-lO
Wear = 0.62 sq. in.
10" 02' Curve
Rolled: 4-56
Curve 57
2. 02 Percent Grade - Milepost 344. 61 - 136 CF&I Section
Laid: 5 -56 Traffic Carried: 89 Million Gross Tons
FIG. 4
Q26
Rail
HAIL CONTOURS
SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY LINE - TEHACHAPI DISTRICT
MAY 1958
Chrome Vanadium Rail
INNER
Heat No. 5263-E-4
Wear = 0. 27 sq. in.
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. 5263-B~4
Wear = 0. 35 sq. in.
High Silicon Ball
INNER
Heat No. 3275-C-14
Wear = 0. 25 sq. in.
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. 11277-E-14
Wear = 0. 48 sq. in.
10° 10' Curve +2. GO Percent Grade - Milepost 337. 79 - 136 CF&I Section
Rolled: 4-56 Laid: 5-56 Traffic Carried: 89 Million Gross Tons
Curve 25
FIG. 5
Rail
927
RAIL CONTOURS
SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY LINE - TEHACHAPI DISTRICT
MAY 1958
High Silicon Rail
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. H277-E-19
Wear = 0. 55 sq. in.
Chrome Vanadium Rail
INNER
Heat No. 7270-B-ll
Wear = 0. 54sq. in.
GAGE
OUTER
Heat No. 7270-D-12
Wear = 0.40 sq. In.
Regular Carbon Rail
INNER
Heat No. 13237-E-14
Wear = 0. 73 sq. in.
GAGE
10" 00' Curve
Rolled: 4-56
Curve 96
+ 2. 12 Percent Grade - Milepost 354. 79 - 136 CF&I Section
Laid: 5-56 Traffic Carried: 89 Million Gross Tons
FIG. 6
Q28 Rail __^
At the time of the inspection 89,000,000 gross tons of traffic had passed over the
test installations and the carbon rail had been transposed. It can be noted on Figs. 1^
comparing the chrome-vanadium rails to the carbon rails that there is a considerable
difference in the wear and the head flow between the two metallurgies. Of further
interest in these test installations is curve 25. Fig. 5 shows the contours of chrome-
vanadium rail on this curve compared to high-silicon rail. This curve shows a consid-
erable better wear performance for the high-silicon rail compared to carbon rail as
well as a very good performance for the chrome-vanadium. Fig. 6 shows the contours
of chrome-vanadium rail compared with high-silicon and carbon rail on curve 96.
From this it again can be noted that the high-silicon and chrome-vanadium rail give
considerably better head flow and wear performance. The apparent lack of metal flow
noted on the chrome-vanadium alloy rail on the low side is not an indication of absence
of head wear. In the case of the low rail on this particular installation the wear of
the high-silicon rail is better than that of the chrome-vanadium rail.
During this inspection no gage-corner development leading to shelling was observed.
Curve lubrication is not used because sanding on the grades is necessary. The economic
feature of the resistance to abrasion and head flow of the low rail makes these installa-
tions of considerable interest.
9. Duluth, Missabe <& Iron Range Railway Service Test
of Chrome-Vanadium Alloy Rail
This installation is described extensively in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, page 833.
At the date of this year's inspection, October 15, 1958, 108,000,000 gross tons of
trafiic had passed over the curves at M. P. 3.93, M. P. 3.58, M. P. 32.2 and M. P. 26.65.
The standard carbon rail on curves M. P. 3.93 and M. P. 3.58 had been removed on
account of shelling at approximately 90,000,000 gross tons of trafiic. The chrome-
vanadium rail showed very little change at this location as well as at M. P. 32.2. The
standard carbon rail at this location had been removed at approximately 89,000,000
gross tons of traffic on account of shelling. The replacement carbon rail at any of these
locations did not show any gage-corner defects connected with shelling at this date.
The curve at M. P. 26.65, which is characteristic due to removal of rail on account
of abrasion, still had the chrome-vanadium rail in track showing evidence of abrasion
and very little of head checks. The carbon rail had been removed in the spring of 1957
on account of shelling and abrasion at approximately 65,000,000 gross tons of traffic.
Curve oilers were noted to be in operation at the time of the inspection.
10. Great Northern Railway Service Tests of 115 RE Heat-Treated Rail
This installation is extensively described in the Proceedings, Vol. 57, pages 837-850.
The llS-lb RE section test rails were put into service in two comparable curves
on February 7, 1951, East of Carlton, Minn. As mentioned in previous reports, 88
heat-treated rails were installed in both the high and low sides of the 4-deg curve
No. 20, and 88 non-heat-treated, end hardened rails in the high and low sides of the
4-deg curve No. 22 for comparison. The heat-treated rails were from heat 89521
rolled at Steelton in November 1950 and were oil quenched and tempered. The com-
parative non-heat-treated rails were supplied by Illinois and were field end hardened.
The original non-heat-treated test rails in the high side of curve No. 22 were
replaced August 1, 1955, after carrying 193,000,000 gross tons of traffic, because of
extensive shelling and at least one rail had failed in service from a detailed fracture
from shelling. The original non-heat-treated test rails in the low side of No. 22 curve
Rail 929
as well as the heat-treated test rails in both the high and low sides of curve No. 20
were all in service at the time of this inspection and had carried 316,212,670 gross tons
of traffic to October 14, 1958.
Considerably more and heavier flaking was in evidence in this second set ol non-
heat-treated rails in the high side of curve No. 21 than in the original heat-treated rails
in the high side of curve No. 20 at the time of this inspection. This was true in spit.-
of the fact that the heat-treated rails had carried 123,212,670 additional gross tons.
In the low side of curve No. 12 the original non-heat-treated rails were badly crushed
and very rough. A considerable amount of plastic deformation of the head metal had
resulted in heavy fins on the field side of the head of these rails.
Very little change has taken place in the majority of the test rails of curve No. 20.
Six shelling spots were observed in rail 89521-G9 and one small shell in rail 89S21-F10.
Shelling was noted in both rails last year. An additional rail, 8952 1-E4, was found to
contain one shell this year.
There appeared to be an increase in the curve wear in portions of the curve which
would account for the decrease in amount of head checks and the changes in flaking
conditions noted in certain rails. The curve oiler was in operation at the time of the
inspection.
The heat-treated rails in the low side of the curve were found to be in excellent
condition. The resistance to wear and plastic flow has been outstanding.
930 Rail
Appendix 8-b
Final Report on the Service Test of the 155-Lb Heat-Treated Rail
on the Pennsylvania Railroad
By C. J. Code
Assistant Chief Engineer — Staff, Pennsylvania Railroad
The test was installed on the Pennsylvania Railroad in order to determine whether
heat-treated rail is more resistant to shelling than ordinary control-cooled rail. Twelve
155-lb PS 39-ft, heat-treated rails and twelve 155-lb PS 39-ft, control-cooled, end-
hardened rails were obtained from the same heats for this test. The rails were manufac-
tured and heat treated at the Steelton plant of the Bethlehem Steel Company. The heat-
treated rails cost $171 each. At that time the price of standard control-cooled, non-
heat-treated rail was $65 per net ton, or $67 per rail, including end hardening.
The rails were laid on the high side of No. 11 Curve, a 6-deg curve in No. 1 east-
ward passenger and freight track, Altoona District, Pittsburgh Region, east of Tyrone,
Pa., on January 19, 1949. The heat-treated and non-heat-treated rails were laid in
alternate stretches of two rails each. Laboratory examinations were made of two samples
of rail from the heats laid in this test, one heat treated and one not heat treated.
Measurements of Brinell hardness of the rails were taken before the rails were laid.
Measurements of rail head abrasion, track gage and cross level were taken when these
rails were laid and periodically until transposed in 1956. Photographic records of visual
inspections were made to show the progress of the shelly condition. Observations made
during the annual inspections by representatives of the railroads, the producer and the
AAR research staff are reported in AREA Proceedings, Vols. 51 to 58.
The results of the laboratory examination of the heat-treated and non-heat-treated
rail are summarized in Table 1. The Brinell hardness on all of the rails was obtained
with a King portable hardness tester after removal of decarbonized m;tal with the
following results:
Brinell Hardness
Max Min Avg
Heat treated 388 331 362
Standard 302 241 280
Rail head abrasion, average track gage and superelevation are listed in Table 2.
Due to the fact that the rail in this test was inadvertently surface ground in 1953, the
head abrasion data are presented separately for the periods before and after grinding.
Table 1 — Results of Chemical and Physical Tests of Heat-Treated
AND NoN -Heat-Treated Rail
Chemical Analysis
HT88V507-E-10 CC 82V510-B-5
Carbon 0.79% 0.77%
Manganese 0.96% 1.00%
Phosphorus less than 0.030% less than 0.030%
Silicon 0.173% 0.187%
Sulfur 0.022% 0.030%
Chromium not found not found
Nickel not found not found
Copper 0.13% 0.15%
Vanadium not found not found
Molybdenum not found not found
Rail
931
Tensile Test, Standard 0.505 x 2-In Specimens Taken at Standard Location
Load, PSI Elongation
Yield Point Tensile Str. in 2", Percent
HT 88V507— "O" 126100 177400 14
HT 88V507— "M" 119600 158600 16
CC 82V510— "O" S7630 142400 12
CC 82V510— "M" 86940 141600 11
Brinell Hardness at Standard Locations
1 2 3 4 S 6
HT 88V507 341 351 340 311 321 351
CC S2V510 286 277 277 269 277 286
Reduction
of Area
Percent
34.5
36.5
17.0
13.5
7
351
286
Average
340
279
Table 2 — Rail Head Abrasion of High Rail, Track Gage, and Superelevation
ON 6-Deg Curve No. 11, No. 1 Track, Altoona District, East of Tyrone, Pa.
Before Grindiny
Feb. 1949 to Apr. 1953
•218 Mil. Gross Tuns
After Grindiny
Oct. 1963 to July 1960
140 Mil. Gross Tons
Total
368 Mil. Gross Tons
Type of Kail
Sect.
Area
A braded
{Sqln)
Avy.
Trie.
Gaye
(In)
Avy.
Super-
eleva-
tion
(In)
Seel.
Area
Abraded
(Sq In)
Avy.
Trie.
Gaye
(In)
Avy.
Super-
eleva-
tion
(In)
Sect.
Area
Abraded
(Sq In)
Avy.
Trk.
Gaye
(In)
Avy.
Super-
eleva-
tion
(In)
Std
H.T.
0.32
0.38
0.32
0.24
0.31
0.27
0.31
0.29
0.37
0.21
0.19
0.23
0.30
0.27
56H
oGVs
56%
56J/8
56 Ji
56 H
56%
57
56%
56 J^
56 M
565^
56 J^
56 Ji
3%
6y^
6%
6ii
6M
6ys
6%
5%
4
2%
5
4^
0.41
0.13
0.39
0.23
0.41
0.18
0.31
0.38
0.60
0.23
0.14
0.09
0.38
0.21
57
.57
57>^
57
57 H
56 3/8
57
573^
57 H
56^8
57
56 li
57J^
57
2?8
■i'A
0
6J4
6%
6%
6%
5%
5%
3%
2}4
%
4M
^%
0.73
0.51
0.71
0.47
0.72
0.45
0.62
0.67
0.97
0.44
0.33
0.32
0.68
0.48
56%
56 >^
57
56 K
57
56^
56 K
57
57
56H
56 K
56 5/8
57
56 K
2%
AH
Std
H.T.
6H
6%
Std
H.T
6M
6M
Std
H.T
6V8
6
Std
H.T -.
5H
3%
Std
H.T -
2H
1
Std
H.T..
4K
4Ji
The accompanying photographs, Figs. 1 to 4, incl., show the condition of certain
rails as of the final inspection on May 9, 1956. For certain selected rails, additional
photographs (Figs. 5 to 8, incl.) are presented which show the condition on earlier
inspections beginning with March 7, 1951, and continuing up to June 15, 1955. For
these rails the gradual obliteration of the evidence of shelling by flange wear, 1953 to
1956, is worthy of note. A memorandum of an inspection on August 22, 1949, five
months after the rail was laid, indicates that at that time the non-heat-treated rail
showed slight flaking and some flow. The heat-treated rails showed no flow or flaking,
but showed head checks, extending up from the gage corner }i to Yj in. The report
of the inspection made October 5, 1949, indicates that head checking was wearing off
the heat-treated rails; however, heat-treated rail No. 88507-B-12, near the west end
of the curve showed flaking. .\ further inspection on January 13, 1950, showed the
same condition, except that the flaking was fairly heavy on rail No. 88S07-B-12, and
it was observed that this rail was taking an excessive thrust at the beginning of the
curve. An inspection on March 9, 1951, developed the following information: on the
leaving end of the curve, there was flaking on both heat-treated and non-heat-treated
rails, somewhat worse on the non-heat-treated.
932 Rail
Throughout the bod}' of the curve, that is, the fully elevated portion, the heat-
treated rails showed less flaking than the non-heat-treated rails, a noticeably better per-
formance. At the west or receiving end of the curve, the heat-treated and non-heat-
treated rails both showed heavy flaking. One non-heat-treated rail showed two definite
shells, not very large, while one-heat-treated rail showed two black spots. One other
non-heat-treated rail showed evidence of a small shell not yet broken out. There was
evidence of a sharp spot in the alinement which was probably affecting two of the heat-
treated rails adversely. The lubricator was working and the curve was heavily lubricated
at this time. The heat-treated rail showed a somewhat better performance than the
non-heat-treated rail, and was possibly six months behind the non-heat-treated rail in
development of similar defects. It was estimated at the time that some of the non-
heat-treated rails would have to be removed in a period of six months to one year.
On May 22, 1951, it was noted that there was little change in the condition of the
rails; however, the lubricator did not seem to be functioning and there was very
little grease on the rail. The shelling condition of the rails of this curve reached a
maximum at the time of 1953 inspection. At the time, it was felt that some of the
shelly spots were reaching such a size that it would be necessary to renew the rails
in the very near future (See Figs. 9 and 10).
Prior to the 1954 inspection, it was indicated to the Division forces responsible
for maintenance that it would be agreeable to replace any of the badly shelled rails
in the curve, which, in their judgment, should be removed. It was suggested that at that
time, in order to get the most life out of the heat-treated rail, and to get the best
indication of the relative performance of the heat-treated rail, it would be desirable
to patch up this curve with fit rail, having the appropriate amount of flange wear,
taking out only those rails on the high side which should be removed because of their
shelly condition, regardless of whether or not they are heat-treated or non-heat-treated.
No advantage was taken of this proposal by the maintenance forces, and no rails were
replaced. There would probably have been justification for renewal at this time of six
of the non-heat-treated rails and two of the heat-treated rails due to the stage of
the development of shelling. This information is included merely to indicate the rela-
tive degree to which the 12 heat-treated rails and 12 non-heat-treated rails had devel-
oped shelling at this time.
A review of the inspection reports and the photographs for the 1954, 1955 and
1956 inspections indicates, surprisingly, that the rail condition was getting better instead
of worse. Insofar as shelling and flaking were concerned, at the time of the 1956 inspec-
tion, many of the shelly spots earlier observed, and some of the heavy flaking, had
been reduced by flange wear to the point where they no longer seemd to be an object
of concern (Figs. 1-4). Incipient shelly spots in two or three of the heat-treated rails
had almost completely disappeared, as shown on Figs. 11 and 12. There were two
heat-treated rails near the receiving end of the curve, and possibly three non-heat-
treated rails which showed a sufficiently shelled condition of the gage corner to justify
removal because of sheUing. However, at this time flange wear on the rail had
progressed to the point where it was necessary to transpose the rail or to regage the
curve, and it was decided to transpose. At this time the condition of the low rail of
the curve, .which was not the subject of test, was such that it was not suitable for
transposal into the high rail so that actually the test rail in the high side of the curve
was transposed to the low side, and additional relayer 39-ft rails were provided for
laying in the high side.
The 1956 report shows shells or black spots in 6 of the heat-treated rails and
7 of the comparative; flaking in 11 heat-treated and 11 comparative; head checks in
Rail 933
3 of the heat-treated and none of the comparative. Generally, the defects in the com-
parative rail were of more severe character than in the heat-treated. Table No. 2 shows
that the non-heat-treated rail developed about 40 percent more flange wear than the
heat-treated rail. Examination of the rail end profile shows that the non-heat-treated
end-hardened rails initially had a better profile with adequate camber, and that up to
the time of surface grinding after four years of service the non-heat-treated end-
hardened rails retained a better profile, and showed less loss of camber. In the final
three-year period of service after surface grinding, this effect is less pronounced but is
still in evidence.
The rails in this test were laid in pairs of two throughout the length of the curve,
alternating two heat-treated rails with two standard rails. This was done for the pur-
pose of getting as nearly equal wear conditions as possible for the two types of rail.
It was known from previous tests that the wear conditions and particularly the condi-
tions resulting in shelling vary considerably throughout the length of the curve, also
that in many cases the receiving end of a curve in this territory gets harder wear and
is more subject to shelling than the leaving end of the curve. There was insufficient
rail available to lay two complete curves — one with comparative rail and one with
heat-treated rails — and even if this had been possible we probably would not have
used this method, in view of the varying conditions from one curve to another even
where the curvature, superelevation and authorized speed are nominally the same.
The results obtained on the test, in our opinion, justify the method used. The
most severe wear and the most severe shelhng took place on the receiving half of the
curve; thus rails of both types were subjected to the most severe wear, whereas on the
leaving, half of the curve, conditions were such that there was less severe wear on rail
of both types. This method of laying test rails makes it somewhat more difficult to make
an economic determination of the relative life of the rails in the curve; since only
a small percentage of the total number of rails in the curve were badly shelled, there
was no disposition on the part of the maintenance forces to demand renewal.
However, it can be seen from the information reported in the results that half
of the non-heat-treated rails approached a condition where renewal was necessary
after four years of service, whereas at this time only two, or 17 percent of the
heat-treated rails showed such a condition. These two rails were obviously at a loca-
tion of unusually severe wear. All rails in the high rail were removed after seven years
of service; however this was due to flange wear reaching the point where gaging was
necessary rather than due to shelling. If shelling had progressed during the last three
years of life of the rail as it did during the first four years, it is probable that the
non-heat-treated rail would have been replaced after not more than five years.
It is worthy of note that under the most severe conditions encountered, namely
on the receiving end of the curve where the alinement and superelevation were such as
to throw an unusual load on the high rail, the heat-treated rails also shelled. They are
therefore not proof against shelling under the most severe conditions. Under conditions
of shelling somewhat less severe than those encountered in this curve, but sufficiently
severe to induce shelling in ordinary open hearth rail, it is probable that a greater
difference in relative life of heat-treated compared with non-heat-treated would be
developed.
Based on the results of this curve, it is doubtful if heat-treated rail can be
credited with more than 50 percent additional life as compared with non-heat-treated
rail. Since the extra for heat-treated rail is now such as to make its first cost approxi-
mately 50 percent greater than that of non-heat-treated rail, there is apparently but
934 Rail
little to be gained from an economic point of view in installing heat-treated rail under
conditions such as existed at this point. The high first cost of installing heat-treated
rail presents a considerable obstacle against the use of such rail where there is a limited
budget available for rail renewal. There are undoubtedly locations where its use can be
justified.
Under conditions such as encountered in this test, heat-treated rail is more resistant
to shelling. Its greater resistance is a matter of degree; it is not completely resistant
to shelling. It can be expected to give a greater life under conditions contributing to
shelling of 50 percent or more. It shows some improvement in resistance to flange wear
and, based on the current extra for heat-treated rail, its use is justified where an
increase in life of 50 percent or greater can be obtained. Generally, this will obtain on
curves where the service is somewhat less severe than on the curve Which was the
subject of this test.
In relaying the curves in this territory, the greatest economy seems to be obtained
by the use of relay rail, which is the current practice.
It is notable that the rail end condition was better for the end-hardened rail than
for the heat-treated rail. For locations where rail end condition becomes the controlling
factor in rail renewals, the use of the heat-treated rail would not be justified.
It is recommended that further consideration be given to the use of heat-treated
rail at locations where a moderate type of shelling takes place, but to such an extent
as to constitute an important factor in the life of the rail.
Fig. 1 — Heat-treated rail No. 88507-C-ll, 358,000,000 gross tons,
May 9, 1956.
Fig. 2 — Heat-treated rail No. 88507-B-12, 358,000,000 gross tons.
May 9, 1956.
936
Rail
Fig. 3— Standard rail No. 82510-C-4,, 358,000,000 gross tons, May 9, 1956.
Fig. 4 — Standard rail No. 88507-E-12, 358,000,000 gross tons, May 9, 1956.
Rail
937
Fig. 5— Standard rail No. 88507-B-ll, March 5, 1951.
Fig. 6— Standard rail No. 88507-B-ll, June 15, 1955.
938
Rail
Fig. 7— Heat-treated rail No. 88507-B-12, March 5, 1951.
Fig. 8— Heat-treated rail No. 88507-B-12, June 15, 1955.
Fig. 9— Standard rail No. 88507-B-ll, May 8, 1953.
Fig. 10 — Heat-treated rail No. 88507-C-13, May 8. 1953.
940
Rail
Fig. 11— Standard rail No. 88507-B-ll, 358,000,000 gross tons. May 9, 1956.
Fig. 12— Heat-treated rail No. 82510-E-5, 358,000,000 gross tons.
May 9, 1956.
Rail 941
Appendix 8-c
Shelly Rail Studies at the University of Illinois
By R. E. Cramer
Research Associate Professor, University of Illinois
Organization and Acknowledgment
The shelly rail invesigation at this laboratory is financed equally by the American
Railway Engineering Association and the American Iron and Steel Institute.
John Finley, student test assistant, worked on this investigation on a part-time
basis, and Marion Moore, mechanic, operated the rolling-load machines.
Rolling-Load Tests to Produce Shelling in Chrome-Vanadium Alloy Rails
In last year's report one rolling-load test had been completed on chrome-
vanadium rail No. 1183 A but the second specimen No. 1183B was not completed.
These are both listed in Table 1 where it will be noted that the B specimeri ran to
4,509,000 cycles before a shelling crack developed. This is almost double the cycles for
the A specimen from the same rail. Laboratory tests of chrome-vanadium rails have
generally run around 5 million cycles, but individual specimens have varied over a wide
range. This seems to correlate somewhat with experience in service with chrome-
vanadium rails as reported by Kurt Kannowski. He has reported a few early failures
of chrome-v^anadium rails, but most of the test rails are still in service and giving
long service similar to most of our laboratory rolling-load tests of these alloy rails.
The shelling crack produced in specimen No. 1183B is shown in Fig. 1 and is typical
of laboratory-produced shelling failures.
Rolling-Load Tests to Produce Shelling in Extremely High-Silicon Rails
In Table 1 are listed mechanical tests and rolling load tests on three rails, Nos. 1193
to 1195, which are classified as extremely high-sihcon rails. These specimens represent
a few experimental rails produced with 1.63 percent silicon to determine if a silicon
content over 1 percent gave any additional advantages over those rails previously
tested with less than 1 percent silicon. The extremely high silicon content of 1.63 per-
cent increased the Brinell hardness to around 320 compared to most high-silicon rails
which are between 28S and 305 Brinell. The mechanical strength is higher, but the
elongation and reduction of area are lower than previously tested high-silicon rails. The
rolling-load cycles average 1,121,700 compared to an average of 1,851,000 cycles for
all the high-silicon specimens which hav^e been previously tested.
Figs. 1 and 3 show the types of shelling cracks produced in these extremely high-
silicon rails. The B specimen from both rails 1193 and 1194 developed vertical cracks
besides the typical shelling cracks without much plastic flow or deformation. This
seems to indicate that this steel is more sensitive to cracking than a more ductile silicon
steel with less than 1 percent silicon.
It would seem from these tests that no advantage was derived from the extra
amount of silicon, and the tests indicate the extremely high-silicon rails develop shelling
in the laboratory tests easier than the rails with silicon content below 1 percent.
Rolling-Load Tests to Produce Shelling in Induction-Hardened Rails
In October 1957, Teleweld, Inc., supplied two 12 ft lengths of 132-lb rail that had
been experimentally hardened on the gage corner by electric induction to G. M. Magee
at the .^AR Central Research Center. The description states that the width of the
942
Rail
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Rail
943
91^B-
194B
Fig. 1 — Shelly Failures Produced in Rolling-Load Tests.
Average Cycles of
Spec. Brineil 50,000-Lb
No. Kind of Specimen Hardness Wheel Load
1183B 136-lb chrome-vanadium rail 368 4,509,000
1189A 136-lb high-silicon rail 294 4,991,000
1193A 133-lb 1.63% Si high silicon rail , 321 1,562,300
1193B 133-lb 1.63% Si high silicon rail 321 1,077,000
1194A 133-lb 1.63% Si high silicon rail 322 1,083,000
1104B 133-lb 1.63% Si high silicon rail 322 1,280,000
944 Rail ^
hardened zone on the gage corner is approximately % in and the depth is approximately
Vs in. The average Brinell hardness is 340. Treatment was obtained by a continuous-
moving inductor using 35 kw of 900-cycle power at a lineal rate of 16 in of rail per
minute. The company stated that it was arranging for some field trials of this process
with several railroads. It was therefore thought advisable to also make laboratory
rolling-load tests on these specimens.
Fig. 2 shows specimen No. CRHl as received and etched in ammonium per-
sulfate to show the hardened gage corner. This specimen and others were used for
Rockwell "C" hardness tests. The maximum hardness reading obtained was 370 when
converted to Brinell numbers, and the average readings in the hardened zone was
between 340 and 350 Brinell numbers. Fig. 2 also shows the shelling cracks developed
in five specimens from these induction-hardened rails and Table 1 shows rolling-load
tests of six specimens. The average cycle for failure is 730,000, or considerably less
than the 1 million cycle average we have established for standard carbon-steel rails.
These rails undoubtedly will wear less on curves than standard carbon-steel rails.
In the laboratory rolling-load tests there was no flow of the metal at the gage corner
before the shelling crack developed. It is known that there is considerable locked-in
stress in these induction-hardened rails. This is indicated by a slight bowing of the
rail heads and is more dramatically illustrated when a saw cut is started into the
hardened zone. When a shallow notch has been sawed the head suddenly cracks about
one-half way across, indicating a locked-in tension stress in the induction-hardened
zone. It is thought that in service these stresses would be somewhat relieved by the
wheel loads rolling on the gage corners of the rails.
These laboratory tests correlate with all previous rolling-load tests of flame-
hardened rails in that these rails do not usually give as long rolling-load tests as
standard carbon-steel rails. It would seem that the chief advantage of induction hardening
would be to resist gage-corner wear or abrasion.
Rolling-Load Tests of Two High-Silicon Rails
The Colorado Mill furnished two more high-silicon rails, Nos. 1190 and 1191 in
Table 1 for rolling-load tests. These were 133-lb section with carbon 0.75 percent;
manganese 0.94 percent and silicon 0.65 percent. Their average Brinell hardness was 303
and 304. The four rolling-load tests on these specimens ran from 2,055,000 to 4,678,000
cycles, with an average of 3,349,000 cycles. This average is higher than previous tests
of high-silicon rails. All laboratory tests of high-sihcon rails have given rolling-load
test results which average about twice as high as standard carbon-steel rails. The
shelling cracks produced in these four specimens are shown in Fig. 3.
Shelling Produced in Service
Fig. 4a shows a typical 90 percent detail fracture from shelling produced in
service in rail No. 978 as listed in the report on Failures in Control-Cooled Rails,
Appendix 2-a. The shelUng crack has a short vertical section about J^ in from the gage
side of the rail head. This probably indicates where the shelling first started. Fig. 4b
is the shelling crack opened up by sawing, showing that it extended at least 5 in along
the gage corner. A metallographic examination of the steel from this rail near the
area where the sheUing developed located the large inclusion shown in Fig. 4c at about
65 X magnification. It is not often that such large inclusions are found in modern rail-
road rails.
Rail
945
CRH2B
CRH
spec.
No.
Fig. 2 — Specimens of Induction-Hardened Rails.
Specimen No. CRHl etched to show induction-hardened area.
Specimen etched in ammonium persulfate
Kind of Specimen
Cycles of
50,000 Lb
Wheel Load
CRHIA 132-lb std. rail induction hardened 803,100
CRH2A 132-lb std. rail induction hardened 717,800
CRH2B 132-lb std. rail induction hardened ^ 756,100
CRH3A 132-lb std. rail induction hardened * 686,800
CRH3B 132-lb std. rail induction hardened 592,100
Another rail from servic>; was received, laboratory No. 995, which had developed
complete fractures through the rail at two detail fractures from shelHng which were
located only 32 in apart. It was not stated if these two failures had caused a derail-
ment but this is a condition which can easily do so. These two fractures so close
together in this rail emphasize the nece.ssity for careful detector car tests of rails for
detail fractures.
946
Rail
I90B
9IA
iiSIB
1I95A
1195B
Fig. 3 — Shelly Failures Produced in Rolling-Load Tests.
Average Cycles of
Spec. Brinell SO,000-Lb
No. Kind of Specimen Hardness Wheel Load
1190A 133-Ib 0.65% silicon rail 303 4,678,000
1190B 3,380,000
1191A 133-lb 0.65% silicon rail 304 2,055,000
1191B 3,285,000
1195A 133-lb 0.65% silicon rail 326 606,000
1195B • 1,015,000
Rolling-Load Tests to Produce Detail Fractures
Only two detail fractures have been produced in the past year because chromium-
vanadium rails are being tested which run a long time. Also, failures have occurred
in the cradle and crank shaft of the one rolling machine used to produce detail
fractures.
The first chrome-vanadium rail No. 1182 developed a 5 percent detail fracture
from a fin pushed out on the gage corner after being rolled 9,258,500 cycles. This is
Rail
947
Fig, 4 — Shelling Produced in Service, Rail No. 978.
a. 90% detail fracture from shelling.
b. Shelling along gage corner opened up.
c. Photomicrograph of inclusion at 65 X magnification.
an extra long test for a chrome-vanadium rail, and even after this much rolling of
,iO,000-lb wheel load the rail head was not deformed by flow or a shelling crack had
not developed, as shown in Fig. 5.
The second specimen of chrome-vanadium rail No. 1183 developed an 8 percent
detail fracture from shelling at 2,827,900 cycles, which is a short test for this alloy
steel. This again shows the variation obtained in laboratory rolling-load tests of
chrome-vanadium rails, but it also emphasizes that some tests of these rails last five
or more times as long as standard carbon steel rails.
048
Rail
Fig. 5 — Specimens Tested to Produce Detail Fractures.
Specimen Type of
Number Kind of Rail Fracture
1182 136-lb Chrome-Va 5% detail
at corner
fin.
118.^ 136-lb Chrome-Va 8% detail
from shelling
Average
Brinell
Hardness
in
368
Cycles of
50 000 Lb
Wheel Load
9,258,500
2,827,000
Summary
1. Laboratory tests of chrome-vanadium rails give high cycles for failure but with
considerable scatter in results. This seems to correlate with experience in service.
2. Rolling -load tests are reported on six extremely high-silicon rails with 1.63 per-
cent silicon. These specimens did not give as good results as previous tests on rails
with less than 1 percent siUcon content.
3. RoHing-load tests are reported on six induction-hardened rails furnished by
Tdeweld, Inc. These hard rails resist flow or abrasion on the gage corner but develop
shelling cracks in the laboratory tests sooner than standard carbon-steel rails.
4. Pictures are shown in Fig. 4 of shelling produced in service.
5. One rail, laboratory No. 995, was examined which had developed complete frac-
tures in service at two detail fractures from shelling only 32 in apart in the rail. This
emphasizes the necessity of careful detector car tests of rails for detail fractures.
6. Two detail fractures from shelling were produced in laboratory rolling-load
tests of 136-lb chrome-vanadium rails with Brinell hardness of 368 and 373. These
two rails ran 2,837,900 and 9,258,500 cycles. This again shows the variation obtained
in laboratory tests of chrome-vanadium rails but it also emphasizes that some tests
last five or more times as long as standard carbon-steel rails.
Rail 940
Appendix 8-d
Investigation into the Significance of the Hydrogen Level
in Rail Steel
By L. H. Winkler
Retired Metallurgical Engineer, Bethlehem Steel Company
A meeting was held in Chicago on November 20, 1957, with representatives of
Subcommittee 8, AREA Committee A — Rail, and representatives of the rail producer
members of the Joint Contact Committee, for the purpose of inquiring into a suggested
research project to study the influence of hydrogen on the "shelly" phenomenon.
To provide some basis for the discussion of this project and since there was no
available specific information regarding the hydrogen level of currently produced
control-cooled rails, the chairman of the Joint Contact Committee arranged to have
hydrogen determinations made on random samples of rails taken from current mill
production.
The results obtained by Bethlehem research on J/2 in diameter specimens taken
from the rail head at the gage corner and located with center line at ^ in from the
side and ^ in from the top of the rail head are shown in the following table and
were presented at the meeting. The United States Steel Corporation reported at the
meeting that its results from similar research were in substantial agreement with those
reported here.
Heat No. Date Rolled Rail Section Rail Serial Hydrogen, PPM
Z 89T414 .' 7/11/57 155 PS A-42 0.3
Y 90T503 9/27/57 140 RE C-19 0.4
Y 90T352 6/11/57 132 RE D-4 0.3
Y 89T566 10/2/57 115 RE H-14 0.3
It is to be noted that these results indicate that the hydrogen level in the location
where shelling generally takes place is considerably less than 1 ppm.
After a thorough discussion, it was suggested, before embarking on the proposed
research project, that rails that have developed shelly spots in service be investigated
for hydrogen content of the steel. It was further proposed that the specimens from
these rails for hydrogen determination be taken to represent the portion of the rail
that had shelled and also the portion of the same rail that had not developed that
phenomenon.
Kurt Kannowski of the AAR accepted the responsibility for obtaining representa-
tive rail specimens taken from the tracks of several railroads. He forwarded to Bethle-
hem Steel Company six such specimens from three rails rolled at Lackawanna and
removed from the Great Northern Railroad tracks, and six similar specimens from three
rails rolled at Steelton and taken out of track of the Norfolk & Western Railroad.
Each of these lots of six specimens represented shelled and shell-free portions of the
same rail.
Mr. Kannowski sent similar specimen sets to the United States Steel Corporation
of rails produced at Gary and removed from service on the Great Northern.
The results of hydrogen determinations made by the research departments of the
United States Steel Corportion and of Bethlehem Steel Company are shown in the
following tabulation. The samples analyzed by Bethlehem were located ^ in from
the side of the head and H in from the top of the head at the gage corner. The
QSO
Rail
samples analyzed by United States Steel Corporation were obtained from the head
cross section near the gage corner at a position where the quarter point of the head
width intersects mid-thickness of the head.
It is to be noted that all of these tests failed to show hydrogen contents in any
significant amounts and, furthermore, the results obtained from specimens of current
production as well as from rails that have shelled in service indicate no evidence that
hydrogen contributes to shelling.
Lackawanna Rails From Great Northern Track
H.^ in PPM
(Duplicate Determinations) Rail Section and
Sample Number Gage Corner Center Date Rolled
1 Shelled 0.6-O.S 0.6-0.5 112 RE July 1040
1 Clear 0.4-0.5 0.3-0.4
2 Shelled 0.3-0.4 0.3-0.4 112 RE July 1939
2 Clear 0.4-0.5 0.3-0.3
3 Shelled 0.4-0.5 0.7-0.7 1 12 RE July 1941
3 Clear 0.4-0.5 0.6-0.6
Average 0.45 0.47
Steelton Rails From Norfolk & Western Track
H, in PPM
(Duplicate Determinations)
Sample Number Gage Corner Center
1 Shelled 0.6-0.5 0.5-0.6
1 Clear 0.5-0.6 0.5-0.6
2 Shelled 0.3-0.3 0.4-0.5 131 RE Nov. 1940
2 Clear 0.3-0.3 0.4-0.4
3 Shelled 0.6-0.4 0.6-0.4
3 Clear 0.6-0.5 0.5-0.4
Average 0.46 0.48
Rail Section and
Date Rolled
132 RE May 1952
132 RE Aug. 1949
Gary Rails From Great Northern Track
Sample Number H^ in PPM
1 Shelled 0.30
1 Clear 0.63
2 Shelled 0.14
2 Clear 0.14
3 Shelled 0.15
3 Clear 0.16
Rail Section and
Date Rolled
112 RE March 1947
112 RE March 1947
112 RE March 1947
Rail 9S1
Appendix 8-e
Final Report on a Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Investigation
of the Stress Distribution in the Head of a Model of a Railroad
Rail Along Lines Parallel to the Axis of the Rail
By M. M. Frocht
Research Professor of Mechanics; Director of Experimental Stress Analysis,
Illinois Institute of Technology
Introduction
This report may be viewid as an extension or supplement to the report (1)* of June
26, 1953, on a ''Three-Dimensional Investigation of the Principal Stresses and Maximum
Shear in the Head of a Railroad Rail." The above report was confined to stress deter-
minations along lines in the plane of symmetry of the rail, which is transverse to the
axis of the rail and passes through the center of the wheel. In the present report we
deal with the stresses in the rail in the region of contact along interior lines parallel
to the axis of the rail, such as line F-F, Fig. 1. The study was undertaken in order
to see whether the interior stresses along the length of the rail may not throw some
light on the possible cause of shelly failures.
The photoelastic models and loading jigs were of the same material and dimensions
as those described in the first report. The general method of procedure was also the
same. Specifically, the rectangular stress components were determined by the shear-
difference method (2), (3), (4) from sub-slices containing frozen stresses. Typical stress
patterns of a transverse and longitudinal slice, from which the sub-slices were taken,
are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
The stresses were determined in two different models under two different loads.
In one model the load was 51 lb, which is the same as that used in the first study. The
results from this model showed that while in the vicinity of the load the normal
stress components <^z, ffy, and Cj were all compressive, they changed into tensions at
points approximately 1 in to either side of the wheel center.
In order to bring out more accurately this state of triaxial tension the tests were
repeated with another model and a vertical load of 78.4 lb, which is roughly 50 percent
greater than the first load.
It was found that the stress distribution is essentially the same for the higher
and lower loads, thus showing that the stress distribution on the lines studied is little
affected by the substantial increase in the contact area produced by the larger load.
Lines Studied
(a) Vertical Load 51 Lb — In the first model carrying 51 lb the stresses were
determined along the two lines parellel to the axis of the rail passing through points F,
G, in the plane of symmetry. Fig. 4. In this determination the initial values of Cj were
taken from the stress curves for lines AO' and BO' in the plane of symmetry, which
were available from the first report for the same load. The line BO' passes through
the region of the maximum shear close to the region of contact. (See Figs. 12 and 13
in the first report).
(b) Vertical Load 78.4 Lb — The stresses were first determined along lines AO'' and
BO' in the plane of symmetry. Using the initial values from the curves for AO'
Xiimbers in parenthesis pertain to references listed at the end of the report.
952 Rail __"
and BO' the stresses ffx were next determined along the longitudinal lines F-F, G-G,
and H-H passing through the points F, G, and H, Fig. 4. Lines F-F, and G-G were
the same as those U5ed for the smaller load.
RESULTS
(a) Vertical Load 51 Lb
Line F-F — Fig. 5 shows the six rectangular stress components along the longitudinal
line F-F. It is seen that the normal stresses c^, o-„ and cr. are all compressive in the re-
gion near the load and that their maximum numerical values occur under the center
of the wheel. .Also, as would be expected, Cy is the greatest of these stresses. The curves
further show that all three normal stresses change into tension at X/L ^ 0.4, approxi-
mately. Inspection of Fig. 5 further shows that T.r„ reaches a maximum at X/L = 0.27,
where it attains a value approximately equal to 35 percent of the maximum Cy. The
shear component t,,, remains fairly constant in the interval X/L = 0 to X/L =: 0.24.
In this interval the magnitude of Tyz is about 20 percent of the maximum c,,. The
shear t.,.- was found to be extremely small.
Line G-G — The stresses along line G-G, Fig. 6, shows a similar distribution to
that found on line F-F. The magnitudes of the normal stresses, however, were found
to be higher than those on hne F-F. For example, the stress <^y at the center of the
wheel is about 50 percent greater. The normal stresses along G-G, Mke those along
line F-F, also change from compression to tension as the distance from the wheel
center increases. The magnitude and position of the maximum r^.,, remain essentially
the same as on line F-F. The shearing stress t-^,. near the region of contact was found
slightly higher on line G-G than that on line F-F.
From the rectangular stress components the principal stresses Ci, Cz, and
Cs were calculated (see Appendix A). These stresses are shown in Fig. 7. As in the
case of the normal stresses the principal stresses also change from compression into
tension.
(b) Vertical Load 78.4 Lb
Line AO' — The curves in Fig. 8 represent the stress distribution along Hne AO'
in the plane of symmetry. Because of symmetry the shearing stresses Tj;,, and fxz are
identically zero.
The stresses ""i are tensile in the lower half of the head and compressive in the
upper half. Except for a small region at point A the stresses o-j, are compressive all
along the line AO'. The stresses <^z have a small tensile value at the lower fiber, a
small compressive value at the top and are practically zero in the middle of the line
AO'. The vertical shearing stresses r^y are small and remain fairly constant across this
line. In general, these stress distributions are similar to those produced by the smaller
load.
Line BO' — The curves in Fig. 9 show the stresses along hne BO'. As already men-
tioned, this line was chosen to pass through the point of maximum shear which occurs
close to the contact surface. The stresses Cj, <^y, and 0"^ are similar in shape to those for
line AO', but the numerical values in the contact region are much higher on line BO'.
For example, at contact c^ equals — 44 psi approximately on line BO' and only — 25
psi on line AO'. Similarly, Cj, is — 38 psi on BO' and only — 20 psi approximately on
line AO'. The stresses f.- at the lower fiber of the head becomes compressive, whereas
on AO' it was tensile.
Rail 953
Line F-F — The curves in Fig. 10 show the rectangular stress components along
the longitudinal line F-F, Figs. 1 and 4. These curves are very much similar in shape
to those on the same line for the smaller load, Fig. 5, except for Tr.-, which is no
longer small. The stress <^s in Fig. 10 obtained from numerical integration vanishes at
the free end where X/L =: 1, and thus satisfies the boundary condition. As in the case
of the smaller load, the state of stress changes from large triaxial compression into
small triaxial tension as the distance from the wheel center increases. The greatest
of the three shearing stresses is ^j-y, which reaches a maximum value of 50 percent of the
maximum <»■„ at X/L = 0.3.
Fig. 11 shows the principal stresses (f\, c^., and <^x. The normal stress components Cj,
ff,„ and <'■.- were also plotted for purpose of comparison. As would be expected, these
components lie between the maximum and minimum principal stresses Cj, and ^n.
It will be noted that at point M, where X/L =; 0.35, approximately, the principal
stress "'i assumes a value almost equal to 50 percent of the maximum c,,. Inspection
of the curves further shows that the maximum compression, C;,, does not occur at wheel
center, but at X/L = 0.2 approximately.
The principal stress directions were also calculated (see .Appendix B ) . The direc-
tion of each principal stress is given by the three angles ^.,, ^.,„ and 0.. which the stress
makes with the X, Y, and Z axes, respectively. The following table gives the principal
stress directions at point M, where the maximum tension occurs:
e. Oy e,
ffi 55.2° 54° 55°
ffo 102.1° 124.7° 37.4°
0-3 98.1° 54.9° 78.4°
The plane at point M, Fig. 11, on which the maximum <^i acts will be called the
P-plane and the normal stress on planes parallel to plane P will be denoted by <^p. The
values of Cp at X/L = 0 and X/L^ — 0.35 were also calculated (sec Appendix C),
and are given in the table below:
X/L
<',
0.35
11 psi
0
— 13 psi
-0.35
— 10 psi
Line G-G — The stress distribution along line G-G is shown in Fig. 12. The curves
for the rectangular stress components have characteristics similar to those observed along
line F-F. The numerical values of the stresses in the loaded region are higher. The
maximum compression a^ at the wheel center is about 70 percent greater than that on
line F-F. The normal stresses also change from large triaxial compression to small
triaxial tension. The maximum t^,, takes place at point N where X/L =: 0.3 and is slightly
lower than that on line F-F. The principal stresses are shown in Fig. 13. The results
are also similar to those for line F-F. Of particular importance is point M at X/L =
0.38, where the maximum Ci occurs. The numerical value of maximum Cj is about the
same as that on line F-F. The directions of the principal stresses at point M were again
evaluated and are given in the table below:
Ox
^,/
^.
64.4°
70.8°
32.9
101.1°
151.2°
63.8'
151.7°
69.2°
71.7'
054 Rail
The normal stresses o",, at XIL r= 0 and — 0.38 were also determined, and their
values at these positions are shown in the table below:
f/Z.
<'P
0.38
12 psi
0
— 14.8 psi
0.38
1.6 psi
Line H-H — Fig. 14 shows the rectangular stress components on line H-H. The
curves are similar to those along line F-F, and G-G. The maximum r^y at N is slightly-
higher than that on line G-G, but the position of N remains essentially the same.
Small triaxial tensions were also found. The principal stresses, Ci, Cs, o^s are shown in Fig.
IS. The maximum i^i at M where X/L:=0.36 is about 36 percent smaller than the
maximum value on line G-G. The principal stress directions at M are tabulated below:
e.
9v
e^
61.6°
S8.S°
44.9°
118.6°
124.4°
47.8°
44.1°
134.1°
88.5°
The values of the normal stresses <^,, at three significant positions are shown in the
table below:
X/L (Tj,
0.36 7.7 psi
0 — 10.8 psi
— 0.36 — 7.3 psi
Checks — The results were checked in two ways. The first check is provided by the
fact that the integrated value of <^x along the longitudinal lines F-F, G-G, and H-H
satisfy the boundary conditions, i.e., ^x vanishes at the free end, where A'/L = 1.
The second check is provided by the fact that the values of <^.„ and o", determined
from the longitudinal sub-slices containing lines F-F, G-G, and H-H agree with the
values of o-,, and c- determined from the sub-slices in the transverse section of
symmetry.
Table 1 gives the stresses in pounds per square inch for the steel rail for a load
of 30,000 lb. These were calculated from the stresses in the model by means of the
same transition formulas as those used in the first report. (Eq's (1), (2), Appendix D).
Chief Sources of Error — The photoelastic models were carefully prepared and the
loads were accurately measured. The photoelastic data, i;e., the birefringence and isoclinic
parameters, were determined by precision methods and the calculations carefully checked.
The only major source of error in the photoelastic work would come from the rather
large area of contact, which in all probability modifies somewhat the true distribution
of the contact pressures in the rail. However, the results from the two different loads
show essentially the same characteristics so that no serious errors have been introduced
by the higher load.
It would appear that the more concentrated contact pressure in the steel rail would
tend to produce a more severe state of stress than that in the photoelastic model.
The main source of error probably lies in the transition formulas.
Rail
955
Table 1
Rail Load— 30,000 lb
Model Load— 78.4 lb
Position of line below contact
Hange of "^j^
Range of %
Hange of^r
Range of'^'u/
Range oi "p
Range of '^mai from zero to_
O.Oo in
1 2 , 000 psi to
-45,000 psi
9.000 psi to
-75,000 psi
9 . 000 psi to
-13,500 psi
t, 35, 000 psi
33,000 psi to
-39,000 p.si
42,000 psi
Line G-G
0.04 in
18,000
-90,000
0,000
-12tj,000
24,000
-30,000
psi to
psi
psi to
psi
psi to
psi
= 30,000 psi
30,000
—44,000
p.si to
psi
51,000 psi
0.11-0.2 in
7 , 500 psi to
—52,000 p.si
0,000 psi to
— 110,000 psi
9,000 p.si to
10.800 psi
±37,500 psi
23 , 400 psi to
—32,400 psi
54,000 psi
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The complete state of interior principal stresses along critical lines parallel to the
axis of the rail have been determined photoelastically in the head of a model of a
railroad rail.
From the nature of the moving load it is apparent that each point in the rail
is subjected to a fluctuating state of stress. The stress distributions which we have
obtained from static conditions represent the stress history at a point on the hnes
studied as a function of the instaneous position of the wheel relative to the point.
The curves of the stress distributions are, in effect, influence curves for the stresses
for a moving load.
The study revealed several dangerous states of stress, which in themselves or in
combination may contribute to, or produce, the shelly failure:
( 1 ) The results show that the normal stress components <^x, <^y, and ffz alternate between
large compressions and relatively small tensions. The tensile triaxiality, which was
rather une.xpected, is known to produce embrittlement and may be a significant factor
in failure.
(2) There exist oblique planes, the P-planes, which are subjected to completely
reversed large normal stresses. The range of these stresses exceeds the endurance limit
of 33,000 psi for completely reversed normal stresses (6) on lines F-F and G-G, and
comes close to it in the region H-H of shelly failure.
(3) The range of the alternating shears r^y is ± 35,000 psi approximately, and the
endurance limit for completely reversed shear is 37,000 psi (7).
(4) The planes on which the maximum shears during each loading cycle act, which
we shall denote as Q-planes, are subjected to fluctuating shears and normal stresses.
The range on line H-H of the variable shear on these planes is at least from-0 to 54,000
psi, which comes dangerously close to the endurance limit of 59,000 psi (5). A possi-
bility exists that these shears may also reverse direction, which would certainly
aggravate matters.
No definite conclusions regarding the possible cause of failure can be drawn, largely
because no factual information is available on the behavior of materials under such
complicated states of stress as encountered in this problem.
056 Rail
The most likely cause of failure lies either in the fluctuating shears on the Q-plancs
or in the reversal of the shears t^.^ which are approximately equal to their respective
endurance limits. The decisive factor may, perhaps, lie in the effects of the associated
stresses.
Whether the maximum shear in the region H-H produces yielding ii uncertain
because of the severe strain hardening, and also because the transient nature of the
high stress may not allow sufficient time to develop yielding.
If failure is due to either one of these causes, and the transition formulas are
approximately correct, then a wheel load of 30,000 lb would seem sufficient to put
the rail in a state of incipient failure. A larger load would be required to produce
failure by alternating normal stresses.
The reason why fractures do not occur in the regions F-F and G-G probably lies
in the complicated effects which the combination of strain hardening, fatigue, and
residual stresses may have on the strength of steel. It is known that fatigue may under
certain conditions actually increase the strength of a metal before it weakens it (8).
Fatigue tests on actual rails may throw light on the cause of failure. Failure due to
T„,„j, is likely to produce a jagged surface, more or less horizontal, whereas failure due
to r^j, is likely to produce a relatively even surface.
APPENDIX A— MAGNITUDE OF THE PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Given the six rectangular stress components at a point, the values of the three
principal stresses can be determined from the cubic equation (9):
<T^ ~ ha^ -\- ho- —h =0 (1)
where /i, 1-2, and h are the stress invariants at the point
/i — (7^ + ff„ + <r,
12 = ff^ffy -f ffyff^ -f- ff^a, — r ,,,- — r„,= — t,./-
13 = a^dy a, 4- 2 T^j, r^^ t^. — a^ r„? — a^ t^," — a. r^f
The roots of the cubic equation are found by Cardan's method (10). This method
yields directly the three roots without applying a trial-and-error procedure. By letting
ff=zy -\- -^— the above equation is transformed into the following form:
/ + ay + 6 = 0 (2)
where the constants a and b are given by
a — h — Px/i
b= — h + 71/^3— 2 /V2 7
The three roots of
Eq.
(2) are
yx = 2
V^"
s±
3
- cos
■■,y^ = -
(60 +
— a
3
f 05
(60
-W=r
wh(
ere,
Cos^/>
= 27 6/2a
V-
-a
-i)^
Rail 957
The three principal stresses are then given by
APPENDIX B— DIRECTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Let Us, Hy, and m.- be the direction cosines of a principal plane, and a the magnitude
of the principal stress acting on this plane. It is shown in the theory of elasticity (9)
that the following relations must be satisfied:
(ff^ — <r)nj-+ Txj,ny + ^j-.n, rr 0 (1)
^vWix + (o-,, — <^) «,, + T,„«; = 0 (2)
•r:.«x+ '':.««./+ {<^,—<^)n, =0 (3)
In addition, the direction cosines have to meet the condition
«^ +«',+ «'. = 1 (4)
The above equations can be solved for «.,, «,„ and n,. The results are
»,-= , \, = (5)
n» =1 an-. (6)
n. = ^n. (7)
where,
„_ T,x(gc — g) — ^-.x-^y.-
ar.y 4- K- — <T)
APPENDIX C— DETERMINATION OF NORMAL STRESS ON ANY
ARBITRARY PLANE
Given the state of stress at a point, the normal stress acting on any arbitrary plane
can be determined from the equation (9):
where nx, tiy, and n^ are the direction cosiness of <^n, or of the normal to the plane.
B-S07S— AREA Feb.) Galley 62
APPENDIX D— TRANSITION FORMULAS
The transition formulas are taken from the supplementary report of October
1953 (1):
{o., <ry, <r,, •r,„„,)p =
<^''=>^'-i/^(t^^) <^'
where {Z)p and {Z)m are distances from the contact area to points at which the stresses
are related by Eq. (1).
Although the above equations are valid only along the load line in the immediate
region of contact, they are also used to translate maximum t^.^, maximum a,,, triaxial
tensions, and their corresponding positions in the region not directly under the load.
958 Rail
The essential data for the transition from the Fosterite model to a steel prototype
rail are tabulated below:
Notation
P = load between wheel and rail
E = modulus of elasticity
Ai = Poisson's ratio
L = characteristic length
Subscripts m and p refer to the model and prototype, respectively.
Fosterite Model Steel Prototype
L,n = 2/3 Lp = l
P„, = 78.4 lb, Pp = 30,000 lb.
£,„ = 2010 psi Ep = 30 X 10*' psi
Scale Factors
\l = L,JLp=%
\p = P,jPp= 7SA/30,000 = 2.61 X lO"''
?^B = EnjEp — 2010/30 X 10" = 6.7 X 10^'
X ^ = Mm//*p = 3/2
Substituting these values into Eqs. (1) and (2) respectively, we obtain:
(
^ ' " ' ^' ^ ' ■ " ''"'y b.6lA3X6.70;
3000 (o-^, ff,j, cr,, T„,„^),„
3 / 6.7 X 10-
j(2.61 X lO-") X
-ay
(fxj)"
= 0.36 (Z),
As already mentioned above, and in the supplementary report of October 1953,
these equations would at best be valid in a small region near the contact surface. For
points below the surface the transition factors become a function of distance from the
contact surface; the stress factor decreasing and the position factor increasing. For
example, for a 30,000-lb load on the steel rail and 78.4 lb on the model the transition
factor for stress varies from 3,000 at the contact surface to 170 approximately at
points A and B in Fig. 4, where the contact effects disappear. The value of 170 was
arrived at from the consideration that in geometrically similar bodies, neglecting the
effect of Poisson's ratio, the stresses are directly proportional to the load and inversely
proportional to the square of the scale ratio. Similarly near the surface of contact the
transition factor for position calculated from Eq. (2) is 0.36. At the lower free surface
of the head, points A and B in Fig. 4, where the contact effects disappear, the factor
becomes 1.5, which is the scale ratio of prototype to model. A consideration of these
possible variations shows that the transition factor for line H-H drops to 2900 or
2800, thereby reducing the stresses by about 7 percent. It would also appear that the
Rail 959
weaknesses in the transition formulas dr-e likely to produce greater errors in the triaxial
tensions than in the triaxial compressions, because the compression regions are closer
to the contact surface than the tensile regions. Specifically, the error tends to yield
higher tensile values. The effect of variation of the position factor would be to lower
the position of line H-H from 0.11 in to nearly 0.2 in below the contact surface, thus
bringing the line H-H closer to the region of the shelly failures.
REFERExXCES
(1) Frocht, M. M., "Final Report on a Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Investigation of
the Principal Stresses and Maximum Shears in the Head of a Model of a Railroad
Rail", and Supplementary Report on "A Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Investiga-
tion of the Principal Stresses and Maximum Shears in the Head of a Model of a
Railroad Rail", AREA Proceedings, Vol. 55, page 854.
(2) Frocht, M. M. and Guernsey, R. Jr., "Studies in Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity
— The Application of the Shear Difference Method to the General Space Problem"',
Proceedings, 1st U. S. Nat. Congr. Appl. Mech., December 1952.
(3) Frocht, M. M. and Guernsey, R. Jr., ''Further Work on the General Three-
Dimensional Photoelastic Problem", Journal Applied Mechanics, Volume 22, No. 2,
June 1955.
(4) Frocht, M. M., Pih, H., and Landsberg, D.. "The Use of Photometric Devices in
the Solution of the General Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Problem", Proceedings,
Society Experimental Stress Analysis, Volume XII, No. 1, 1954.
(5) Jensen, R. S., "Effect of Wheel Diameter and Wheel Load on Extent of Rail
Damage", AAR Research Center Files.
(6) .^RE.'V Proceedings, Vol. 51.
(7) AREA Proceedings, \'ol. 58, page 971.
(8) Cazaud, R., "Fatigue of Metals", Philosophical Library, Incorporated, New York,
1953.
(0) Timoshenko, S.. Goddier, J. N., "Theory of Elasticity", McGraw-Hill. New York,
1951.
<10) Uspensky, J. V., "Theory of Equations", McGraw-Hill. New York, 1048.
960
Rail
Z^^z
h
^
^zx
--X
78.4 1 b.
9^'
^16
^crq
78.4 lb
Y
L=3"
77777777777777
' L=3'
Fig. 1 — Notation and model.
■X
Rail
061
Fig- 2 — Stress pattern of the transverse section of symmetry.
Fosterite model. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
Q62
Rail
Fig. 3 — Stress pattern of a longitudinal slice. Fosterite model.
Vertical load 78.4 lb.
Rail
06.<
Fig. 4— Sketch showing locations of lines AO', BO', and of longitudinal
sub-slices through F, G, and H,
064
Rail
Fig. 5 — Rectangular stress components for line F-F. Vertical load 51 lb.
Fig. 6 — Rectangular stress components for line G-G. Vertical load 51 lb.
Rail
965
CL
c
CO
-30 -
-40-
-50
Fig. 7 — Principal stresses for line G-G. Vertical load 51 lb.
40
30
20
10
CO
0
-20
0 ^0 2^^04 06. 0 8
J
KO
-301-
Fig. 8 — Rectangular stress components for line AO' in the phane
symmetry. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
966
Rail
Fig. 9 — Rectangular stress components for line BO' in the plane
of symmetry. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
Rail
967
'-'1.0
Fig. 10 — Rectangular stress components for line F-F. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
15
-30
Fig. 11 — Comparison of principal stresses with rectangular stress
components on line F-F. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
968
Rail
-10-
-30-
-40-
Fig. 12 — Rectangular stress components for line G-G. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
Fig. 13 — Principal stresses for line G-G. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
Rail
969
-40'-
Fig. 14 — Rectangular stress components for line H-H. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
20|-
co
-10-
-40
Fig. 15 — Principal stresses for line H-H. Vertical load 78.4 lb.
Q70 Rail
Report on Assignment 9
Recent Developments Affecting Rail Section
J. A. Bunjer (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Almy, S. H. Barlow, T. A. Blair, T. F.
Burris, C. J. Code, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, C. E. R. Haight, C. J. Henry, S. R.
Hursh, W. M. Jaekle, K. K. Kessler, Ray McBrian, R. B. Rhode, H. F. Whitmore,
R. P. Winton, Edward Wise, Jr.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
A request was made in February 1957 upon the chief engineers of AAR Member
Roads to have measurements made of the actual loss in height due to wear, of rail
being removed from main line tangent track during 1957. A rail wear data sheet accom-
panied the letter, and the request was made that rail on main line tangent track only
and laid new originally in its present position be measured. The letter requested that
data be furnished for the rail section, year rolled, approximate annual traffic density
in gross tons, measured height of rail to nearest 1/32 in at the mid-width of the rail
and away from rail end batter or wheel burns, and the loss in height of rail. Twenty
railroads responded with complete data, and the number of individual measurements
ranged from 1 to 79 per road, with a sum of 380 measurements. The following rail
sections predominated in the measurements: 100, 110, 112, 113, 130, 131, 132, 140 and
152-155 lb. The railroads furnishing complete data were UP, KCS, C&O N&W, CP,
C&EI, Sou., Maine C, D&H, Seaboard, Soo Line, Nickel Plate, IC, Erie, CB&Q, T&P,
CN, NYC, SP and PRR. The PRR furnished contours of twenty-six 140-, 152- and
155-lb sections with complete data.
The rail wear data in terms of tonnage is plotted in Fig. 1. The ordinate is rail-
head wear in inches per 100 million gross tons of traffic, and the abscissa is the average
annual traffic density in million gross tons of traffic on rails. In Fig. 1, the plotted
triangles represent the average of all individual measurements within limited areas. A
mean curve is drawn close to the plotted averages. The slope of the mean curve is quite
steep between 2 and 10 MGT per year traffic. At 13 MGT per year, the mean value
is 0.030 in head wear per 100 MGT traffic and reduces in a straight line variation to
0.023 in at 40 MGT per year traffic. At the lower annual tonnages, the scatter of indi-
vidual measurements is quite wide. For annual tonnages above 13 MGT where the
mean curve becomes a straight line, the scatter of individual measurements becomes
much smaller. Above 12 MGT per year there are very few individual measurements
above 0.045 in per 100 MGT of traffic. A few individual measurements at 2 to 4 MGT
per year were above 0.120 in and were not plotted. Two Southern Pacific measure-
ments at 32 MGT per year marked "heavy sand territory and variation caused by
partially protected area of trees and buildings" were not plotted. Seven measurements
on N&W 131-132-lb rails were not plotted because at removal from track their total
tonnage carried was low.
The following is a list of roads furnishing data with a reported annual traffic of 20
MGT or more at some measured locations:
Road Readings Rail MGT /Year Max MGT
UP 15 131, 19 to 40 585
C&O 18 110,112,131,132 5 to 42 420
N&W 19 131,132 19 to 50 600
Sou 38 100, 130, 131 13 to 22 360
D&H 15 112,130,131 1.4 to 21 340
IC 18 112 7 to 31 460
Erie 11 110,112,130,131 0.5 to 26 700
SP 15 113 23 to 37 390
PRR 29 1.50.1.^1.140.152,155 7 to 43 900
Rail
971
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Years
Total
Total Head
Service
MGT
Wear-In
30
150
0.100
30
300
0.108
25
500
0.140
16%
500
0.125
12^
500
0.115
972 _^ Rail
The data plotted in the figure represent roads rather well distributed throughout
the country. Without doubt, local conditions on the above tangent tracks vary widely
on individual railroads and certainly from one road to another. The data also include
rails from 85 to 155 lb, but, of course, the high tonnages reported are on the heavier
rail sections.
In the first service test of joint bars conducted from 1937 to 1948, rail head wear
was measured on several hundred rails. The rail head wear averaged on the Santa Fe
112-lb section 0.030 in per 100 MGT of traffic and on the Pennsylvania 131 -lb section
0.026 in per 100 MGT of traffic.
If rail head wear on main line tangent track can be assumed to follow the mean
curve for traffic densities shown in Fig. 1, then for varying traffic densities and a total
rail life in its original tangent position varying from 150 to 500 MGT of traffic, the
total head wear would be expected to vary from 0.100 to 0.140 in for the conditions in
the following tabulation:
Traffic Wear-In
MGT/yr per 100 MGT
5 0.067
10 0.036
20 0.028
30 0.025
40 0.023
Report on Assignment 10
Service Performance and Economics of 78-Ft Rail;
Specifications for 78-Ft Rail
Collaborating with Committee 5
J. K. Gloster (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Almy, E. L. Anderson, S. H. Barlow,
T. A. Blair, B. Bristow, R. E. Catlett, Jr., L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, C. J. Henry,
S. R. Hursh, J. C. Jacobs, W. M. Jaekle, N. W. Kopp, Ray McBrian, B. R. Meyers,
R. B. Rhode, E. F. Salisbury, W. D. Simpson, H. F. Smith, A. P. Talbot, R. P.
Winton, Edward Wise, Jr., J. E. Yewell, W. L. Young.
This is a progress report, presented as information.
Foreword
This report covers only the service tests of 78-ft rail installed in August 1956 by the
Illinois Central Railroad in its southward main track (No. 1 of 3 tracks) south of
Monee and Peotone, 111. The purpose of this test is primarily to develop information
necessary to determine the rail anchorage required for adequately anchoring 78-ft rail.
The rail anchorage used in the original 78-ft rail tests on the Pennsylvania Railroad
near Hamlet, Ind., and on the Chicago & North Western Railway near Calamus, Iowa,
had not proved to be satisfactory. The IC tests are reported in the Proceedings, Vol. 58,
1957, page 1048, and Vol. 59, 1958, page 992.
The field work and preparation of the test report were conducted by the AAR
Engineering Division research staff under the direction of G. M. Magee, director of
engineering research, under the direct supervision of H. E. Durham, research engineer
track and members of his staff.
Rail
973
Winter January 3, 1958
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
^ 30
c
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Si 20
West Roil- 67 Joints
East Rail -67 Joints
Avg. Roil Temp. 2°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.42"
Roil loid tight
at about 110°, Aug. 13 8- 14, 1956
nlllllln
Avg. Roil Temp. 2°
Avg. Joint Gap 0.43"
Roil loid tight
ot about 110°, Aug. 13 8. 14, 1956
MP 34.7-35.7 hos roil onchors boxed
on alternate ties (44 per 78-ft roil)
a
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Summer August 12, 1958
Avg. Roil Temp. 118°
Avg Jomt Gop 0.010"
fla
Avg. Roil Temp. 118°
Avg. Joint Gop 0.008"
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Joint Gop in Hundredths of on Inch
Fig. I. Summer and Winter Joint Gop Measurements in 78ft Roil MP 34 7-35 7
ICRR between Monee and Peotone, Illinois.
974
Rail
Winter Jonuory 3, 1958
West Roil -34 Joints Eost Roil -33 Joints
100
1
Avg. Roil Temp. -4°
Avg. Roil Temp. -4"
90
Avg. Joint Gap 0.15"
Avg. Joint Gap 0.35"
80
Roil loid tight ot 75" Aug. 16, 1956
Roil loid tigtit ot ll7»Aug. 15, 1956
70
Anctiored
22-8 per 78ft roil
60
50
40
30
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Summer August 12, 1958
Avg. Roil Temp. |20°
Avg. Roil Temp. 120°
90
Avg. Joint Gop 0.037"
Avg. Joint Gop 0.183"
80
70
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Joint Gop in Hundredttis of on incti
Fig. 2. Sumnr^er ond Winter Joint Gop Measurements in 78ft Rail MP 42-42.5
ICRR between Monee and Peotone, Illinois.
Rail 975
Discussion of Test Data
Figs. 1 and 2 show winter and summer joint gap bar diagrams for the two sections-
M.P. 34.7-35.7 and M.P. 42-42.5, in the southbound track of the Ilinois Central.
The AAR test mile, M.P. 34.7-35.7 (Fig. 1), shows essentially the same gap pat-
tern as in 1957. With winter temperature of 2 deg in 1958 compared to 1 deg in 1957.
the average gap increased 0.03 in whereas the average summer gap was 0.01 in less at
118 deg in 1958 than at 113 deg in 1957. As in 1957, the gaps in the one-half mile,
M.P. 42-42.5 (Fig. 2), lack the uniformity of the test mile which continued to indicate
the importance of sufficient anchorage reverse to traffic. (Compare the east rail in
Fig. 2 with Fig. 1). As in 1957, the west rail, M.P. 42-42.5, shows the lesser variation
between average winter and summer gaps, reflecting the advantage of laying rail at
more nearly a mean rail temperature.
Maintenance
No maintenance work pertinent to the test has been performed since the track was
surfaced shortly after laying in 1956.
Acknowledgement
The Association is grateful to the Illinois Central for its cooperation and assistance
in carrying out the service test.
Report on Assignment 11
Rail Damage Resulting from Engine Burns; Prevalence;
Means of Prevention; Repair by Welding
C. E. Morgan (chairman, subcommittee), E. L. Anderson, F. W. Blitz, T. A. Blair,
C. J. Code. C. A. Colpitis, L. S. Crane, W. J. Cruse, G. H. Echols, J. K. Gloster,
C. E. R. Haight, V. E. Hall, J. C. Jacobs, K. K. Kessler, N. W. Kopp, Lee May-
field, Ray McBrian, C. R. Rilev, E. F. Salisbury, W. D. Simpson, A. P. Talbot,
R. P. Winton, Edward Wise, Jr.
Presented as information, this report presents a tabulation of engine burns welded
as well as welded engine burns that broke during 1957. The slight increase in the number
that broke in 1957 compared to the total of 116,403 welded gives further proof that
welding engine burns is a very sound and economical procedure.
Wheel burns that were welded with joint bars appHed are not included in the table.
Rail cleaning solutions to remove grease show some promise in improving the
adhesion factor between locomotive and rail. Some tests have shown that 7 to 10 percent
more tonnage can be handled in certain bad areas by cleaning the top of the rail.
976
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J3 XI
E S
"3 "3
PROCEEDINGS
PROGRAM
Fifty-Eighth Annual Meeting
Sherman Hotel, Chicago
Monday, March 9
Morning Session — Grand Baliroom — 9:30 to 12:00
Invocation — Rev. Robert F. Truesdcll, Congregational Church, Winnelka, III.
Introductions and Greetings.
Presidential Address — B. R. Meyers, Chief Engineer, Chicago & North Western Railway.
Report of Executive Secretary — Neal D. Howard.
Report of Treasurer — A. B. Hillman, Chief Engineer, Chicago & Western Indiana and
Belt Railway of Chicago.
Greetings from the Signal Section, AAR, V. P. Shepardson (Chairman), Engineer Signals
and Communications, Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad.
Greetings from the Electrical Section, A.\R, H. P. Wright (Chairman), Electrical Engi-
neer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
Greetings from the National Railway Appliances Association, R. A. Carr (President),
Dearborn Chemical Company.
Keynote Address — Change and Challenge in Railroading, by D. P. Loomis, President,
AAR.
Address — Give the "High Ball" to Safety, by Paul Jones, Director of Public Informa-
tion, National Safety Council.
Presentation of Honorary Membership Certificate to Dr. L. K. Sillco.x, Honorary Vice
Chairman of the Board, New York Air Brake Company.
Address — What I Observed in Europe of Interest to the American Railroads, by Ray
McBrian, Director of Research, Denver & Rio Grande Western.
Address — Summary of Discussions Before Industry Conference on Railway-Highway
Problems, by H. H. Hale, Assistant to Vice President — Highway Transportation,
AAR.
Afternoon Session — Grand Ballroom — 2:00 to 5:00
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Numbers
9— Highways (2:00) 546
Address — AASHO Road Test Being Carried on in Illinois (illustrated),
by W. N. Carey, Jr., Chief Engineer for Research, AASHO Road Test.
20— Contract Forms (2 :40) 546
11 — Engineering and Valuation Records (2:55) 548
14 — ^Yards and Terminals (3:15) 546
Motion pictures of facilities for loading and unloading rail-truck freight
equipment.
16 — Economics of Railway Location and Operation (4:05) 546
Address — Economics of Railway Engineering, by Frank J. Richter, Pub-
lisher, Modern Railroads.
25 — Waterways and Harbors (4:50) 547
979
080 Program
Tuesday, March 10
Morning Session — George Bernard Shaw Room — 9:00—12:00
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Numbers
24 — Cooperative Relations with Universities (9:00) 548
Address — The Engineer's Responsibility to Railroad Management by R. G. May,
Vice President, Operations and Maintenance Department, AAR.
13— Water, Oil and Sanitation Services (9:40) 546
Address — The Broadening Field for Railway Water Service Engineers,
by E. T. Myers, Engineering Editor, Modern Railroads.
7— Wood Bridges and Trestles (10:15) 548
Address — How Serviceable Are 50-Year Old Bridge Stringers, by F. P.
Drew, Assistant Research Engineer Structures, AAR.
8-^Masonry (10:30) S47
Address — Prestressed Concrete in Western Europe and Russia (illustrated),
by Ben C. Gerwick, Jr., President, Ben C. Gerwick, Inc.
30— Impact and Bridge Stresses (11 : 10) 547
15— Iron and Steel Structures (11:25) 548
ASSOCIATION LUNCHEON — GRAND BALLROOM, 12 NOON
Presentation of those at speaker's tables.
Presentation of gavels to incoming committee chairmen.
Announcement of results of election officers.
Address by B. W. Heineman, Chairman, Chicago & North Western Railway, on Railroad
Economics Today.
Afternoon Session — George Bernard Shaw Room — 2:30 to 5:00
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Numbers
28— Clearances (2:30) 547
29— Waterproofing (2:40) 547
17— Wood Preservation (2:50) 547
6— Buildings (3:00) 546
Address — Practical Applications of Infra-Red Ray Heating to Railroad
Buildings (illustrated), by L. R. Morgan, Assistant Research Engineer
Structures, AAR.
27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment (3:25) 547
22 — -Economics of Railway Labor (3:55) 547
Address — Report on Work Study — A Tool for Railway Management, As
Practiced on British Railways, by H. J. Fast, Assistant Chief Engineer,
Canadian National Railways.
3— Ties (4:35) 547
Address — Studies of Anti-Splitting Devices for Ties at the AAR Research
Center (illustrated), by H. M. Sutcliffe, Research Technician, Research
Staff, AAR.
Program 98_l
Wednesday, March 1 1
Morning Session — Grand Ballroom — 9:00 to 12:00
Bulletin
Reports of Committees Numbers
Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail (9:00) 549
4— Rail (9:15) 549
Address — Further Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Studies of Stresses in
Rail Head Due to Wheel Contact Pressure (illustrated), by M. M.
Frocht, Research Professor of Mechanics, Director of Experimental
Stress Analysis, Illinois Institute of Technology.
5— Track (9:55) 549
Address — Standardization of Turnouts — What Must Be Done to Achieve
It?, by M. J. Zeeman, Engineer of Track Design, Santa Fe.
1— Roadway and Ballast (10:45) 549
Address — Soil Engineering Problems on the Quebec, North Shore and
Labrador Railroad (illustrated), by R. W. Pryer, Soils Engineer,
QNS&L.
Closing Business
Installation of officers.
Adjournment.
Afternoon — 1 :30
Post-convention inspection of AAR Research Center.
082
Report of the Tellers
Report of the Tellers
March 10, 1959
We, the Committee of Tellers, appointed to canvass the ballots for officers and for
members of the Nominating Committee, find the count of ballots as follows:
For President :
F. R. WooLFORD 1,656
For Senior Vice President:
E. J. Brown*
For Junior Vice President:
R. H. Beeder 1,650
For Directors (first four elected)
W. E. Cornell 971
F. L. Etchison 942
W. J. Cruse 914
C. R. Riley 876
H. B. Christianson, Jr 746
V. C. Hanna 720
D. E. RuDisiLL 710
L. V. Johnson 623
For Members of Nominating Committee (first five elected)
J. E. ElSEMANN 1,030
W. D. Kirkpatrick 979
C. E. Weller 949
C. Neufeld 934
C. L. TowLE 872
L. S. Crane 843
C. I. Hartsell 824
E. A. McLeod 736
P. D. Brentlinger 487
f. j. corporon 413
The Committee of Tellers,
J. E. Wiggins, Jr., Chairman.
B. G. Anderson C. S. Graves M. P. Oviatt
C. M. Bardvi'Ell R. R. Gunderson W. G. Park
R. A. Bardwelll F. E. Gunning H. C. Pottsmith
R. O. Bardwell . G. B. Harris R. S. Radspinner
R. E. Buss G. D. Hinton C. L. Robinson
L. C. Collister N. W. Hutchison C. W. Russell
L. E. Conner Milton Jarrell R. L. Samuell
E. C. Cook H. F. Kanute R. K. Seals
Raymond Dejaiffe J. R. Latimer R. S. Shaw, Jr.
L. P. Diamond W. B. Leaf T. A. Tennyson, Jr.
A. E. DuLiK E. J. LisY R. E. von Sprecken
M. L. Edlund J. DE N. Macomb K. E. Wyckoff
J. W. Fulmer H. L. McMullin G. L. Zipperian
C. J. Geyer C. R. Merriman
M. E. GiDDiNGS M. A. Michel
* Under provisions of the Constitution, E. J. Brown advances automatically from junior vice presi-
dent to senior vice president.
PROCEEDINGS
Running Report of the Annual Meeting of the American Railway
Engineering Association (Construction and Maintenance Section,
Engineering Division, Association of American Railroads),
March 9-11, 1959, Hotel Sherman, Chicago, Including Ab-
stracts of All Discussions, All Formal Action on Committee
Presentations, Specific Papers and Addresses Presented
in Connection with Committee Reports, and Other
Official Business of the Association
Opening Session — March 9, 1959
President B. R. Meyers,* presiding
The opening session of the 58th Annual Meeting convened at 9:30 am.
Executive Secretary Neal D. Howard: Gentlemen, it's getting pretty nearly time
to start. I hope that those standing in the back of the room will iind seats promptly
so we won't be delayed.
While you are finding your places, President Meyers has asked me to invite our
past presidents, our officers, our directors and several of our special guests to come
to the platform. Will these men please take their places as indicated by the different
signs here at the speaker's table? The directors on my left, and on my right, our past
presidents and some of our special guests who will participate in this morning's program.
While these gentlemen are coming to the speaker's table, may I ask that the mem-
bers of any committees that have luncheons planned for this afternoon who have not
already purchased their tickets for those luncheons do so before this session starts
because you must have a ticket in order to participate in the luncheon, and we must
know well in advance how many are going to be at each luncheon.
I see down in front of me Mr. Bering, chairman of the board of the Sherman
Hotel Corporation. He has a gavel which he would like to present to our president
so that this meeting will get off to a good start. Mr. Bering, would you come up at this
time and make your presentation?
Mr. Frank Bering: Thank you. Mr. President, members of the American Railway
Engineering Association: I can't tell you how happy we are to have you back with us
again. We are very appreciative, and if there is anything that we can possibly do for
anyone, please call upon us.
[President Meyers came forward.]
Now, Mr. President, on behalf of the Hotel Sherman, I wish to present to you
this gavel. May it serve you well during your deliberations, and then may you take it
home as a remembrance of the finest convention you have ever held. Thank you.
[Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Bering. This is indeed a very fine gavel, with
a lot of engraving. I will have to read it at my leisure.
Will the meeting please come to order.
Chief Engineer, Chicago & Norlh Western Railway.
983
984 Opening Session
This is the S8th Annual Meeting of the AREA and the concurrent annual meeting
of the Construction and Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division, Association
of American Railroads.
As we begin our two and one-half days of serious deliberations in behalf of an indus-
try which is essential to the welfare of our country, and one which is so closely linked
to the individual lives of each of us, it is very fitting and desirable that we seek, divine
guidance and help. Accordingly, I have asked Reverend Robert F. Truesdell of the
Winnetka Congregational Church, to do this for us. Reverend Truesdell.
Invocation
[The assembly arose]
Reverend Truesdell: Most gracious God, our Heavenly Father, on this notable
occasion gladly do we pause and acknowledge Thee as our Creator, and as the one who
gives meaning to all of our activities. We also bring Thee our thanksgiving for this
beloved land of ours where dignity of personality and freedom and moral and spiritual
values still have profound meaning and the respect of our people and government alike.
We thank Thee, too, for the initiative, resourcefulness, the adventuresomeness that
have been the cornerstones of our free enterprise system, and for the great industry
of American railroading which has made such an invaluable contribution to the growth
and present greatness of our country.
May this industry go on from strength to strength and continue mightily in the
building of a better America and indirectly a better world.
Now may Thy rich blessing rest upon all those men and women from every corner
of our land who have assembled here for this important convention and may all of its
sessions be most rewarding. Amen.
President Meyers: Thank you. Reverend Truesdell. We appreciate your petition
in our behalf. We shall be happy to have you remain with us as long as you desire, but
we want you to feel at liberty to leave at any time you feel you have to. Thank you
again for meeting with us this morning.
We meet here today under improved economic conditions, but we are all aware that
there is still much to be done to improve the state of our industry. We, as an Associa-
tion, have a definite responsibility in this regard. We accept that responsibility. That is
why we take two and one-half days away from our regular jobs to meet here to
analyze our problems and to think out their solutions together.
Our convention hotel, as was demonstrated last year, provides splendid facilities
for our activities, and its management and personnel have assured us every courtesy
and service. This, combined with long and careful planning on the part of our officers
and directors, your secretary's office, and your Committee on Convention Arrangements,
insure another most successful and profitable meeting for all of us.
As you know, there is no exhibit of the National Railway Appliances Association
in connection with our convention this year, but I am pleased to see so many of our
railway supply friends here, with whom we can exchange greetings and discuss our
problems. We have a long and interesting program ahead of us which will fill every
minute of the next two and one-half days — in fact, so much so that it is essential
that we start all of our sessions on schedule and that committees adhere strictly to the
amount of time allotted to them for their presentations.
Without an exhibit, it is hardly to be expected that the attendance at our con-
4{
Opening Ses s ion 985
vention this year will equal the near record attendance at our last convention, but you
will be interested to know that in order to participate in certain pre-convention activities,
members and guests — a total of 316 — registered yesterday between 11 am and 3 pm.
The names of those who registered appear in the first of the three Daily Registration
Lists, which will be available shortly.
I am glad that a considerable number of you brought your wives along to the
convention and am pleased that a number of them are with us this morning in the
balcony. [Looking up at the ladies] We want you to know that you are welcome to
attend any of our sessions. The balcony will be continuously available to you for this
purpose, and you can slip in and slip out as you desire. Many of you will be especially
interested in the Closing Business Session of the convention beginning about 11:30 am
on Wednesday, when our new officers will be installed. In the meantime, I hope you
will enjoy the special functions which have been arranged for you and that you will
have a generally pleasant time in Chicago.
Before starting the more formal part of our program this morning, I would like
to present to you those sitting at our speaker's table. As I call their names, I will
appreciate their standing, and please, no applause until we get all done.
Mr. H. 3. Loeffler, past president of AREA, 19SO-1951; assistant chief engineer,
Great Northern Railway, St. Paul, Minn.
Mr. T. A. Blair, past president of AREA, 1951-1952; retired chief engineer system,
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Park Ridge, III.
Mr. C. J. Geyer, past president of AREA, 1952-1953; retired vice president, con-
struction and maintenance, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Richmond, Va.
Mr. G. W. Miller, past president of AREA, 1954-1955; general superintendent,
Canadian Pacific Railway, Toronto, Ont.
Mr. G. M. O'Rourke, past president of AREA, 1955-1956; retired assistant engineer
maintenance of way, Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago.
Mr. Wm. J. Hedley, past president of AREA, 1956-1957; chief engineer, Wabash
Railroad, St. Louis, Mo.
Mr. Ray McBrian, past president of AREA, 1957-1958; director of research, Denver
& Rio Grande Western Railroad, Denver, Colo.
Mr. E. J. Brown, junior vice president of AREA, chief engineer, Burlington Lines,
Chicago.
Mr. F. R. Woolford, senior vice president of AREA, chief engineer. Western Pacific
Railroad, San Francisco, Calif.
Mr. Neal Howard, executive secretary of AREA.
Mr. A. B. Hillman, treasurer, AREA; chief engineer, Belt Railway; Chicago &
Western Indiana Railroad, Chicago.
Mr. G. H. Echols, director of AREA; chief engineer. Southern Railway System,
Washington, D. C.
Mr. L. A. Loggins, director of AREA; chief engineer. Southern Pacific Lines in
Texas and Louisiana, Houston, Tex.
We had hoped to introduce next Mr. R. R. Manion, director of AREA; assistant
vice president — operation. New York Central System, but he could not be here today.
Mr. W. G. Powrie, director of AREA; chief engineer, Milwaukee Road, Chicago.
Mr. A. V. Johnston, director of AREA; chief engineer, Canadian National Railways,
Montreal, Que.
Mr. W. H. Hobbs, director of AREA; chief engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad,
St. Louis, Mo.
986 Ope ning Session
Mr. A. B. Stone, director of AREA; chief engineer, Norfolk & Western Railway,
Roanoke, Va.
Mr. J. C. Jacobs, director of AREA; engineer maintenance of way, Illinois Central
Railroad, Chicago.
Mr. W. W. Hay, director of AREA; professor of railway civil engineering, Uni-
versity of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
M. W. M. Jaekle, director of AREA; chief engineer. Southern Pacific Company,
San Francisco, Calif.
Mr. T. F. Burris, director of AREA; chief engineer, system, Chesapeake & Ohio
Railway, Huntington, W. Va., and
Mr. T. M. von Sprecken, director of AREA; assistant to chief engineer. Southern
Railway System, Washington, D. C.
[Applause]
In the introductions thus far, I purposely skipped over three special guests whom
I will introduce a Uttle later in the program and ask for a word of greeting from their
respective organizations.
The first official business to come before our meeting is consideration of the minutes
of the 19S8 convention which were printed in Vol. 59 of the AREA Proceedings for
1958, a copy of which was furnished to each member. Unless I hear some objection or
correction to these minutes, we will dispense with the reading.
Hearing no objections or corrections I declare the minutes approved as printed in
the Proceedings.
Address of President B. R. Meyers
I would like to take a few minutes at this time to summarize some of the events
during the past year and make some comments about the future as I see it.
Our Association has had a most interesting year. We have had our problems, but
over-all we have had a good year. Our membership of some 3400 has held relatively
steady, except for a very slight decrease, which was not unexpected in a recession period.
However, I would like to point out that there has been no reduction in the number
of members on committees.
Our finances are in good condition, although it appears we may have an unbalanced
budget for the coming year due to some non-recurring expenses.
Our national economy is again expanding after a recession which hit bottom last
summer. Business in general and railroad business in particular is leaving the recession
behind. An increase is predicted in carloadings which should reflect in most roads doing
more work on their fixed property. It is interesting to note that during the recession
year of 1958 the average wages paid railroad employes reached a new all-time high.
Excessive wage demands by unions in future negotiations could very well do serious
damage to the welfare of our industry. This situation makes it mandatory on all of us
to increase our efforts to reduce unit costs by mechanization and all other possible means
in order to get more for each dollar expended and thus increase the net for our
companies.
We have 142 reports from our 23 standing and special committees, which have
already been published in the Bulletins. This is not unusual as our committees have been
working hard for many years. As time goes on the personnel changes, the number of
committees change and their assignments change to keep abreast of our fast-changing
technology. However, the interest, enthusiasm and willingness of men interested in rail-
Address of P r es i de n t M e y e r s 987
road construction and maintenance, working together on the solution of our common
problems, is the sustaining reason for this Association. I can say this with assurance,
as I have visited a good many of the committees during this past year and observed
them at work.
These committee reports, together with a number of special features, should provide
a very interesting program at this convention from which we can all derive considerable
benefit for ourselves and for our companies.
While I am mentioning committees, I want to acknowledge the able job accom-
plished by the Arrangements Committee under the direction of General Chairman Jim
Barnes and to thank all of the members, on behalf of the Association, who have worked
on this committee.
I would like to express my appreciation to Simmons-Boardman Publishing Cor-
poration for again operating a coffee bar during our convention. I am .sure this has
helped get some of our members to the opening sessions on time.
During the year we have tried to keep you informed on the affairs of your Associa-
tion through the AREA News. We gave you information on matters pending in Congress,
and we were pleased to see that some legislation helpful to the railroad industry wa-
enacted. I am sure most of you did your part in supporting these measures and will
do so in the future at the proper time. You should be just as alert to oppose proposed
legislation harmful to our industry. We have a duty and obligation to our industry
beyond our specific technical responsibilities and should not be reluctant to do our part
in helping to solve the over-all problems of the railroads.
At the convention a year ago considerable emphasis was placed on the need for
expanding our research. In my opinion, this is just as important today and should be
kept in mind constantly by our committees. Our research in 1Q58 cost appro.ximately
$550,000. The work was carried out under the able direction of the AAR Research Staff
headed by Vice President W. M. Keller and Director of Engineering Research G. M.
Magee. As you know, our research is financed by an appropriation from the Association
of American Railroads, with some assistance on specific projects by the American Iron
and Steel Institute. It is hoped that our research can be expanded in the future.
Our research program is limited by available funds and up to now has been used
to a great extent for technical services, testing, investigations, etc., which are necessary
for the day-to-day operation of our railroads. While all of these are part of the broad
term "research," I feel we are all in agreement that it would be desirable and worthwhile
to take more advantage of the basic type of research.
Technology is advancing very fast, and there would appear to be many applications
for the benefit of the railroad industry if funds for sufficient research could be obtained
to explore the feasibility of such applications. The potential benefits that could develop
from atomic power, nuclear light sources and many other discoveries will accrue to those
industries which have the foresight to thoroughly investigate them. In fact, an accelerated
research program now could well be the key to the railroads remaining in a competitive
position with other forms of transportation 10 or 15 years from now.
I know that our research staff is following closely the new developments in basic
and fundamental research to the extent possible with available funds in order to take
advantage of any possible applications for railroad use. I would urge each member of
this Association to also be alert and suggest to the appropriate committee or the research
staff possible applications of any new technology that may come to your attention or
occur to you.
A little over a year ago a Board Committee on Research was established. This
988 Opening Session
committee, has functioned very well and has efficiently handled all matter pertaining
to our expanding research program. The board has received much help and council from
this committee, and its importance to the Association will increase in the future.
I want to compliment the railroad equipment industry on its progress in developing
new machines which reduce manpower requirements and in many cases produce better
work ; however, in my opinion, we have only scratched the surface on developments in
this field. It is suggested that railroad equipment manufacturers step up their research.
Increased sales will be the reward to the leaders.
As a result of changes in our constitution approved last fall by letter ballot, we now
have an Executive Committee which has the authority to act for the Board of Directors
when urgent problems arise which cannot wait for a regular meeting of the Board.
This change should strengthen the executive branch of your Association.
One of the highlights this past year was the privilege of holding our November
Board meeting on the engineering campus at Urbana and presenting, jointly with the
American Iron and Steel Institute, a large bronze plaque to the University of Illinois.
This plaque was hung in Talbot Hall and is in honor of Professor H. F. Moore for his
outstanding research in metallurgy and the causes of transverse fissures in railroad rails.
Personnel is probably the most important commodity on our railroads today. Because
we have used up our supply, Committee 24 has spent considerable time this last year
revising and modernizing our recruitment brochure, and the Board at its last meeting
authorized an expenditure of approximately $5000 for printing a three-year supply. I
feel this is important to the railroads in helping to interest young engineers in railroad
employment. We must sell our industry to the young college graduates the same as other
industries are doing, or be left by the wayside. I mention this recruitment brochure
also because it represents a substantial part of the non-recurring expenditures we will
have in the coming year.
In the October 1958 issue of the AREA News I outlined my thoughts on the
potential savings to the railroad industry by standardization. Industry in general has
recognized and taken advantage of the inherent advantages in standardization, but the
application in the railroad field has been comparatively slow.
Through the years considerable progress has been made in this regard, but we still
have a long way to go. I am not unaware of the problems and difficulties in making
further substantial progress in this field, but if we do not make a determined effort our
industry will continue to be the loser. When thinking of standardization, our first
thoughts are directed to materials, equipment and other similar products, such as rail
sections and trackwork. However, we should not cut off our thinking with these items.
Every committee in the AREA should examine its field with a critical eye to see where
standardization or simplification could benefit the railroad industry.
As an example to illustrate what I am talking about let's take a look at a few
items. Are you aware that the mills have been called upon to roll 43 different rail
sections in recent years? The total investment in these rolls is approximately 12 million
dollars, with an annual cost of almost one-half million dollars for interest alone. Also
consider the production time lost and the cost when changing rolls in the rolling mills.
The variation in design of angle bars has been equally large. In addition, a check
of three mills indicates that railroads have required 42 different sizes of bolt holes in
these angle bars. A review of track bolts and nuts indicates a similar multiplicity of
designs.
The cost of track ties is one of the large items of expense. How much could be
saved if we could agree now on one method of treatment, one method of controlHng
end checks, and greatly reduce the number of templates for driUing.
Executive Secretary's Report 989
This seems an opportune time to do some serious thinking about these things, and
I am happy to report that new assignments have been given to the Rail and Track
committees covering investigations and studies of rail sections and trackwork. It is the
hope of the Board that these assignments will be progressed vigorously and with an
open mind to the end that we can reduce the number of our standard rail sections and
trackwork plans.
It is also hoped that when this work is completed all of the railroads will see fit
to adopt the standards recommended so that the industry in due time can realize the
many benefits possible through standardization. If we do not follow through on such
a program, it seems to me that we, both as individual engineers and as an Association,
are open to serious criticism.
In conclusion, I would like to express my appreciation for the help and cooperation
received from the secretary's office and the research staff during my year as president.
There is a great deal more detail work done behind the scenes by these two organizations
than most of you realize, and they deserve the thanks of the entire membership.
I have enjoyed my work in the AREA very much and have considered it a privilege
to direct this great Association during the past year.
Thank you for your attention. [Applause]
President Meyers: The next order of official business is the report of our executive
secretary, Mr. Howard.
Executive Secretary's Report
Mr. President, past and present officers of the AREA, members and guests:
With your permission, in view of the many important features remaining on our
program this morning, I shall confine my remarks to a few highlights or matters which
I consider of special importance. I know I have an obligation to make a verbal report
to you at our Annual Meetings, but I feel justified in making this especially brief this
year, both to give maximum time to our subsequent speakers, and because you have
already been told some of the highlights of our past Association year.
But I do want you to know that, for the permanent record, your secretary has
prepared the usual detailed written report, which covers the "water front" with respect
to every phase of the Association's activities and operations during the past year. This
is published in the March Year-Book Bulletin, copies of which were mailed to members
on March S, and which you will find on your desks when you return to them after this
meeting, if you have not already received them.
One year ago at this time, with the railroads, along with the country as a whole,
in the throes of an economic recession, the welfare of your Association for the year
ahead, compared with the year just closed and immediately preceding years, was a mat-
ter of real concern to your officers and your secretary. Could the Association count on
the continuing high level of interest and effort of its members and the support of the
American railroads? Would it be able to continue unabated its productive work? And
could it maintain its favorable financial condition?, were questions in the minds of all
of us.
Now, 365 days later, the record happily shows all of these questions answered in
the affirmative. The Association did retain the interest and productive effort of its mem-
bers, and the backing of the railroads. It did continue its work unabated; and it did
close the year in a not unfavorable financial condition, as will be pointed out by our
990 Opening Session
treasurer. In fact, in all of these respects — the adverse economic conditions during most
of the year to the contrary notwithstanding — the Association moved into higher ground.
Only in the matter of total membership, as President Meyers has told you— did the
Association take a backward step. Due largely to the inability of the railroads to aug-
ment their technical staffs with the usual number of new men, on the one hand, and
an increased number of resignations from membership, resulting from the retirement
of older members, on the other hand — the total membership of the Association dipped
slightly during the year — unfortunately reversing an upward trend for the past 14 years,
even though the increase in recent years has been relatively small. I do not consider
this moving into higher ground in this particular respect, but I do feel that, the fact
that this reduction in membership was not larger than it was under the conditions
which prevailed, was also a favorable aspect of the Association year, and demonstrates
that the AREA is not a fair-weather organization.
That I can make this generally favorable report to you was not the result of a
"business as usual" attitude on the part of either the officers and directors of your
Association, or you members generally. The more than 1100 of you on our technical
committees are best aware of this, because, as you know, early in the year your officers
and directors set in motion belt-tightening measures all along the line. These affected
to some extent nearly all aspects of Association activity, especially committee activity,
but were designed to have minimum adverse effect on the effectiveness and productivity
of committees.
Time will not permit even enumerating these measures, but as most of you are
aware, they resulted in carrying on a larger amount of work by correspondence; in
fewer and shorter committee meetings, in more central meeting points, and in the
elimination of all but essential inspection trips, which did not have the effect of extend-
ing meetings over an extra day. Through these means committee members were enabled
to minimize their away-from-the-job time and expense in carrying forward the work
of the Association.
At the same time, to increase its own efficiency, your Board of Direction sponsored
and put into effect a number of things, including the creation of a five-man Executive
Committee of the Board to function in its behalf between regular Board meetings on
matters which cannot or should not be delayed; the giving of permanent status to the
new Board Committee on Research which had been set up as a special committee early
in the year; and continued to be represented through one of its members, insofar as
possible, at committee meetings to maintain closer liaison with committees and their
work.
With the assistance of the Engineering Division research staff, the work of our
technical committees remained at a high level, as will be clearly evident to you in
the character and number of reports to be made to this convention. This is also evi-
denced by the fact that these reports, as published in the recent issues of the Bulletin
which have been made available to you, occupied a total of 768 pages — 70 more pages
than were devoted to committee reports presented to the 1958 convention — an increase
which was occasioned in large part by a larger number of reports on assignments during
the past year, rather than larger reports.
And as an indication that the value of the material in these reports goes far beyond
the immediate membership of our Association, I would point out that during the Calen-
dar Year 1958 more than 30,000 copies of Association publications were sent out from
the secretary's office to, among others, the American railroads, colleges and universities.
Treasurer'sReport 991
students, Government agencies, engineers in industry generally, and railroad men in
foreign countries.
Even these brief statements about the Association's work during the past year bear
out, I am sure, my statement at the outset, that in 195.S, despite the unfavorable con-
ditions which prevailed throughout much of the year, the Association moved generally
into higher ground during the past 12 months — with the single exception of total mem-
bership— to me a significant achievement. Continuing the same general policies, with
continued support from the railroads individually and as a group — and with some
emphasis on ■ recouping the membership loss of the past year, there is every reason
to exi>ect that the Association will move forward to a still higher level of well-being
and achievement in the year ahead. Thank you. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Howard.
In light of the things that have happened during the last year, I want to thank
you and your staff for keeping things moving so that we could have this good report
that you have just referred to.
Our next order of business is the report of our treasurer, Mr. A. B. Hiilm.m. Mr.
Hillman.
Treasurer's Report
At our Annual Meeting last year your treasurer stated that the prospects for a good
year financially in 19SS were not too encouraging if the Association proceeded with its
plan to purchase a several years' supply of Manual binders and published a second
edition of the Association's Engineer Recruiting Brochure for distribution free to the
engineering colleges and universities — especially if unfavorable business conditions con-
tinued throughout the entire year. But all of these things did not happen in 1958. The
Association did purchase the required supply of Manual binders, but printing of the
Brochure was necessarily delayed until 1959. At the same time — for the Association, at
least — -"business conditions" improved substantially during the last four months of the
year, with receipts for this period considerably higher than anticipated, due primarily
to the demand for the publications of the Association — particularly its Manual. As a
result, receipts for the year exceed expenditures by .i^4, 105.64. At the same time, the total
assets of the Association at the end of 1958 were some $1500 higher than at the close
of business in 1957.
It should be pointed out that the interest which the Association receives on the
investments which it has accumulated over many years is a very important item of
revenue each year. This is seen in the fact that in 1958 this interest amounted to .$3,705 —
which accounts for more than 90 percent of the Association's net profit for that year.
Over the past 20 years as a whole this interest, which amounted to $55,000, made the
difference between the total net profit realized in these years of $33,618, and what
would have otherwise been a deficit of more than .$33,000.
It is well that, with its interest income, the Association enjoyed a good year finan-
cially in 1958, with an excess of Receipts over Disbursements of $4,105, if only to
offset, almost in its entirety, the deficit of $4,401 sustained in 1957. In fact, it is espe-
cially fortunate that the Association realized this offsetting profit in 1958 since it is
expected that, even with generally favorable conditions in 1959, and in spite of its interest
income, the Association will incur a sizable deficit in that year due to increased costs
for printing, salary adjustments, postage, office rental, and the publication of the revised
Engineer Recruiting Brochure.
002 O p ening Session
Supplementing these brief comments on my part as your treasurer, it occurs to me
you will be interested in at least a couple of statements made by the Association's
auditors with respect to finances of the Association, included in a letter to our executive
secretary following the 1958 audit of the Association's books. Our auditors, as you may
know, are Mr. C. A. Bick, vice president-operations, 'Monon, and Mr. P. D. Mitchell,
chief traveling auditor of the Illinois Central. Their joint letter to our secretary, dated
January 19, 1959, read in part, as follows:
"We have completed our check of the records and accounts for the year 1958 and
found them satisfactory. The orderliness and exactness of the records is a credit to you
and your organization.
"The investment account shows a gratifying increase and is an indication that your
organization recognizes the importance of interest income as a source of revenue. Inter-
est collections in the coming year will reflect the higher yield of bonds purchased and
exchanged.
"It has been interesting to watch the growth of the Association through the years
and we believe the accompanying financial statements are indicative of the direction and
guidance which has resulted in a sound and progressive organization."
It is with some satisfaction that I am able to make this kind of a report this
morning, and commend it to you for your acceptance. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Hillman.
We do not look with a great deal of anticipation to the deficit that we might
have in 1959. Although we have talked a lot about it, you might think it was the
national debt, but it isn't nearly that big. We have had bigger ones before, and in the
year ahead it will be due largely to nonrecurring expenses.
As you may know, Mr. Hillman has been treasurer of our Association since 1953.
After long and faithful service to his railroad, we understand that under the compulsory
retirement plan of his company, he will retire from active railroad service on September
30 of this year. We are glad that the AREA has no comparable compulsory retirement
plan for its treasurers, and Mr. Hillman will continue as treasurer at least for another
full year. Thank you again, Mr. Hillman.
Gentlemen, you have heard the reports of our secretary and treasurer. I shall be
glad to entertain a motion that these reports be accepted. Do I hear a motion, please?
[Motion was regularly made and seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Greetings from the Signal and Electrical Sections, AAR
President Meyers: It is highly appropriate that we should recognize at our speak-
er's table today representatives of the Signal and Electrical Sections of the Association
of American Railroads, which as you know, are sister organizations of the AREA in
making up the Engineering Division. I should now like to give them an opportunity to
bring us a few words of greeting if they so desire, and I will call first on Mr. V. P.
Shepardson, engineer of signals and communications, Richmond, Fredericksburg &
Potomac Railroad, chairman of the Signal Section, AAR. Mr. Shepardson.
V. P. Shepardson: Mr. President, members of the American Railway Engineering
Association and guests:
I am privileged to greet you this morning on behalf of the Signal Section and to
assure you the Signal Section has a real desire to cooperate and assist your committees
in any way we can in the area of our specialization.
I am also proud that the Signal Section is recognized by the AREA at your annual
meeting. In years past the signal department on many railroads had practically no
Greetings from NRAA 993
standing, but since those days signaling has changed in magnitude, character and sig-
nificance, and today represents an important arm of the engineering department on many
railroads. Your committees and our committees working together are solving problems
that have annoyed both track and signal engineers for years. Cooperation and exchange
of ideas and advice is necessary for us both to meet our responsibilities.
The management of my railroad recognizes the great value of the work accom-
plished at these meetings, and we are encouraged to take an active part in the pro-
ceedings. Railroad knowledge, like any scientific knowledge, must be sought and the
interchange of ideas through committee association represents one of the very best
mediums to bring about a better understanding of our problems.
The 1959 annual meeting of the Signal Section will be in Washington, D. C, Oc-
tober 12, 13 and 14. You are all invited, and to you whose responsibilities include the
signal department on your railroad, please make it easy for them to attend. Thank you.
[Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Shepardson.
It has been a pleasure for our Association to cooperate with the Signal Section,
and we have an exchange of members who are collaborating with the different
committees.
Now I would like to call on the chairman of the Electrical Section, Mr. H. P.
Wright, who is electrical engineer of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
H. P. Wright: President Meyers, members of the AREA and guests: It is a pleasure
and an honor to bring greetings to you from the Electrical Section, Engineering and
Mechanical Divisions of the AAR, on the occasion of your 1959 convention. We cherish
our partnership with your organization in serving our common objective, the welfare
of the railroad transportation industry. Viewed in its perspective, a railroad is a machine
for converting manpower, fuel and material into ton miles of transportation needed
by our economy. The measure of our advance is to be found, therefore, in how new
devices and new technologies, in combination, are used to produce better transportation
service with maximum efficiency, maximum economy, and a minimum expenditure of
manpower, fuel and materials.
It is a foregone conclusion that there is an abundance of very valuable information
to be presented in your reports, to the benefit of the railroads and to the credit of
those who helped prepare them. On behalf of the Electrical Section, I wish to thank
your executive secretary, Neal D. Howard, for his continued valuable assistance and
cooperation. Also to extend an invitation to you to attend the next annual meeting
of the Electrical Section to be held here at Hotel Sherman, June 23, 24, and 25, 1959.
I wish you an excellent meeting and thank you for the privilege of being with you at
this opening session. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Wright. We hope that you and Mr. Shepardson
will both convey our best wishes to your respective sections.
Greetings from the National Railway Appliances Association
President Meyers: As you know, this is not an exhibit year. It seemed highly
appropriate that we have at our speaker's table and recognize the president of the
National Railway Appliances Association which puts on a large and instructive exhibit
in connection with our convention every third year. The next one will be in March
1961. However, there will be one this fall in connection with the Roadmasters' and
Bridge and Building Associations conventions. The current president of this association
004
Opening Session
is Mr. Robert Carr, president of Dearborn Chemical Company, and also president of
RPI — Railroad Progress Institute. Mr. Carr, do you have a word for us at this time
Robert Carr: President Meyers, gentlemen of the American Railway Engineering
Association, and ladies:
I thank you, Mr. Meyers, for bringing in my second job, the presidency of RPI.
I am sure you gentlemen know about the banding together of the supply industry to
work with, and promote the programs of, you railroad men in the interest of the
railroad transportation industry in the United States. I believe that we have been helpful
in RPI. I am sure that we can continue to be so.
However, it is my privilege to appear before you now as the representative of the
National Railway Appliances Association. Our members enjoy the close and cordial
relations that exist between our associations. It is a real privilege to be affiliated with
you and to have a share in your activities toward the improvement of our fine railroad
systems.
We look forward with confidence to having one of our best and most colorful
displays at the time of your 1961 convention. In the meantime the Association of Track
and Structures Suppliers is preparing a major exhibit to run concurrently with the meet-
ings of the Roadmasters' and Maintenance of Way Association of America and the
American Railway Bridge and Building Association being held in Chicago in September
this year.
On behalf of all the members of the National Railway Appliances Association, con-
gratulations and best wishes for the success of your S8th Annual Convention and thank
you for this recognition. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Carr. We appreciate your greetings and also
the fact that so many of your members are here at our convention.
With your permission, I should like to interrupt our proceedings for a moment to
permit the Railway Age to take its usual convention photograph, but before it is taken,
I would like to invite to the platform a number of special guests who will participate
in the remainder of this morning's program because we would like to have these guests
in our picture. I will be pleased if they will come to the speaker's table at this time.
[The convention photograph was taken]
President Meyers: With the thought that those who have been sitting at our
speaker's table thus far this morning will be more comfortable in the audience during
the remainder of our program, I will excuse them at this time but ask that our special
guests just invited to the platform remain here.
As you may have noticed, the special guests whom I have invited to the speaker's
table include the keynote speaker of our convention and three of his associates in the
AAR. I would like to present these gentlemen to you now. The others who will par-
ticipate in our program later in the morning I shall introduce at that time.
First is Mr. R. G. May, vice president, Operations and Maintenance Department,
AAR. [Applause]
Next, Mr. W. M. Keller, vice president, Research Department, AAR. [Applause]
Next, Mr. H. H. Hale, assistant to vice president. Highway Transportation, AAR.
[Applause]
Address of P. P. Loomis 995
Introduction of Daniel P. Loomis
President Meyers: Now, with all of the preliminaries out of the way, I know you
are anxious that we get started on the real meat of our program, which I propose to do
right now in presenting to you the keynote speaker of our convention. As you are all
well aware our keynote speaker is Mr. Daniel P. Loomis, president and chief executive
officer of the Association of American Railroads.
Mr. Loomis is no stranger to many of you because you will recall that as president
and chief administrative officer of the AAR he was a guest at the Opening Session
speaker's table of our 1958 convention, when 'Mr. William T. Faricy, then chairman
of the Board of the AAR, was our keynote speaker.
And Mr. Loomis certainly needs no introduction to most of us in Chicago, because
as head of the Association of Western Railways for a period of IS years ending in 1957,
with headquarters continuously in Chicago, many of us have known him for a long
time through the strong and experienced leadership he gave that organization.
But for the benefit of those of our members and guests who have not known Mr.
Loomis, I will briefly sketch his career. This I can do because his career is less notable
for the number of positions he had held than for the distinction with which he held
them. He was graduated from Union College in 1925 and received a law degree at
Harvard in 1928. Immediately thereafter he entered the service of the Delaware &
Hudson Railroad as an attorney, and by 1939 he had advanced to the position of
assistant general counsel of that road.
From 1942 to 1948, Mr. Loomis was executive director of the Association of West-
ern Railways at Chicago, an association which handles labor matters for the western
railroads, and in 1948 when the Western Association of Railway Executives was merged
with the AWR, he became chairman of the Association of Western Railways, the position
he held when he was elected president and chief administrative officer of the AAR, on
.\ugust 1, 1957. With the retirement of Mr. Faricy from the AAR on April 1, 1958,
Mr. Loomis became president and chief executive officer of the AAR — ^the position he
now holds. We are especially fortunate and honored that in his first year as head of the
Association of American Railroads, Mr. Loomis has consented to be our keynote speaker.
He will speak to us on the timely and challenging subject "Change and Challenge in
Railroading." Gentlemen, Mr. Loomis. [The assembly arose and applauded]
Change and Challenge in Railroading
By Daniel P. Loomis
President, Association of American Railroads
A chance to speak before an audience of railroad engineering officials poses a chal-
lenge of a special kind. For the changes in railroading which you originate, and your
ideas for still further changes, all have enormous effect on how railroads do their job
today — and how they will do that job tomorrow.
I do not consider it an exaggeration to state that you engineers exert a controlling
influence on the railroads' future. In this generation — and particularly in the nearly
14 years since the end of World War II — we have witnessed a veritable explosion in
railroad technology. Great changes have been made — and we are on the threshold of
introducing still greater changes — in motive power, rolling stock, traffic control systems,
construction and maintenance methods and general operations. However, this great tech-
nological explosion has yet to be fully translated into the best in operating efficiency
and services to the public.
996 O p ening Session
The reason is not hard to find. Even though you engineers have shown us new
concepts in railroading, management has been unable to carry through fully because
of the virtual impossibihty of raising adequate investment capital. Indeed, the technician
points the way — but the level of industry earnings decides how far we can go.
This inescapable interrelationship, then, will serve as the springboard for my remarks
today. Nothing is of more ultimate importance to the public when it comes to railroading
than our improvement programs. For these affect as nothing else the quality of our
services, the prices we charge, the jobs we create and our ability to continue as a vibrant
progressive enterprise. It also follows that the public has high stakes in giving the rail-
roads real opportunity to earn the money that makes modernization possible.
In the past 13 years railroads have spent more than $14 billion for new plant
and equipment. That's a fabulous amount of money even in these times. It more than
matches our net railway operating income for these years. It is half the industry's
current net investment. It exceeds $17,000 spent for each present employee to provide
better tools for doing a better transportation job. Even so, we feel we should spend an
equal amount of money within just the next ten years, or even eight.
Yet look at what happened to capital spending last year. It was cut nearly in half
from the $1.4 billion of 1957. That was a terrible setback for the railroads, and it
produced untold hardships in slashed sales for suppliers and jobs for employees of both
railroads and supply companies. Right now, railroads strain to make a comeback in this
critical area. The lines have big backlogs of improvement projects on the drawing boards
that have tremendous pay-off potentials in terms of better service at lower costs.
But where is the money coming from in an industry whose rate of return on net
investment last year was only 2^ percent? Where is the money coming from in an
industry which, profitwise, ranks third from the bottom among the nation's 73 major
industries and industrial groups? If we can find solid answers to this multi-billion-dollar
question, we could wipe the slate clean of worries for our future.
Clues to where the essential funds can come from to make our plant and services
more attractive to travelers and shippers and more responsive to the nation's over-all
peacetime and war needs lie in a breakdown of that $14 billion of postwar investment.
A third, or $4.6 billion, came directly out of net income — retained in the business and
plowed back into improvements. Borrowing, mostly in the form of equipment obliga-
tions, accounted for $2.2 billion. A little more than another billion dollars was raised
from other sources but mostly by drawing down working capital. And the remaining
$6.1 billion, nearly half the total, significantly came from depreciation accruals — funds
earmarked out of income for use in recovering investment property worn out in
operations.
It is obvious, then, that the tax treatment of investment money is of crucial im-
portance— and nowhere more so than in an industry where profits have shrunk so dras-
tically. Significantly, the railroads' postwar tax payments to all government units almost
precisely match their postwar capital spending for modernization. Think of the railroad
system America would have today had any sizeable part of the tax load gone into
improvements !
The industry desperately needs a better break on taxes. Whether it gets it or not
will do much to decide where the railroads go from here.
The need to obtain more realistic tax treatment of money invested in new plant and
equipment deserves more detailed comment. But right now, I would like for you to join
me in looking at the other side of the capital improvement picture — operating expenses.
After all, net income provides a large part of investment capital, and net income is
Address of P. P. Loomis 997
dependent on operating expenses as much as on revenues. It is, therefore, more than
ever urgent that we do everything possible to eliminate every item of waste and cut
operating costs to the bone. This brings us to one of the biggest problems in the
industry.
Four weeks ago, in speaking before the annual meeting of the National Association
of Shippers Advisory Boards in St. Louis, I urged leaders of the train-operating brother-
hoods to join management in an all-out effort to modernize antiquated work practices.
I pointed out then, as I have since, that featherbedding is a blight that hits the whole
nation. It is all the more serious since labor costs eat up 523^ cents out of each railroad
revenue dollar.
Unnecessary employment expenses of more than :$S00 milUon annually are inflicted
on the industry — and the public — by old work rules that have remained largely un-
changed for 40 years despite vast changes in rail operations. This waste, which adds
about 10 percent to our payrolls, takes its toll in inflated prices, a weakened competitive
position and reduced job opportunities in the industry. It is also a heavy factor in
making railroading an almost profitless business, in freezing out new equity capital and
in curtailing outlays for new plant and equipment.
I think railroad employees have a special stake in all measures aimed at increasing
plant investment. Some labor spokesmen seem to have a chronic fear that automation
and greater mechanization of operations will put men out of work. I would urge, how-
ever, that this fear be tempered with realization that only through heavy investment
can the railroads hope to remain competitive with other carriers and stay in business.
And if we go one step beyond, it is obvious that only through vastly increased invest-
ment can we hope to attract new traffic, expand, become a growth industry again and
provide more jobs and better service for everyone.
With this necessity before us all, we hold out our hand to railroad employees to
join management in creating a new climate of labor-management relations in this vital
industry.
We ask for our workers' understanding and help in clearing away outmoded work
rules and other obstacles on the track to greater operating efficiency and better service.
We must begin to realize to the fullest extent every possible economy that can be
yielded by modernization, and we have no choice but to eliminate every kind of working
rule that stands in the way. To do anything less can only add another shove to the
railroads' downtrend. It could not be otherwise with an industry pressed to the wall
by competitors whose rights-of-way are provided by government and which have other
essential costs paid by public taxes.
Railroads can survive — and thrive — in this situation only by massive exploitation
of their inherent advantages. These unmatched assets lie in our ability to move enor-
mous volumes at diminishing costs and charges. No other carrier can approach the
economy of rail transportation in this respect. Herein lies our competitive key to the
future. We must give this ability maximum leeway and, in the face of subsidized com-
petition, not simply rise to a comfortable peak of efficiency but go on beyond, exerting
superhuman effort for results in the form of super service to the public.
Recent years — and certainly recent months — have seen a wonderful new spirit
taking hold in railroading. Streamlined thinking is spearheading the way for streamlined
operations. Railroads are stripping down for action. We are cutting out the deadwood
of losing and unpatronized services and concentrating effort and resources in areas of
greatest prom'se. Many traditional practices may have to go by the board in the process.
A lot of sacred cows may have to be put out to pasture.
998 Opening Session
But there is no alternative.
Only through further drastic changes in operating methods and services can the
greatest good result for all the nation. Only through drastic changes can we keep from
being ground into extinction under the heels of government policies that subsidize and
expand air, water and highway transportation with apparent wanton disregard of the
effects on railroads and the miUion of people who work on, ship by, travel on, sell to
and depend on railroads.
Perhaps there are grounds for hope that constructive public action may yet come
on these basic governmental inequities. The people are with us. We need no further
proof of this than last year's demonstration of popular demand for action by Washington,
which led to passage of the Transportation Act of 1958 and repeal of the 3 percent
excise tax on freight shipments. What we have witnessed in editorial support from
newspapers throughout America and in the thousands of letters people wrote their Con-
gressmen last year, is a clear signal of change in the decades-old attitude of the public
toward railroad problems. I am convinced the American people are far ahead of their
legislatures in seeing that the railroads long ago ceased to hold a transportation monopoly,
that they are unfairly and senselessly victimized by government policies favoring their
competitors, and that changes to put all carriers on an equal competitive footing are
imperative. I say, the public be praised !
It would be unrealistic to assume that last year's actions managed to place railroads
on anything like an equal competitive footing with other carriers. That legislation dealt
with the top of the iceberg, and left the massive underlying inequities to be handled
in a follow-up study and further legislation. This study, however, has yet to get
underway.
It takes little study, I might add, to discern what is wrong with transportation
today. Men take pride in achieving balance. But what pride can the nation take in the
completely unbalanced development of transportation brought about by the present
jumble of government policies? These have staged a boxing bout where the railroad
contender has one arm bound by lop-sided regulation and crushing taxes, while the
opposition has his gloves plastered with public subsidy. To top off the debacle, the
crowd is stacked with government promotion specialists yelling for the other guy. It's a
wonder railroads have even stayed on their feet !
The big transportation problem of today is not only that government helps provide
air, water and highway facilities and services and energetically promotes competing
carriers but that, in paying out vast subsidies for these purposes, it has depressed rate
levels in all of transportation. Thus, the railroads, the carriers whose rates must cover
all costs of doing business — including heavy taxes for the support of general govern-
ment functions — are placed at a crippling disadvantage. Because of government air,
water and highway subsidies, the nation is building up transportation capacity among
the most expensive, wasteful and inefficient facilities. Being bypassed is the most eco-
nomical all-purpose carrier available — the railroads.
The fight for survival in these circumstances poses awesome challenges for every
railroadman. Here is a challenge for you engineers and operating men to turn up new
cost-saving machines and new methods of doing more with less.
Here is a cliallenge to brotherhood leaders and our employees to help clear the way
for full application of new devices and new methods.
Here is a challenge to passenger agents to find and secure a permanent niche for
train travel in the national passenger transportation pattern.
Here is a challenge to freight traffic men to take a hard look at our rate structure
Address of P. P. Loomis 999
and to make rates and sell services on the basis of shipper needs and hard-headed
economic demand.
And here is a challenge to top management to dig to the very heart of our complex
social, political and economic environment and to make railroading a more-than-ever
indispensable part of this intricate, ever-changing panorama.
As few other industries, railroads are intimately involved with the public and with
public authorities of every type. Congress and state and local legislatures make laws
affecting us. Courts at every level interpret these laws. All government units tax us.
The Interstate Commerce Commission and state utility commission regulate us. Other
agencies help handle our labor problems. And every day we deal in a multitude of ways
with the ultimate boss of all the others — the American people.
What a challenge this position at the very heart of our economy poses for the rail-
road executive ! Herein He endless problems, as we know all too well — but there are also
endless opportunities. Here are great opportunities to make the dynamism of progressive
railroading felt in terms of progress and prosperity in all America, to make what we do
reach out like ripples on a pond to touch everyone else.
This position also imposes special obligations. One can be expressed only in moral
terms. It is the obligation that railroads, as one of America's first great industries, owe
to our private enterprise system to remain free. Like it or not, we have become a pri-
mary test of the courage, perseverance and resiliency of private management. Though
ill-conceived and misguided government poHcies do their utmost to undermine the rail-
roads, we cannot break. Let us resolve here and now to hold the line. Railroadmen can
make no greater contribution to America than to demonstrate in convincing terms an
indomitable will to survive and succeed . . . regardless.
We must, therefore, continue to fight for basic changes in government policy that
will more nearly equalize chances to compete for business.
We must continue to fight for legislation requiring commercial carriers to pay ade-
quate user charges for their use of the tax-built and tax-free highways, waterways,
airports and airways.
We must continue to fight for the right to diversify our business as other industries
do — to accord railroads the same chance others have to provide services by truck, airplane
and barge.
We must continue to fight for removal of that war-relic, the discriminatory federal
excise tax of 10 percent on passenger tickets.
We must continue to fight for a lightening of the load of burdensome state and
local taxes on railroad properties.
And, as I stressed earlier, we must somehow convince Washington to grant railroads
more realistic tax treatment of investment funds spent for new plant and equipment.
The average tax write-off period for railroad capital facilities is a wholly unrealistic
40 years. By contrast, investment in airplanes is depreciated over five years and the
cost of heavy trucks is written off in seven years. Modernization of equipment thus
comes far more readily to our competitors. This cannot be more strikingly demonstrated
than by pointing out that today, v/hen we have finished recovering through depreciation
accruals the total investment in a freight car that originally cost $2,500, we must still
find an additional $6,000 in order to buy a replacement, and to get that much we must
earn $12,500 before taxes.
Inflated prices, low railroad earnings and an inability to attract equity capital — all
these factors make tax-saving incentives urgent. Significantly, in 1955, the last year
railroads were able to amortize defense-supporting investments over a five-year period,
1000 Opening Session
they placed orders for 157,407 new freight cars. There is no reason why that feat could
not be done again under similar stimulation. Imagine what this could mean to the nation's
shippers and defense officials who worry over our capacity to meet emergency demands!
Finally, we must continue to fight for freedom to give maximum effect in our prices
to the railroads' natural ability to move huge volumes at diminishing costs. Freedom for
railroads to cut prices to the lowest practical level is intrinsically in the public interest.
Certainly, people want the lowest prices they can get. And certainly, Washington wants
to see every possible weapon utiHzed against the scourge of inflation and rising living
costs. More freedom for railroads to cut transportation charges would prove a great aid
in that battle.
This right to price competitively is of such supreme importance that I would like
to underline it even at the risk of repetition. We must make a breakthrough in this
area that will match the technological breakthrough yielding mass transportation at
diminishing charges.
Shippers look at competitive carriers in terms of what each can offer in a combina-
tion of service and price, then decide which combination works out best in terms of the
shippers' needs. Railroads have greatly speeded up line-haul transit time. And I am
convinced we can perform some real miracles in pricing. We have really only begun
to explore the possibilities in setting volume or incentive freight rates, "agreed" charges
and other innovations in rate making. I think we will see much further progress in this
area in the months ahead.
What is at stake may best be summarized by citing one financial analyst who notfd
ominously that the railroad share of intercity freight traffic has fallen from 75 percent
in 1929 to about 45 percent today, and observed that railroads have yet to prove that
they will — or even can — arrest this downtrend.
It is my firm conviction that railroads not only can stop this decline but can reverse
it and enter a new era of expansion.
I know that railroadmen will not shrink from this contest, however bitter it may
become, and that they will meet this test just as they meet the great transportation
challenges of peace and war. And at the end of the line, we shall have secured our
future; we shall have created a stripped-down, streamlined, space-age railroad system,
offering exciting new levels of service to our dynamic country. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you very much, Mr. Loomis. We appreciate your taking
the time from your busy schedule to come and talk to us today, and we are also pleased
that you can attend our annual luncheon tomorrow. Through the work of this Asso-
ciation we are making every effort to solve the problems of the railroads, not only in
our specific field, but in any other way we can be helpful.
As regards the problems ahead with respect to management-labor relations, we are
sure that, as the result of your long experience in this field, the case of management and
the over-all welfare of the railroads and their employees are in good hands.
Introduction of Paul Jones
President Meyers: There is one ever-present, all -important problem on the railroads
which has not been mentioned d'rectly as yet this morning, and that's the matter of
safety. We have nothing in the program of any of our technical sessions dealing with
safety as such, nor have we had a safety feature on our convention program for a
number of years.
Address of Paul Jones 1001
There is a reason for this — and it is not that our Association does not recognize the
importance of safety, but rather that safety matters within the AAR, of which we
are a part, are centered in the Safety Section of that Association — and I expect we
have leaned over backward so as not to intrude on that Section's field of activity.
But having the feeling that this attitude left something to be desired out of the
program for this convention, I determined to correct it. As a result, we have as our
guest speaker a man whom, I expect, knows as much about safety as anyone in the
country — the Director of Public Information for the National Safety Council, Mr. Paul
Jones.
In this work, Mr. Jones lives and talks safety 365 days a year. He directs the steady
flow of news and features on accident prevention and on the Council's acitvities to
newspapers, magazines, radio, television and advertisers, and speaking of talking safety,
it is said that since he came with the Safety Council in 1937, he has made more than
2000 talks or addresses on safety and human relations to a wide range of audiences
throughout the United States and Canada.
I do not know how Mr. Jones will approach or handle his announced subject for
this morning — "Give the High Ball to Safety" but whatever his approach or handling,
I am sure he will give us a thought-provoking message. Without further comment, there-
fore, I would like to present to you Mr. Paul Jones, Director of Pubhc Information,
National Safety Council. Mr. Jones.
Give the "High Ball" to Safety
By Paul Jones
Director of Public Information, National Safety Council
Thank you very much, Bernie Meyers. This is a very informal interlude for you
folks this morning. You are concerned here with your own problems, and it's gratifying
to me in sort of a sadistic way to notice that you have problems, too, in your business
because sometimes we get the idea over at the National Safety Council that we have a
monopoly on headaches and things we have to meet. But after listening to Mr. Loomis'
talk here, I see that you have some things too, and since we work in such close coopera-
tion with you, in partnership, I would like to take just a few moments of your time.
I do appreciate the opportunity.
As a matter of fact, we have to use sneaky ways to get into a meeting like this.
If we let nature take its course, we are greeted on all sides with enthusiastic apathy
wherever we make what we regard as a very simple and probably logical request. All we
are asking you to do is not kill yourself. That sounds sensible when you first regard
it, but we have managed over the years to endow it with such a stuffy, pontifical, dreary,
unsaleable, repulsive approach that people think we are trying to sell them something
fast and hidden when we are probably not only the dullest but the purest organization
in the world. We sell nothing but safety. We are strictly non-everything — nonpolitical,
nonsecetarian, nonprofit. We didn't plan it that way. It just came about that way in
recent years. We are noninteresting, and I think we are nonacceptable in the highest
circles because we have tried so hard.
Last night, I had the privilege of talking to your Board of Directors, your Arrange-
ments Committee and your distinguished guests. Incidentally, I asked them to forgive
me if I repeated some things today that I said last night. Just like in a broken-down
juke box, it doesn't matter which button you punch, the same tune pops out anyway.
1002 Opening Session
If I repeat, forgive me. The gentlemen on the left I think were the ones that were there
last night. It is only when you get to be my age — and as my wife lovingly points out,
I couldn't be dangerous if I tried — it is only then that your thoughts turn to safety.
I was telling these gentlemen last night that out in Iowa, for example, to show you
the vulnerability of our movement, we have a chapter which has the enchanting title,
"Life Begins at 80."
Now this may be handy to distinguish the chapter out there from the Youth
Achievement Movement, but it is hardly conducive to bringing people into an exciting
way of life for safety. The other day the president of the chapter came into our office.
He said, "You know, we did something very remarkable which is a distinct departure
from anything we have ever done."
We said, "What did you do?"
He said, "We admitted to membership in our organization two people who were
only 78 years old."
I said, "How in the world did you ever take a chance like that?" He said, "A
sizeable part of our membership felt we needed young blood." [Laughter] So I think
that is the way it is with us.
We certainly need a shot in the arm, and we need it through such people as you.
]^ow I have been with the National Safety Counc 1, as Bernie told you, for 20
years. He forgot to tell you that I came there out of grade school. I have been there
for 20 years, so you would expect to find me in my own home where I am so highly
loved and respected, but I never get there. I am out on the road making talks. That is
an easy way to get along with the little woman. Never show up, and she will love
you for it.
I don't know how it is with you fellows here this morning, but what I say in my
home goes. I don't know where it goes. It must go somewhere.
My wife does precisely what I tell her to do. I said to her, "Dear, would you m!nd
running the car into the garage?" And she did. [Laughter]
Now, when I have that kind of control over my family, then you would expect
to find in my home a perfect example of safety. Yet the other night in my own kitchen
I walked into a towel rack that had been placed by my wife at precisely eye level,
and as I lovingly removed it from the wall, I discussed it with the little woman.
Because I am a safety expert, of course, I immediately knew what to do. I merely
moved it down two inches. The next time it poked her in the eye. [Laughter]
Unless you are safety men, you don't know those things. When I am home and
want to go down to the basement and poke up the fire, there is a pair of bedroom
slippers that I can slip into. All I do is open the basement door, step into a pair of
buckets, and down I go !
Now, that is in the home of a man who makes his living out of this racket — out
of this business. I can't even sell my wife on it, so how do you expect me to sell
the public?
We resort to all sorts of snide, sneaky approaches, and the main thing we find in
safety, which is one of the biggest headaches — ^if you think you have competition, what
have we got? — is that more people are getting killed than we can enlist. What do
we do? We blame it on the kids, the teen-agers; there is our trouble. We know that
isn't true. Nevertheless, we do it. There is one small segment of safety where I can
speak with some slight vestige of authority, looking as sick and confused as I do. I am
sickly and confused and the reason I am that way is that I am the father of an 18-
year old boy. I want to take a minute to brag about the k.'d, because he is smart. He is
Address of Paul Jones 1003
only IS years old and is a freshman in college, and already that kid knows more than
his old man. He knows his old man doesn't know a darn thing. Now I was a junior
in college before I found that out — before I knew my old man didn't know a darn
thing — so that shows you how much smarter this kid is than I was.
He is a good boy. He is very thoughtful. He writes his mother and me every week
or so. Even if it's for a few bucks, we hear from him. When the car is out of gas
and he is out of a date, he never forgets his mother and me. He turns the car over
to us to fill the tank. It's a swell car — twin mufflers, twin parking lights, twin sparking
lights, twin floor lights, twin spotlights, everything's twins on the thing. He has even
got a cord on the steering wheel. When you pull it, it plays "How Dry I am."
When I have a hard day, I do what any good American father does, I take it out
on the kid. I say, "Look, it's you fool teen-age kids who pile up this big traffic toll.
What do you do? You get an old, worn-out, unsafe jalopy. You paste wisecracks all
over it. You open the muffler, fill it full of pretty girls and down the road you go."
And there he knows he has got me. He knows I have the same ideas he has, but I
can't get the women. [Laughter] So it doesn't do any good to hand the malarky to
the teen-age kids or the adults or you folks at all.
This safety business for you and me and everybody either adds up to good business
and good citizenship and common sense, or it's not worth a hoot. Nobody can prevent
you or anybody else from having the darnedest accident in your Hfe if you want to
have it. You can build faolproof highways, foolproof grade crossings. You folks know
this only too well. You can build foolproof cars, but unless you build something fool-
proof in the mind of the driver, which is the only real safety device, you haven't got
it made at all. That is the reason we talk about attitudes and people.
I have a simple idea as to how we can wipe out all the accidents, but I can't get
anybody to bite. It is a simple thing. I want to change human nature. That's all. It's
just as simple as that, but on the premise that it may be a little difficult to do this
overnight, I will settle for just changing some of the baser elements of human nature,
elements that cause wars, that cause accidents, that cause you people the problems you
have today, that cause us the problems we face today — such human attributes as greed
and avarice, and belligerance and impatience, and a great, insane desire for speed wherever
you go, to get there first, ahead of everybody else and nuts to the other guy, for the
disregard of the rights of others, for the disdain, for failure to recognize the rights of
others, which I think is one of the most important things that we are up against today.
We are certainly threatened with it in the safety movement.
I told the gentlemen last night that in our attitude toward the public it very often
strikes me that we have the same great interest in what we are doing as the little kid
who lives around the corner from me in Winnetka. The 8-year-old kid came home
v\dth one of the most beautiful shiners I have ever seen in my life. He said, "The
O'Reilly kids hung this on me." His mother said, "What did you do?" He said, "All I
did was make fun of the Pope."
She said, "You made fun of the Pope to the O'Reilly kids? Didn't you know they
were Catholics?" He said, "Oh, I knew the O'Reilly kids were Catholics all right, but
I didn't know the Pope was." [Laughter]
We go about this business with the same thing we are always asking. We are
jealous of the foreign cars now. We are asked constantly, "What do you folks at the
National Safety Council think about the small foreign cars?" We have a simple answer.
They have one great big advantage over the American cars: There is more room on the
outside.
1004
Opening Session
It isn't what you drive. It isn't how fast you go, but the kind of life you live,
and if you believe sincerely that you want to put everything into your business that
you can.
I ask from you today the greatest degree of activity and sincerity that you can give.
I always envy you folks or any engineers, especially in your business, where thank
heavens you can lay out something in your work that I can follow, namely, a railroad
track. I can see that. I know where the two rails are going, although I have to trust
the conductor and the engineer. We depend on you the same way for safety.
My wife and I spent half our vacation in Pennsylvania two years ago trying to get
off the Turnpike. The engineering techniques of getting us off the clover-leafs were too
much for me, and we ran around and around until we got dizzy. We never could have
gotten off if we hadn't bumped against a maintenance truck for the highway which
escorted us. That's the only way we got off the thing.
You know, when my wife and I drive, we practice what we preach. We each take
50 miles and then turn the wheel over to the other one. It gives the driver a chance to
recuperate from the experience he has had with the other driver.
Before I close I want to thank you people for the wonderful condition that you are
in this morning. I appreciate the reception you have given us. I did notice when Mr.
Loomis spoke you stood up, and when I was introduced you sank back, but that's
expected with safety [laughter] because we, as I say, have a very unpalatable subject.
But you know we have a conference every year of the National Safety Conference.
We draw 14,000 people from all over the world. We tell the happy delegates it isn't
only for the formal education you get from the great speakers, but the quieter chats in
which you engage and the research you do in Chicago while you are here.
Last October three of the boys went out and did some researching. They found out
what all of you know. They went to catch a train to go home. When they got down
there the train was not quite ready. Some repairs had to be made. The next thing
they knew the train was leaving and two of these characters tore down the track
after it. One grabbed a railing and the other one caught the rear coach. The third one,
running after it, missed and fell flat on his back. He got up, dusted himself off and with
great dignity walked back to the station.
The stationmaster had taken all this in. He walked up to the fellow and said, "Sir,
I want to compliment you upon the greatest demonstration of philosophical resigna-
tion I have ever seen in my life. The average guy would have flipped his lid if that
had happened to him, but you, sir, took it like the great sport you are."
The fellow said, "It struck me as kind of funny because the two guys who caught
the train had come down to see me off." [Laughter] I hope nothing like that happens
to you this morning.
I would like to close by expressing to you the gratitude of the National Safety
Council for the close alliance we have enjoyed over all the years since we were founded
by the railroad industry. As I said to these gentlemen last night, if we liked you for
no other reason, we would like you very much because you folks have had the stupidity —
I guess that is the best word for it — to carry on the insidious slogan "Safety First"
which was going great guns for us until a psychologist came along and said it was
wrong. If you believed in safety first, you didn't believe in scientific development, in
scientific research, in progress. To that I have a very simple expression — nuts. "Safety
First" was the greatest safety slogan we have ever had. They tried to kill it for 25
years. It won't die. They tried to get something to take its place. It won't be born, so
more power to you. I hope you keep on using it.
Address of Paul Jones 1005
We are utilizing science in our work now, and it is a great thing. It is called
motivation research. I am in that field. That is where they go out and find out what
you should do that you are already doing, and know you should do, and they will
charge the client for finding out if you are doing it.
A great Eastern university is an example. They have completed a four-and-a-half-
year research project, and have determined that parenthood is hereditary. I am very
much intrigued with that. I have given it a lot of thought. As nearly as I can figure out,
it means if your parents didn't have any children, then chances are you won't have
any either. [Laughter]
So we are utilizing all these great developments of science, and we certainly want
to cash in on all we can, because very obviously what we have been doing hasn't been
working too well. So I ask that your help and the help of groups just such as this
and the leadership and support that industry over the years has given safety, be
extended just a little bit. You have every selfish reason in the world and every human-
itarian reason for going all out for safety. Your own employee record is excellent. We
conduct this contest, of course, every year with you folks, and it's amazing to see how
that rate has gone down in employee safety on American railroads.
Then you have this grade crossing problem. I don't know what it is that gets into
the minds of the average motorists. You see how they behave. Confidentially, I think
I am the only guy that drives a car today that drives exactly right. I have only one
dissent from that — my wife. She thinks I'm the biggest jerk that every got behind
the wheel.
I know the average driver, he and he alone is the answer to the Lord's Prayer.
In view of that I hope that we all try to improve our driving performance as much
as we do anything else, but one of the little idiosyncrasies that we have when we are
behind the wheel is that there is a certain percentage of us that likes to chase trains.
.\ny fool knows when you come to a thing marked "railroad tracks" with crossbars,
bells ringing and dancing girls and everything else to tell you here is a train track,
then the supposition is that sometime or another a train is going to come along. These
guys not only don't pay attention to that, but if they see a train come along, they
accept it as a personal challenge, and away they go, and the race ends up in a tie too
often, and you know who is going to win that one. Then our railroads are faced with
another accident. In a great many cases you couldn't influence these characters. How
often do you pick up a paf>er and read where a fellow has driven past the gates, past
a waiting line of cars into the path of a train so he could save two minutes. Instead he
was knocked out for enternity.
That's a bad investment. Any bookie will give you better odds than that. Yet, that
is what you are up against, so you have every reason and every cause to be on our side
of safety, and I know you are.
It is a very frustrating business just as yours is, but we come very close at moments
to realizing the ideals for which you and we and all of us are striving in safety.
I would like to close by giving you a case history. Before I came to the National
Safety Council I was a newspaperman in Cleveland, Ohio, and I was sent out to cover
a traffic accident. When I got there the photographer and I saw at a glance it was too
late for us to do anything. It was too late for anyone because stretched out on the
pavement there in front of us was the very quiet form of a 6-year-old boy. This
youngster had been playing ball in the yard of his home, and he did what comes
naturally for any kid. He had followed the ball into the street, into the path of a car
driven by a man who would rather die than harm a hair on the head of that boy.
1006 Opening Session
Yet, when we got there, there he lay, covered over with a grapevine of a neighbor
until the coroner could get there.
The youngster had been wearing tennis shoes. His shoes had been knocked off his
feet. At that time, I thought I was a pretty hard-boiled newspaperman. When I got
home that night I went up to the bedroom and looked down at the face of my own
boy, and I was struck by how this kid of mine looked like the boy I had just left on
the street. I thought of the dreams and hopes and aspirations that my wife and I had
for our youngster. I knew his father and mother had the same hopes and dreams.
I couldn't get out of my mind the look on the face of the boy's mother or on his
father, and most of all, on the man who had driven that car, whom I am sure at that
time never wanted to see an automobile as long as he lived.
I remember for a couple of days we had been rough on our boy because he had
been tracking mud in with his tennis shoes. I couldn't get the tennis shoes lying beside
the boy's body out of my mind. Never again would he track mud in anybody's home,
nor would there be the twinkling of an eye. The whole home had been changed by
that tragedy that could have been prevented.
I prayed to the good Lord that night that a tragedy like that would never visit
our home, and I prayed, too, that the good Lord would give me enough sense from
that day on when I got behind the wheel of a car or worked at my job or when I was
in my own home that I would share and share alike with the people with whom I came
in contact on the highway or in my home or my working conditions or any place else,
and that I would dedicate myself to living the most sensible, careful, decent, courteous
Christian life I could because I believe that religion can be applied nowhere more
effectively than behind the wheel of an automobile or on your job or in your home in
these trying days.
I believe if all of us would go home and examine our conscience and ask ourselves
what we can do even more than we have been doing to make things safer for the people
with whom we associate, and work, and share the highway, it would be a richly reward-
ing experience for all of us. For each in our own way to do that would be building
a bridge to a happier, safer, better way of life for those youngsters whose footsteps
must follow ours.
An old man traveling along a highway
Needs came at the evening cold and gray
To a chasm — vast and deep and wide.
The old man crossed in the twilight dim,
The sullen stream held no terror for him.
But he turned, when safe on the other side.
And built a bridge to span the tide.
The old man said to a fellow traveler near,
"You're wasting your strength building here.
You never again will pass this way.
You've crossed the chasm deep and wide.
Why build a bridge to span the tide?"
The builder lifted his tired, gray head.
"Good friend, in the past, I've come," he said,
"There follows after me today a youth,
A youth whose feet must pass this way.
Opening Session 1007
"This chasm which has been as naught to me,
To that carefree youth may a pitfall be.
He, too, must cross in the twilight dim.
Good friend, I'm building this bridge for him.
Thank you very much. [.Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you very much, Mr. Jones. You have certainly fulfilled
my desire to feature safety at our convention. You have done so very well. We appre-
ciate very much your addressing us this morning. I can assure you that your message
has not fallen on deaf ears, and that it will stimulate all of us to a greater safety
consciousness in everything we do both on and off the job. Thank you again.
Presentation of Honorary Membership Certificate
President Meyers: On February 19, this Association bestowed its highest honor —
that of Honorary Member — on another of its members. This honor, under the
Constitution of the Association, is reserved for those persons of acknowledged eminence
in railway engineering or management, who are proposed for Honorary Membership
by ten or more members of the Association and who are elected by a unanimous
affirmative vote of the Board of Direction. The number of Honorary Members of the
Association is hmited to ten.
Presently, the Association has seven living Honorary Members.
Today we are pleased and proud to add another name to this list — that of Dr.
Lewis K. Sillcox, honorary vice chairman of the board of the New York Air Brake
Company. If Dr. Sillcox will come to the platform, I would Uke to present him with a
Certificate of Honorary Membership.
[Dr. Sillcox came forward.]
Dr. Sillcox, I congratulate you upon your election as honorary Member of this
.■\ssociation. Before presenting you with your certificate, I would briefly Hke to say a
few things about you— briefly, because to tell of all of your many achievements and
contributions to the railroads would be utterly impossible in the Hmited time permitted
during this Opening Session.
Dr. Sillcox became honorary vice president of the Board of the New York Air
Brake Company in 1953, having joined the company in 1927 as first vice president.
Before then he was a railroad man, serving as mechanical engineer on the Illinois Central
from 1916 to 1918 and as general superintendent of motive power, Chicago, Milwaukee,
St. Paul & Pacific Railroad from 1918 to 1927.
Dr. Sillcox is a Life Member of the AREA, having been a member since 1920.
Since 1921 he has been an outstanding member of Committee 16 — Economics of Rail-
way Location and Operation. He has given generously of his time, vigor, knowledge
and ability not only to this Association but also to many other engineering and rail-
way associations. Among these are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, of
which he is a past president and an honorary member; the American Society of Civil
Engineers; the Western Society of Engineers; the American Institute of Mining and
Metallurgical Engineers; the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, of which he is
also an honorary member; the Newcomen Society of England; the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers; and the Engineering Institute of Canada, another association
1008 Opening Session
of which he is an honorary member. His leadership as engineer, railroader, administrator,
educator, citizen and layman is widely recognized.
Dr. Sillcox, in view of the honor which has been conferred upon you in your
election as an Honorary Member of this Association, I am pleased to present you with
this framed certificate indicating Honorary Membership and bearing the following words:
''For his many learned contributions to the work of this Association, and for his out-
standing service to the railroad industry and the engineering profession."
[President Meyers presented the Certificate to Dr. Sillcox and the assembly
applauded.]
Dr. Sillcox: I don't know how to thank you sufficiently. I will call upon an experi-
ence in connection with my son when he left the Navy when they tried to have him
remain in the Navy and they said to him, "If you stay here with a wife such as you
have, you will end up as an admiral."
Now here I am with friends such as I have, ending up as an Honorary Member.
I owe it all to you, and I will try for the rest of my days to justify your confidence
in me. Thank you. [Applause]
President Meyers: Our next speaker needs no introduction to you, having been
your president a year ago and the presiding officer at our 19S8 convention. I refer to
Mr. Ray McBrian, director of research of the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad,
whose trip to Europe last fall took him to Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium,
Holland and England. In connection with that trip, the Board appointed Mr. McBrian
official good-will emissary of the AREA, and he was given an official letter of greetings
to present to the officers of the railroads he visited.
Mr. McBrian I will be pleased if you will come to the podium and tell us — "What
you Observed in Europe of Interest to the American Railroads". Mr. McBrian.
What I Observed in Europe of Interest to the American Railroads
By Ray McBrian
Director of Research, Denver & Rio Grande Western
Mr. Meyers, ladies and gentlemen: The observations I made during my trip to
Europe last fall were of activities in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, Holland,
Belgium and England. My trip lasted two months. The purpose of my trip was to
seek new ideas in research fields on the railroads and related industries. I was fortunate
also that the AREA gave me letters to the effect that I was an ambassador representing
AREA officially. I might tell you that your AREA is most highly regarded. Your
standards are almost a bible in the world railroad field, and the various bulletins and
transactions are reviewed and studied with great interest.
One important fact of which I am convinced is that we should improve our relations
with European railroad people by encouraging them to visit and partake in such
activities as this annual AREA meeting, possibly by reciprocating arrangements. Such
I believe could be arranged for through Government agencies such as the State Depart-
ment. Their value in the exchange of information and new ideas will be great.
The over-all observations that impressed me most were first the scope of the field
of research and the intense applications of the results being made by the railroads and
alUed industries. (I would like to say here that the railroads of Europe are nationalized.
There is one thing that cannot be done, and that is reduce labor. They have to keep
Address of Ray McBrian 1009
people emploj'ed, but in the development of mechanical improvements or other research,
in my observation the sky was the limit.) Second were the overwhelming determination
of these people to produce quality products, their intense desire to work for their
country and to serv^e world markets. This meant the realization that "American labor"
is pricing itself out of the market in our country and in world markets, through its
continuing demands for higher wages, featherbedding and other demands that send
prices skyward. In many of our railroad products fields, these European countries can
now produce better quality products at less cost than those of our manufacture — and
we should begin to think about such European products as rails, locomotives, steel
products, etc., being offered our industry.
It would like to repeat that in most of the countries I visited in Europe the quality
of workmanship is excellent, and everywhere they are working to improve the quality,
expand their markets, increase the prestige of their countries so that they may success-
fully compete and invade world markets, including our country, where the continuing
spiraling of costs invites them to take over.
Some specific observations might be of interest. In Switzerland, diesel-electric and
proposed diesel-hydraulic locomotives are being introduced on the Swiss National Rail-
road. This is due to the increasing shortage of water-power developments for electrical
power. Atomic energy is being considered for power and heating. One large railroad
energy supplier has established an atomic energy department.
These people have been diesel manufacturers for many years. They plan studies for
atomic power units in any possible field — whether generating plants, or transportation
units, both marine and land. One study and actual application is that of a combined
nuclear heating plant and a power plant of a 30-Mega watts thermal output to be used
both for heating a special district and supplying electrical power at the same time. The
complete nuclear heating and power station is to be situated in two underground rock
chambers producing 6000 kw electric power. Such stationary electric generating and
heating plants are also of interest to American railroads because they offer possibilities
of an economical division of atomic energy uses and costs wherein both heat and elec-
trical power could be developed. In England I found that studies were being made by
one of the large turbine manufacturers to develop atomic-powered turbines. This, while
primarily for marine use, could also be applicable to railroad transportation.
I found a translation of a technical article which described research programs being
carried out at the Bauman Institute, iMoscow. It read in part: "The steam locomotive
which has produced a revolution in transportation, has already served mankind faith-
fully for 120 years, has largely been and is now being supplanted by incomparably more
economical and more powerful diesel, gas turbine and electric locomotives. However,
in the near future it is possible that these locomotives may also relinquish their place
to a more advanced type. Atomic locomotive designs are being developed with a view
towards using this type of engine application in Russia at the earliest opportunity."
One des'gn application considered in Russia is for an atomic steam turbine of 5500 hp
capacity. Another design is of a different constructural type steam turbine. Both would
be enclosed by a biological shield. In another imaginative type it is proposed to use
helium instead of steam as a working fluid. Hot helium would drive turbines, and the
turbine through hydro-mechanical means or hydraulic drives wouyld set the wheel axles
in rotation.
The reasons given for such developments are that atomic locomotives will conserve
fuel and eliminate the need for building and maintaining vast stores of fuel. The number
of water supply stations can be reduced to about one-tenth. The number of personnel
1010 Opening Session
required for servicing and repairing locomotives would be cut in half. They will permit
increasing the traffic capacity of main line railroads by 50-70 percent. It is difficult to
overestimate the significance of this type of locomotive for their country. The length of
railroad lines in the Soviet Union is three times the length of the equator, and from
the standpoint of railroad freight traffic the U.S.S.R. "occupies first place in the world."
I mention these plans for use of atomic energy in Europe because at some future
date we also on our railroads will be making such studies and engineering evaluations.
In Germany the railroad is increasing its studies into technological research and
developments. The use of long welded rails, using flash welding, is most successful. Mil-
lions of concrete ties are being used yearly. The concrete ties to me were a revelation
as to what might be done with concrete. They are so prestressed, and cured by steam
heat that car and locomotive wheels when in contact with a tie because of derailment,
only result in the tie being chipped and not shattered. The cost of such a tie was
equivalent to .$4.50 American money, and advantages claimed were long life, 30 years,
and material reduction in cost of track maintenance.
Off-track work equipment of unique designs were developed and are under develop-
ment. Panel-type track construction was seemingly being utilized most successfully.
Railroad operations are being developed with containers, and piggyback service of loaded
trucks, etc., on special-design flat cars is being offered.
Dieselization is proceeding at a very fast rate; the diesel hydraulic locomotive is
the standard in Germany and is becoming standard elsewhere. Preference for this
type is on the grounds of less wear and tear on track structures, and cheaper main-
tenance with equal or greater efficiency and less first costs. The German State Railroads
control and specify the constructional design of the locomotive so that all locomotives
built have the same appearance and size, and parts can be interchanged because of
standardized construction design features. They permit any number of builders to bid
on different designs of engines, transmissions, etc. All such parts are interchangeable,
which makes for greater economy in manufacture. It was this type of research and
standardization ideas which impressed me greatly, in that it permits freedom to develop
and place such projects into actual usage but does develop a trend into standardization
which does not stifle research and inventiveness. For example, if applied in rail design,
such standardization would only include constructional dimensions, such as width of
base, bolt hole spacing, fishing height, but would permit freedom for any special design
features or variation of weights or sections whereby utilization could be made prac-
tically of any research ideas.
One other important fact to me was that the German State Railroads, which have
265,000 freight cars, have now 100,000 of these equipped with roller bearings — and plan
within the next few years to have all so equipped. They told me there was no other
answer to solving the hot box and the "burnt off" journal problem.
Approximately, it was costing them 8 percent of total freight car costs to equip
the cars with roller bearings.
Research is a "must" project and is being fully explored by the individual railroads
of Europe and also by the Railroad International European organization.
I visited several European industrial railroad suppliers' research organizations and
I was impressed with the scope of their studies and the possibihties which such studies
might have for our railroads also.
Such fields included fuel, corrosion studies, use of air films for lubrication instead
of conventional lubricating oils and greases. Their developments in the fields of elec-
tronics, electron microscopes, use of ultrasonics for inspection, etc., were far advanced.
Opening Session 1011
Inexpensive, low-cost anti-slip devices which eliminated sanding on the Swiss Rail-
roads, and special types of rubber seals withstanding service oxidation conditions were
of special interest. Such are only some examples of the progress observed and I hope
this will give you a brief picture of the observations which I made during the stay
in Europe. Thank you. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank, you, Mr. McBrian.
Since most of us aren't as fortunate as you in being assigned to a trip to Europe,
we particularly appreciate your telling us about these interesting railroad and allied
developments which you have observed.
As all of you know from statements in the AREA News and other sources of infor-
mation— and as many of you know from participation therein — this hotel, on Friday
and Saturday of last week was the scene of a conference of railroad officers and key
federal and state highway authorities on railroad-highway problems — problems relating
to construction, maintenance, insurance and other aspects of railroad-highway grade
crossing elimination and protection — arising out of the huge federal construction pro-
gram under way in the United States and in prospect for the next five or more years.
One of the key figures in arranging for that conference, which was sponsored by the
AAR Committee on Grade Crossings, was introduced to you earlier, but I want to
present him to you now to tell us something about the conference for the benefit of our
members who could not be in attendance. I refer to Mr. Hal H. Hale, assistant to
vice president-highway transportation, AAR. 'Mr. Hale is a civil engineering graduate
of the University of Tennessee, and to mention only a few of the many positions of
responsibility he has held, he was connected with the City Engineer's office of Knox-
ville, Tenn., for 12 years, from July 1926 to August 1938, starting as a designer, and
becom'ng city engineer of Knoxville in August 1933. From August 1938 to November
1941, he was office engineer, Atlantic District, Portland Cement Association. At the
latter date he became assistant to secretary and Washington representative of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, following which from January 1, 1944, to January
1, 1955, he was executive secretary of the American Association of State Highway
Officials at Washington, D. C. On the latter date he came to the Association of American
Railroads as assistant to vice president — highway transportation, in which position he
has been the chief contact man of the AAR with the federal and state highway officials
and with the individual railroads regarding highway matters; with the Bureau of Public
Roads; the Highway Research Board of the National Acaderhy of Sciences; the AASHO;
and all other agencies involved in state and federal highway construction — especially
with regard to railroad-highway grade crossing separation, elimination and protection.
Mr. Hale, who as I have said earlier, was one of the key figures in arranging last
week's conference on Railroad-Highway Problems, has consented to tell us something
about the conference and to summarize the discussions which took place. I am pleased
to present to you Mr. Hal H. Hale, assistant to vice president — highway transportation,
AAR. Mr. Hale. [Applause]
1012 Opening Session
Summary of Discussions Before Industry Conference
on Railway-Highway Problems
By H. H. Hale
Assistant to Vice President — Highway Transportation, AAR
President Meyers, special guests, members of the AREA:
First I would like to express to you the thanks and appreciation of the Committee
on Grade Crossings of the Association of American Railroads for inviting me here to
speak for them today and give you a brief report on the conference held on Friday and
Saturday. We are very grateful for your courtesy.
A friend of mine from England a few years ago told me the minister of his church
in London made the comment that he was never bothered when he saw the members
of his congregation look at their watches, but if they held them up to their ear like
this, he got a little disturbed. The hour is growing late, so I will try to make my report
rather quickly.
I am speaking from notes and I will try to give you some of the highlights of our
meeting. The conference on railroad-highway problems, I believe, was the first of its
kind to be held in the industry. We had a large representation of top officials, engineer-
ing, legal and others, present. As President Meyers has told you, we had top highway
officials, both federal and state, attending the conference and participating in our activ-
ities. It was one of the most attentive audiences I have ever seen. I believe in the two
days' time I saw not more than a half-dozen men leave the room during the various
sessions. That is a tribute to the quality of the conference. It has been said on many
occasions that the mind can absorb only as much as the seat can endure. Some of those
seats got rather hard.
The Committee on Grade Crossings of the Association of American Railroads is com-
posed of 13 members. Twelve are top engineering officials of 12 member lines. The
American Short Line Railroad Association is represented by an ex officio member. The
committee was organized in the middle 30's and was authorized and instructed by the
Board to handle problems of a national character with state and federal highway officials
particularly with regard to highway crossing separations and protective devices.
In order to give you some indication of just what hes ahead for our industry in this
greatly expanded highway program, we asked the 12 members of our committee to
canvass the situation on their respective lines with regard to the number of crossing
separations that were now under construction on those lines, the number that were now
in the negotiating stage, the number of protective installations that were now under
construction, and the number under negotiation. We felt that would give a sampling
of just what the problem is with regard to this very difficult situation. The survey
showed that on those 12 lines, which incidentally operate in 44 of the 49 states, there
were presently under construction 333 grade separation projects. There are 765 in the
negotiating stage. That means that there are almost 1100 projects in the active stage.
Some of these projects are going to cost six, eight, and ten million dollars apiece, but
on a conservative estimate of $500,000 each, that means that those projects now active
will cost something approaching 550 million dollars. Now before anybody gets apoplexy
I would like to say this doesn't mean the railroads are going to be called on to lay out
that much money; but they are going to be called on to lay out substantial sums.
In the protective device category the 12 hnes now have 110 protective device
installations under construction and 194 under negotiation. This represents only the
activity in the first two and a half years of a 13-year Federal Aid Highway Program.
Address of H . H . Hale IQl.S
If that doesn't sound bijj enough, I would like to call your attention to tin- fact that
it is estimated by responsible authorities that in the next ten years all levels of govern-
ment— federal, state and local — will spend for highway design, construction, maintenance
and operation something in excess of 100 bill'on dollars.
Now to get to the conference itself. The first morning we had a panel discussion
on the New Bureau of Public Roads Memorandum 21-10. Any of you who haven't
heard of that memorandum certainly will before too long. Memorandum 21-10 super-
sedes some 30-odd memoranda that have been issued over the past 30 years dealing
with highway crossings and protection. It takes the place mainly of G.\M-32S i.ssued
by the Bureau back in 1948.
Memorandum 21-10 is the Bureau's interpretative memorandum of two sections
of the new Highway Code passed last year by the Congress called "Title 2i, U. S.
Code, Highways." Sections 120 and 130 are the two that deal with these particular
problems. Again, the memorandum is an interpretative memorandum replacing all
previous memoranda.
The AAR Grade Crossing Committee had negotiated with the Bureau of Public
Roads on this new memorandum for some 18 months. It was released last October.
In negotiating, please understand that we do not write the memoranda. We state our
case to the Bureau of Public Roads. The Bureau has given us a very careful hearing.
We did not get everything we asked for in 21-10, but we did get, in the opinion of the
committee, substantially better consideration than we have had under previous
memoranda.
I would like to give just one illustration of that. The statute provides that the
railroads shall be assessed on the basis of "net benefits" that accure to them in the
elimination of crossings, but that the assessment shall not exceed 10 percent. Under the
old memorandum, if we had a 2-lane grade crossing that was to be replaced by an
8-lane separation it was possible in the opinion of the participants in the negotiations to
rule that the railroad should be called upon to pay 10 percent of the cost of the new 8-
lane separation. If I seem a little hoarse this morning, it is because we argued over that
point quite some time during the 18 months. The new memorandum does not make such
an interpretat'on. It rules that we would be assessed only for the estimated cost of
eliminating the e.xisting number of lanes. That is a very important interpretation.
I repeat that our AAR Committee does not have the power to write such memo-
randa. That power is vested in the Federal Roads Administrator, Mr. Bertram D. Tal-
amy. It may be said that this procedure is not legal. When the Bureau issues such inter-
pretative memoranda they are published in the Federal Register. It is considered to have
the same effect as law. Until such time as appropriate courts might rule to the contrary
PPM 21-10 is the document that covers all Federal Aid railroad-highway grade separa-
I'on matters and protective devices.
On the panel we had four members, including the assistant commissioner of the
Bureau of Public Roads under whose jurisdiction PPM 21-10 was developed. We had
two chief engineers of our member roads, and the Colorado State Highway engineer who
is a member of the executive committee of the American Association of State Highway
offic'als. Those discussions on 21-10 were helpful. PPM 21-10 has been distributed to
all member roads by our office in Washington. We have additional copies available
upon your request.
The afternoon discussion on Fr'day had to do with protective liability insurance
in connection with grade separations, and work adjacent to railroad propertes. I had
that baby in my lap when I was secretary of the highway officials, and when I came
1014 Opening Session
with AAR in 1Q55, there he was again. We negotiated on the protective liability insur-
ance quest'on for over three years. The committee that did the negotiating for the AAR
was a special committee authorized by the Board, composed of engineers, insurance
department heads and attorneys. When you get the three professions together you have
your hands full. Bless their hearts, we came out finally, after long negotiations
involving highway officials, the Bureau of Public Roads, and Casualty and Mutual
Underwriters with the new memoranda on protective liability insurance. Again,
while we did not get everything we asked for in the negotiations, it is the opinion of
the comm'ttee, and of our Board of AAR, and of the Highway Officials, and of the
Bureau of Public Roads that we did get a substantial improvement over those types
of documents that we have had in previous years. A new memorandum was released
just before this conference last Friday by the Bureau of Public Roads officially inter-
pretating the insurance form. You know, down in Washington you issue a memorandum.
Then you issue a memorandum explaining that memorandum. Then you get a memoran-
dum out explainng the first two. Then you issue a new document that purports to
explain all of them.
The new memorandum is PPM 20-12. This will be sent to you just as quickly as
we can get them out of the office this week.
On the Insurance panel we had two attorneys, Mr. Welch from AAR and Mr.
Enfeld, the general counsel of the Bureau of Public Roads and one railroad engineer.
The moderator of the panel was Mr. McHugh, insurance department head of the Chesa-
peake & Ohio.
A question period followed each of the panels. We did not get to answer all the
questions presented to us for which we were sorry. I think I can assure you that two
panel members from the Bureau of Public Roads were the men who got the most
questions. In fact, I think there were not more than two or three questions directed
to other panel members. The Bureau boys were under the gun and I take my hat off to
them. They did an excellent job.
Another subject that we did not discuss as much as we wished was maintenance of
structures. The problem of maintenance of grade separation structures and protective
devices is growing in importance, and unfortunately most of that maintenance falls
right on the pocketbook of the railroads. Sometimes there is a belief that th's can be
cleared up simply by going to the Bureau of Public Roads in Washington and taking
it up with them. That is not the case. The matter of maintenance of these structures
is one that has to be handled strictly at the state level. The Bureau of Public Roads
has no authority, no power of any kind, to enforce or regulate, or direct these main-
tenance matters. So that, burdensome as it is, is a matter that falls primarily upon the
state grade crossing chairmen and state grade crossing committees.
We have a grade-crossing committee in each state. They are very active and have
done a lot of work in recent years in trying to solve some of our problems. The main-
tenance is not something that can be settled in Washington. It has to be settled at the
state level.
Now if I can take just about two minutes, 'Mr. President, to talk about what lies
ahead of us. One of the serious things that has grown out of this great road program,
is the matter of limited access as it applies to the 41,000 miles of interstate system. We
are negotiating with the Bureau officials on that. How long we will have to negotiate,
I can't say, but I assure you our committee is working with them. We are trying to
get a more liberal understanding of our problems as they are affected by this limited
access, and I am sure that within a reasonable length of time we will get favorable
Address of H. H. Hale 1015
consideration on most of our problems from the Bureau of Public Roads. No state is
going to violate the federal statutes on the limited access question in the absence of a
memorandum from the Bureau of Public Roads outlining their views, so it has to start
in Washington. We hope to have a solution before too long a time.
We are also negotiating with the Bureau on the memorandum PPM 30-3 which
covers the force account work that you do for a highway department. That is going
to be a long operation. It is a very complicated memorandum. We have called on mem-
ber roads for information to help us explain the problem to the Bureau. It is a memoran-
dum that has been in effect for a good many years. It needs to be brought up-to-date,
and we are working on that just as rapidly as we can.
In January 1961 the Bureau of Pubhc Roads will make two reports to the Congress.
One is called the "Section 210 Study" of the Act of 1956. That is a cost analysis study,
a report to the Congress on which the Congress may determine equitable tax procedures
to finance the road program, to be assessed against highway users and other beneficiaries.
This report was supposed to have been made this March, but it was delayed pri-
marily because it is tied in with the big AASHO road test. I believe you have a talk on
the Road Test this afternoon. The Bureau must also report to the Congress on recom-
mended standards for the sizes and weights of motor vehicles. I think I need not dwell
on either of those reports at length because I am sure that you appreciate what the
contents of those reports mean to the future of our industry.
We are in constant contact with the Bureau officials on these reports, and we have
submitted our views to them at their request. We have official observers on the Illinois
road test. We are trying to keep our finger on these things just as closely as we can,
I assure you that the Committee on Grade Crossings will do everything within their
power to protect the interest of this industry.
Now in closing, Mr. President, I would like to be a little bold, maybe a little
presumptuous. We can't turn the clock back in the situation that confronts us in the
highway field and in our competitive problems. The clock cannot be turned back.
I think the interests of our industry can be best protected and improved by close
contact and understanding relations with the various state highway departments with
which we have to deal. These men in the highway departments are human. They are
engineers. I know. I have worked with them for years. They get in their pants just
like we do. They like to be understood, and they have problems. I think most of them
want to understand ours, so anything I can say to encourage our industry to work
closely and continuously and cooperatively with these highway officials, I am sure, will
accrue to our best interest in the long run. It will be a far better position than backing
ourselves in a corner, so to speak, and daring somebody to knock a chip off our
shoulder. You know when you get back in a corner there is only one way out — that is
the same way you went in. By cooperation, by working together and getting them to
understand our problems, solutions are often simple.
When the question of off-track maintenance equipment was raised highway engineers
didn't know what we were talking about. It was very foreign to them. They understand
what it is now. I think I can say sincerely that most of them want to be fair and
want to treat us fairly, within the statutes they have to work under.
Mr. President, I hope I have been able to give you some sort of a picture of what
the situation is, as I see it. I would like to say that we in the Washington office, Mr.
Hollar, Mr. Feldman and I, are ready and willing to do anything that we can to be of
assistance. We don't know all the answers. Thank you very much. [Applau.se |
1016 Highways
President Meyers: Thank, you, Mr. Hale very much for summarizing this confer-
ence for us. Having attended the conference both days I can testify that it was a very
worthwhile meeting, I hope in the future that we can have similar meetings from time
to time to bring the railroad engineers face to face with the top officials of the Bureau
and the Ax^SHO. Mr. Hale, I congratulate you upon your important part in arranging
the conference and thank you again for summarizing its discussions for us this morning.
Gentlemen: This completes the program of our Opening Session. I am sure you
hive both enjoyed and profited by it. I would like to point out that eight of our com-
mittees have schedued luncheons for this noon. As soon as this meeting is closed, I think
you should go directly to your luncheons so we can reconvene here promptly at 2 pm.
The first report at our afternoon session will be that of Committee 9 — Highways.
The feature of that committee presentation will be a talk by W. N. Carey, Jr., chief
engineer for research on the AASHO road tests being carried out at Ottawa, 111.
The meeting now stands recessed until 2 pm.
[The meeting recessed at 12 o'clock noon.]
Afternoon Session — March 9, 1959
[The meeting reconvened at 2:00 pm. President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers; Will the meeting please come to order.
You will note that we have adopted a double, two-level speaker's table for this
afternoon's session in order to provide enough places for our large committees without
the necessity of stretching out one speaker's table to the ends of the room, which would
be most undesirable both from your standpoint and that of our committees.
We have a number of important committee presentations to consider this afternoon,
three of them with special features, and it is going to be important that we keep
moving right along with a minimum of lost motion if we are going to keep on time.
With this in mind, may I ask that the chairman, vice-chairman, secretary and all
subcommittee chairmen — especially those to present reports — take places at the main
speaker's table, and that all of the other members of the committees find places at the
lower speaker's table, and then fill out as may be necessary any seats that may be vacant
at the upper speaker's table. This will shorten the time required for subcommittee
chairmen to come to the podium to present their reports. While the time saved by
individual subcommittee chairmen may not amount to much, the total saving throughout
the convention will mean quite a little bit.
As another time-saving expedient, and incidentally, to save wear and tear on the
committee chairmen in repeatedly coming to the podium to introduce the various sub-
committee chairmen, we have this year provided the chairman with a microphone
at his place at the speaker's table so that he can make such introductions and comments
as he desires from his place without the necessity of coming to the podium each time.
Discussion on Highways
[For report see pp. 245-258]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: The first report on our program this afternoon is that of Com-
mittee 9 — Highways, of which C. I. Hartsell, division engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio Rail-
way, Saginaw, Mich., is chairman. If Mr. Hartsell and members of his committee will
come to the platform, we will get started with our program.
Discussion 1017
As the committee comes to the platform, I would like to tell you that the privilege
of the floor is extended to all members of the Association and to all our guests. We
invite your comments and criticism of reports in the limted amount of time which has
been provided each committee for discussion. For your convenience in this regard,
microphones with removable heads have been provided in each main aisle, and someone
manning each microphone will be glad to bring it to you at your place on the floor,
to the extent that this is possible.
I now present Mr. Hartsell, chairman of Committee 9.
Ch-airman C. I. Hartsell: Mr. President, members of the AREA and guests:
The report of Committee 9 — Highways, will be found in Bulletin 546, pages 245
to 258, incl. Since the Bulletin was issued our collaboration with the Signal Section,
AAR and the Grade Cross'ng Protection Unit of Train Operation, Control and Signals
Committee of the Operations and Maintenance Department of the Association of Amer-
ican Railroads has developed desirable changes in Subcommittee 8's report, which will
be called to your attention when the subcommittee chairman presents his report. Com-
mittee 9 will report on four of its five assignments. We solicit any comments, sugges-
tions, or criticisms on the committee report that you may care to offer. Each sub-
committee chairman will give you an opportunity to express yourselves at the conclu.sion
of his report.
Assignment 1 — Revision oi Manual.
Chairman Hartsell: Subcommittee Chairman J. M. Tris.sal, vice president and
chief engineer, IlHnois Central Railroad, will present the report on Assignment 1.
J. M. Trissal: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
In order to properly describe the reflecting ' medium intended for use on reflector
type highway — railway grade crossing signs and to conform with other Manual descrip-
tions, your committee recommends that the last sentence of paragraphs 2, 4, 5, and 6,
column 2, page 9-2-1 of the Manual be revised to read as follows: "Reflective medium
may be reflector buttons or reflex-reflecting material."
I move that the recommendation be adopted.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vole, and carried.]
Assignment 2 — Merits and Economics of Prefabricated Types of High-
way-Railway Grade Crossings.
Chairman Hartsell: R. E. Nottingham, divis'on engineer of the Louisville &
Nashville Railroad will present the report on Assignment 2. Mr. Nottingham.
R. E. Nottingham: Your committee submits a report of progress in determining
the service life and initial cost for the various types of prefabricated materials now
being used as crossing material.
The manufactured, treated-timber-panel type may be expected to last from 10 to
15 years and costs on the average about $25 per foot of track.
One metal-grating type installation which has been kept from being clogged up
by road dirt, has required one-third less surfacing of the roadbed under the crossing
compared with an adjacent shop-made timber panel crossing. In about 12 years the
decreased maintenance will wipe out the increased initial cost of the metal-type material.
This metal crossing is expected to last 20 years. It initially costs $52 per foot of
track. Other lighter-constructed metal-grating-type crossings, when allowed to become
clogged up with dirt, failed within 8 years.
The 19 rubber-slab type crossings are giving good service with practically no main-
1018 Highways
tenance so far. The initial cost is reported to be from $70 to $86 per foot of track.
Since they are less than five years old, we can only report that it appears they will
give a satisfactory long life under extremely heavy highway traffic conditions that caused
other types to fail within a few years.
Concrete-slab-type crossings appear to be unsuited to present-day highway traffic.
All costs mentioned above were at the time of installation, within the last five-year
period. The installation costs were after the track had been made ready.
We offer the report as information. Your committee desires to continue this assign-
ment for further study and recommends this subject be continued.
Is there any discussion?
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Nottingham. Your report will be so received.
Assignment 4 — Recommended Device to Guard Highway-Railway Cross-
ing Signs and Signals from Damage by Vehicular Traffic, Collaborating with
Signal Section, AAR.
Chairman Hartsell: F. C. Cunningham, division engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio
Railway, will present the report on Assignment 4.
F. C. Cunningham: Mr. President, members and guests:
Your committee presents as information a drawing illustrating several types of
barriers now being used to protect highway-railway crossing signals from damage by
vehicles.
Investigation of this subject disclosed that at least one state requires use of a
particular design of barrier; and this, together with the wide variance in local condi-
tions over the country, indicates the undesirability of recommending some particular
type of barrier for general use.
The committee recommends that the subject be discontinued.
Is there any discussion?
President 'Meyers: If there is no discussion, we thank you, Mr. Cunningham, and
your assignment will be discontinued.
I think this is a pertinent subject because I know on our road we have plenty
of crossing signals that are knocked down, and usually you can never find out who
did it.
Assignment 8 — Recommended Protection at Highway-Railway Grade
Crossings Where One-Way Traffic on the Highway Crosses One or More
Tracks on the Railway, Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR.
Chairman Hartsell: Due to circumstances beyond his control, Subcommittee Chair-
man D. W. Hughes could not be present. Also, because of the circumstances I told you
about earlier, we have necessarily revised the report on Assignment 8 that Mr. Hughes
was going to give. G. B. Blatt, chief signal, electrical and communications engineer,
Reading Company, will now present the revised report.
G. B. Blatt: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
The final report of Subcommittee 8 of Committee 9 on "Recommended Protection
at Highway-Railway Grade Crossings Where One-Way Traffic on the Highway Crosses
One or More Tracks on the Railway," Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR, will
not be made at this meeting because additional time is required to study certain infor-
mation recently presented to Committee 9.
The subject will, therefore, be continued and a report made at a later date.
Is there any discussion?
Address of W. N. Carey, Jr. 1019
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Blatt. I might say that the items that Mr.
Blatt refers to are not the fault of the committee, but they did come into light recently,
and it seemed advisable to study th's information to make sure that what we put in the
Manual will be the right thing.
Chairm.\n Hartsell: Mr. President, this concludes our formal committee report
to the convention. However, we have a speaker we would like to present to you.
V\^e are all acutely aware of the effect of trucks on railway traffic. Likewise, as
individuals and engineers we are aware of the effect of trucks on highways. Some of us
have heard of the road test of loaded vehicles in the eastern part of the United States.
The results of that test were such that a special test is presently being conducted at
Ottawa, 111., by interested parties to determine just what effect truck traffic has on
various types of highways. The pioject is under the administration of the Highway
Research Board of the National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council.
The chief engineer for the project is Mr. W.lliam N. Carey, Jr.
You may wish to know Mr. Carey's background. He is a native of Minnesota and
a civil engineer graduate of the University of Minnesota in 1937. He has worked with
contracting firms in Minnesota and Michigan, has been associated with the U. S.
Engineers central laboratory to supervise the design and field control of construction
of pavements on approximately 100 military airfields, and has set up soils laboratories
and supervised the design of an earth-and-cement dam for the San Juan, Puerto Rico,
water system, ending his army service as a lieutenant colonel.
Mr. Carey has authored many technical papers and reports on highway research
and the three test road projects.
He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, serving as the secretary
to its executive committee. He is a member of the national honorary fraternity, Sigma
Xi, and is a registered professional engineer.
He has many hobbies, including amateur radio.
His experience on road tests includes the Maryland, Idaho, and now the Illinois
project.
We are indeed honored to have Mr. Carey as Committee 9's speaker. He will dis-
cuss the purpo.se and layout of the Illinois road test. Mr. Carey.
The AASHO Road Research Project
By W. B. McKendrick, Jr.
Project Director
and W. N. Carey, Jr.
Chief Engineer for Research
The AASHO road research project is a '$22 million experiment aimed primarily
at determining significant relationships between performance and traffic for highway
pavements of known designs under controlled truck traffic with known loadings.
The project is sponsored by the American Association of State Highway Officials,
and is being administered by the Highway Research Board of the National Academy
of Sciences — -National Research Council.
The cost is being borne by the states. District of Columbia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the
Bureau of Public Roads, the Automobile Manufacturers Association, and the American
Petroleum Institute, with coop>eration and assistance from the Department of Defense.
The test is being conducted on six carefully constructed loops of pavement at Ottawa,
1020 Highways
111., about 80 miles southwest of Chicago, in an area where climate and soils are typical
of wide areas of the nation.
Nearly seven years of planning and preparation preceded the beginning of the
research phase of the AASHO Road Test in October, 1958; and the project represents
the cooperative effort of many persons from various phases of highway engineering,
research and science.
Basic planning for the project was under a working committee of the AASHO
Committee on Highway Transport. When this committee had completed its task, the
Highway Research Board was requested to undertake the project, and over-all guidance
was placed in the hands of a National Advisory Committee composed of representatives
of several state highway departments, the Bureau of Public Roads, the Department of
the Army, un!versites, related industry organizations, and highway user groups.
In addition, there are advisory panels which function in specific fields, such as statis-
tics, soils, instrumentation, public information, materials and construction, maintenance,
vehicles, bridges, performance rating, and econom'c data.
The Highway Research Board established a field office at the project site in 19SS,
and now has a staff of about 140 persons employed there. Research operations are organ-
ized under three principal branches — rigid pavements, flexible pavements, and bridges.
These branches are supported by staff-level service branches in the fields of data analysis,
vehicle operations, pavement maintenance, instrumentation, materials, and special assign-
ments. The heads of these branches along with the project director, chief engineer for
research, business administrator, and chief of public information comprise the project
staff.
To provide personnel for operating the test vehicles, the United States Army Trans-
portat on Corps Road Test Support Activity was estabhshed by the Department of
Defense. This is a special unit of about 300 officers and enlisted men who will be stationed
at the project throughout the research phase of the test.
The AASHO Road Test is not only larger and more comprehensive than any previous
large-scale highway research project, but is the first to be designed in accordance with
modern scientific principles of experiment design.
Seven independent variables were selected for control at more than one level. The
final selection was made after careful consideration from perhaps hundreds of possibilities
by members of the National Advisory Committee. It was early agreed that orthogonal
experiment designs would be used throughout. This decision meant in effect that every
variable added practically doubled the size of the project. Thus, it was necessary to
restrict severely the number of variables that will be studied. Those selected were con-
sidered by the committee to be the most important for consideration in a test of this
type. They are:
1. Pavement surfacing type. Half of the test pavements are surfaced with portland
cement concrete and half with bituminous concrete.
2. Surfacing reinforcement. Half of the concrete pavements are reinforced and half
are plain.
3. Surfacing thickness. The asphalt concrete surfacing thickness varies in 1-in incre-
ment?, from 1 to 6 in. Sections with surface treatment are also included.
Concrete slab thicknesses vary across the job in l^^-in increments from 3y^ to
12^ in. Certain sections 2^ in thick are included.
4. Base thickness. Under the flexible pavements crushed stone base varying in 3-in
increments from 0 to 9 in thick are included.
Address of W. N. Carey, Jr. 1021
5. Subbase thickness. Under the concrete slabs, sand-gravel subbase with thicknesses
from 0 to 9 in. in 3-in increments are included.
Under the fle.\ible pavements subbases in 4-in increments range from 0 to 16 in
thick.
6. Axle spacing. On the main test loops half of the vehicles are single-a.xle tractor
semi-trailers, the other half are tandem-axle tractor semi-trailers.
7. Axle load. Single axle loads on the project range from 2,000 to 30,000 lb. Tandem
axle loads from 24,000 to 48,000 lb.
Special side studies permit consideration of base-type (crushed stone, crushed gravel,
bituminous treated sand-gravel, and cement treated sand-gravel) and the effect of paved
shoulders. There are also included 16 test bridges designed to permit study of behavior
of structures under high stresses.
Controlled traffic with known axle loads and axle spacing is being operated at a
rate of about SO vehicle trips per hour for 18 hr a day, 6 days a week. This traffic
density is heavier than that found on most highways of the nation but lighter than that
on some heavily traveled truck routes. Any given pavement section will be subjected
only to loads of a given magnitude in order that the effect of load may be clearly
demonstrated. A constant speed of 30 mph for the test traffic was chosen since strains
and deflections in pavements do not increase appreciably at higher speeds and since the
cost of right-of-way and construction for the turnarounds designed for higher speeds
would have been prohibitive.
Construction of the test facility, which extends along an 8-mile right-of-way, began
in the late summer of 1956 and was completed in the fall of 1958. It was accomplished
under controls more strict than any ever attempted in large-scale highway construction.
These controls were directed at producing an embankment and pavements which were
uniform in quality throughout the entire job, so as not to introduce additional variables.
Construction of the earth embankments began in late August of 1956. By mid-
November, when operations were suspended for the winter, more than a million and a
quarter cubic yards of earth had been moved and the embankments were about 95
percent completed.
The upper 3 ft of the embankment material — about half of the total cubic yardage — ■
was placed under rigidly controlled conditions. The material, a fine-grained clay, was
hauled from three borrow pits adjacent to the right-of-way, and placed in 6-in loose
lifts.
Each lift was processed with rotary tillers which thoroughly mixed the soil and
added the proper amount of water.
The loose soil was then compacted to 4 in by pneumatic-tired rollers loaded to
15 tons.
Specifications for the embankment called for holding density between 95 and 100
percent of standard AASHO maximum, and moisture content between ± 2 percent of
optimum.
In order to preserve this carefully controlled compaction, all of the equipment
working on the embankments was required to operate in controlled patterns, and no
equipment was allowed to turn around or cross over the embankments except in desig-
nated transition areas which are not a part of the test sections.
During the earthmoving phase of the job, the contractors — S. J. Groves and Sons
Company and Arcole Midwest Corporation — ^assembled a large concentration of heavy
equipment in order to operate simultaneously in the four main test loops. At one period,
1022
High ways
it was estimated that some 225 pieces of equipment valued in excess of $5 million were
on the job.
The embankments were completed and subgrading began in the 1957 construction
season. Mechanical subgraders, riding on forms, brought the embankment to exact grade.
The specifications permitted a tolerance of ±3^ in. This same operation was also car-
ried out on succeeding layers of base and/or subbase, making it necessary to set forms
twice on the rigid pavement tangents and three times on the flexible pavement tangents.
Another interesting feature of the specifications was the banning of all heavy hauling
equipment from the center 27 ft of the embankments. This meant that the subbase
and base material was placed with equipment operating from the shoulder area of the
roadway.
The subbase material is a sand-gravel mixture procured from a pit near the job site.
The pit-run material was washed, screened and run through a batching plant in order to
closely control the gradation. This material was placed on the subgrade by a conveyor
belt system and a spreader pushed by a tractor.
The base material — a crushed limestone — was produced to specifications by a quarry
near Romeoville, 111., and brought to a point near the job site by rail. This material was
placed by running it through a modified paver which added water and employed a
conveyor belt on its boom to carry the material to a self-propelled spreader.
The contract for paving the test loops was awarded in late August 1957 to the
S. J. Groves and Sons Company, which subcontracted the asphaltic concrete paving to
Rock Road Construction Company
The remainder of that construction season was utilized to bring in equipment, set
up plants, and construct pilot test sections. The pilot test sections, built between the
main loops, allowed the engineers and contractors to experiment with various methods
and equipment in placing paving to meet the specifications. For example, the rigid pave-
ment pilot test section included placing of 2J/2-in and 3%-in reinforced concrete slabs.
These thin sections do not represent normal practice, and special techniques were
required.
Some Portland cement concrete pavement was placed on the loop turnarounds before
operations were suspended for the winter.
At the beginning of the 1958 construction season, it was apparent that an all-out
effort was needed if the target date for completion of construction was to be met. Some
appreciation of the magnitude of this effort can be gained from the fact that the com-
bined forces of the contractors and the project totalled nearly 700 persons at the height
of operations.
Placing the portland cement concrete paving was begun on the test tangents on
May 19. Two identical paving outfits were placed in operation, and the work proceeded
rapidly. The final section of rigid pavement was placed on July 10.
On the flexible pavement tangents, it was, of course, necessary to place an addi-
tional layer of material — the crushed-stone base. Considerable preliminary work also was
required on a pilot test section where various mix designs were tried, as well as various
roller types, weights and rolling patterns for the different thicknesses of asphaltic concrete
surfacing.
The first asphaltic concrete was placed on the test tangents on July 9, and the final
piece of surface course was placed on September 24. Here, again, was an example of an
unusual operation.Trucks carrying the asphaltic concrete from the plants were not allowed
Address of W. N. Carey, Jr. 1023
to operate on the center portion of the grade where they could dump directly into the
paver. Instead, the trucks remained on the shoulder area, and the asphaltic concrete
mix was transferred to the paver by a pneumatically operated shovel.
The final construction work consisted of bringing shoulders up to grade, joint scal-
ing, seeding, and surface treatment of frontage roads. This work was complete when
test traffic was officially inaugurated on October IS.
Obviously, large-scale highway construction, carried out under rigid specifications,
required a huge program of sampling, testing and inspecfon. Qualified engineers super-
vised a corps of technicians in this phase of the job. Many thousands of samples were
taken, both at the source of the materials and on the job. During some phases of the
work, production line methods were needed to handle the continuous flow of samples.
One piece of equipment that was highly important in the materials testing program
was a continuous drying oven, designed by staff members and built locally. This oven
required only 23 min to dry a sample of material as opposed to the several hours
required in a conventional oven.
Another interesting piece of test equipment was a device which employs nuclear
energy to determine the density of materials. The operation of this equipment is based
on the fact that the attenuation of gamma radiat'on increases with increase in density.
Experimentation with this equipment has been under way at the project for about two
years, and the device was used to determine in-place density of the base course material.
During the final construction season of the spring and summer of 19S8, the project
purchased and made ready the fleet of 70 vehicles which are now being operated over
the test pavements. The vehicles were purchased on a competitive b"'d basis, so arranged
that no one manufacturer could monopolize the test vehicle fleet.
As a result there are 10 different makes of trucks and tractors and 7 different makes
of semi-trailers being used on the job. These include Ford, Chevrolet, CMC, Dodge,
International Harvester, Reo, White, Mack, Diamond T, and Autocar trucks and tractors;
and Andrews, Kingham, Lufkin, Highway, Hobbs, Dorsey, and Alabama semi-trailers.
The vehicles were loaded with concrete blocks tied down with steel bands. The first
attempts at loading employed hollow-core building blocks in order to hold down the
over-all density of the loads and make them somewhat comparable to average on-the-
highway loads. It was discovered, however, that these loads resulted in a center of
gravity too high for safe operation on the 200-ft radius turnarounds on the main loops.
As a result, many of the building blocks have been replaced with solid concrete blocks.
The vehicles are being operated in 10 traffic lanes in S of the 6 test loops. The
smallest loop, with 2000-ft tangents, is being used to provide information on the
behavior of the pavements with no traffic whatsoever, and for special tests under static
loading. Another small loop, with 4400-ft tangents, is subjected to the lightest axle
loads — 2000 single on one lane and 6000 single on the other lane.
The other four loops, generally called the "main" test loops, have 6800-ft tangents.
The axle loads in these loops are 12,000 single and 24,000 tandem, 18,000 single and
32,000 tandem, 22,400 single and 40,000 tandem, and 30,000 single and 48,000 tandem.
The latter two loads are heavier than any allowed on the highways today.
The tangents of the test loops are subdivided into structural sections 24 ft wide
and made up of various thicknesses of surface, base and subbase. Fexible pavement
sections are 100 ft long; reinforced concrete sections are 240 ft; and plain concrete
sections are 120 ft. All sections are separated by short transition areas.
Within any given tangent the experiment design calls for a complete factorial in
which all levels of each selected variable appear in combination with all levels of every
1024
Highways
other variable. For example, in the flexible tangents of one test loop, there are three
thicknesses of asphaltic concrete (3, 4 and 5 in), three thicknesses of crushed stone base
(0, 3 and 6 in), and three thicknesses of sand-gravel subbase (0, 4 and 8 in). All pos-
sible combinations of these thicknesses are included to make a 3x3x3 factorial with a
total of 27 different structural sections. Some of these sections are replicated, or repeated,
in the tangent ; and some special study sections are included to make a total of 42
structural sections. Since traffic on the inner lane carries one axle load, and traffic on
the outer lane carries another axle load, each 12-ft lane is considered to be a separate
test section. Thus, there are 84 test sections in this tangent. On the entire project, the
number of test sections is 836, and all are located at random within their respective
tangents.
The Army personnel operating the test vehicles are quartered in a $450,000 housing-
administration area provided by the project. Drivers work in two shifts per day on a
schedule which is shifted every two weeks so that traffic coverage during day and night
hours is about equal. Operations are halted on Sundays, and each driver is also off duty
one other day per week. On a normal shift, a driver is on duty about 10 hr. However,
a 10-min break each hour, and half-hour meal periods, make actual driving time about
7^ hr per shift. It has, of course, been realized that the drivers provide an excellent
opportunity for studies of fatigue and the effects of monotonous driving conditions. Plans
for such studies are being made by the appropriate agencies.
The effects of the controlled test traffic on the pavements are being measured and
recorded by means of a complex system of electronic and mechanical instruments and
data handling equipment. Many of the instruments are entirely new, developed specifically
for this project, and represent in themselves an important step forward in highway
research. The majority of the devices are electrical in nature and, therefore, are highly
sensitive, and can be placed in otherwise inaccessible spots, can detect phenomena which
take place too fast for visual observation, and can be used with automatic recording
equipment.
Electric transducers installed on or in the pavements include strain gages, thermo-
couples, frost depth indicators, curvature strips, and conventional linear differential trans-
formers to measure deflection.
Measurements from these transducers are recorded on electronic equipment installed
in movable vans which can plug into terminal boxes along the roadway and record
transient behavior of the pavement as the test traffic is running.
This recording equipment is designed to digitize the output of the electrical trans-
ducers and to punch the data into paper tape.
The tape is then brought into the project's data processing center where the data
are transferred to punched cards. A fairly complete IBM set-up is installed at the project
for handling the data.
Analysis of the data will be done to a great extent on a Bendix G15-D digital
computer which is also installed at the project. However, some of the more cumbersome
and time-consuming analyses will be done on larger computers at nearby universities.
Perhaps the most interesting of the instruments in use on the project are those
deisgned to measure surface deformation.
These include an automatic model of the "Benkelman Beam," an instrument designed
to measure and record surface deflections in flexible pavement near the rear wheels of a
loaded trailer. This device operates automatically at regular intervals as the vehicle
moves along the roadway at about 3 mph. Its 7 probe arms measure 11 deflections,
and the data are automatically recorded on equipment carried on the trailer.
Address of W. N. Carey, Jr. 1025
There is also a transverse profilometer, consisting of a truss supporting nine pneu-
matically operated probes. This device is carried along the roadway by a van and
placed down at any desired spot. It can be used to provide a nine-point profile; or by
employing the probes in groups of three, to read directly the rut depth in flexible pave-
ments. The recording equipment installed in the van can be used to automatically aver-
age the readings from the two outer probes and subtract this average from the reading
of the center probe, thus giving a direct depth-of-rut result.
Perhaps the most difficult of the instrumentation problems was the development
of a longitudinal profilometer. This device measures and records, on oscillograph tape,
the slope of the pavements in the wheel paths of the test vehicles. It operates as the trailer
is towed along the roadway at about 7 or 8 mph. Development of this instrument
included, among other things, a unique horizontal reference system.
The longitudinal profilometer is one of the most important devices on the project,
and w.'ll be used frequently. It is estimated that during the two-year test period, it will
produce an actual 42 miles of oscillograph tape. Turning this analog record into digital
form entails reading the tape at intervals of about seven per inch. Therefore, an auto-
matic chart reader is used for this task. The digitized information is punched into paper
tape which can be run directly into the computer for analysis.
It is obvious that with equipment such as has just been described that a large
amount of data will be generated. It has been estimated that the test will produce some
hundreds of millions of pieces of data. If it were not for automatic recording equip-
ment and electronic computers, it would be impossible to conduct an experiment of
this magnitude.
It is difficult to say at this point in the research just what form the final findings
will take or exactly how they will be used by highway administrators and engineers.
However, some idea of the nature of what is being sought can be gained from the official
objectives of the test. These objectives have determined much of what has and what
will be done at the test site. They are:
1. To determine the significant relationships between the number of repetitions of
specified axle loads of different magnitude and arrangement and the performance of
different thickncs.ses of uniformly designed and constructed alphaltic concrete, plain
Portland cement concrete, and reinforced portland cement concrete surfaces on different
thicknesses of bases and subbases when on a basement soil of known characteristics.
2. To determine the significant effects of specified vehicle axle loads and gross
vehicle loads when applied at known frequency on bridges of known design and char-
acteristics. The bridges will include steel I-beam design, conventional reinforced concrete
design, and prestressed concrete design.
3. To make special studies dealing with such subjects as paved shoulders, base types,
pavement fatigue, tire size and pressures, and heavy military vehicles, and lo correlate
the findings of these special studies with the results of the basic research.
4. To provide a record of the type and extent of effort and materials required to
keep each of the test sections or portions thereof in a satisfactory condition until discon-
tinued for test purposes.
5. To develop instrumentation, test procedures, data, charts, graphs, and formulas,
which will reflect the capabihties of the various test sections; and which will be helpful
in future highway design, in the evaluation of the load-carrying capabilities of existing
highways and in determining the most promising areas for further highway research.
1026 Highways
The first objective, of course, embodies the basjc purpose of the project. Stated
simply, it asks for significant relationships between performance and traffic for pave-
ments of certain designs under controlled truck traffic with certain loadings.
There are two key words in this objective: significant and performance. The word
significant, in th^s case, does not relate to someone's judgment of what is and what is
not msaningful. It is used here in its mathematical sense. That is, if a relationship is
said to be significant, there is a stated probability that it is truly so within the environ-
ment of the experiment. A significant relationship may be defined as one in which the
effects on one variable are known to be caused by the other variables with a specific
degree of certainty.
In order to make statements about the significance of relationships, an experiment
must be designed in accordance with certain principles of mathematical statistics. This
has been done at the AASHO Road Test; and the test is — in terms of time, space and
cost — probably the largest statistically designed experiment ever undertaken.
One very important feature of the design of the experiment is the use of the com-
plete factorial in which each design factor level occurs in combination with all other
design factor levels. Such a design makes it possible to estimate the effects of design
factors and their interactions independently of one another. In other words, if two test
sections of different thickness are subjected to the same traffic and one behaves better
than the other, it will be possible to deduce whether the difference in behavior is
attributable to the difference in thickness or not. In previous road tests no such deduction
has been possible.
Two other important features in the design of the test facility were randomization
in the layout of the experimental units, and replication, or repeating of experimental
units, at least on a limited basis.
Randomization, in effect, "shakes loose" the effects of the design factors from the
effects of error variables so that unbiased estimates are obtained for design factor effects.
In simple terms, randomization is nothing more than what is accomplished by shuffling
a deck of cards. Any card has an equal chance of being anywhere in the deck. At the
road test, any test section had an equal chance of being anywhere on its respective loop
tangent, and the loops themselves are located along the right-of-way in random order.
Replication, or providing more than one experimental unit with the same design
factor levels, amounts to performing the same experiment twice. This prov'des the means
for measuring experimental error so that the reliability of the results can be appraised.
Thus, there are, in the test facility, a certain number of identical test sections being
tested under identical axle loads.
The second key word of the first objective of the test 's performance. The objective
asks for significant relationships between the performance of pavements with different
structural characteristics and the number of applications of a specific axle load.
Performance is necessarily a relative thing; and whether a pavement, or any other
product, performs well or performs badly can never be anything except a matter of
human judgment.
There is, however, a method of utilizing the collect've judgment of a group of
persons to validate indices derived from objective measurements. This method will be
followed at the road test by using a performance rating panel composed of 13 men
w'th backgrounds in highway engineering.
The process of deriving a "performance index" for any test secfon begins with
the panel making individual "present serviceability" ratings of selected test sections.
In evaluating a test section, the rater considers only the present ability of the section
Address of W. N. Carey, Jr. 1027
of pavement to serve high-speed, hiph-volume mixed traffic such as might be found
on an interstate highway. He may rate the pavement as "good" even though he strongly
suspects it may fail in the near future.
The mean present serviceabiHty rating of the panel is then used to validate an index
made up of a weighted sum of terms involving measurable elements of pavement behavior
such as roughness, cracking, faulting, etc. When an appropriate summation of these ele-
ments is obtained, the present serviceability rating of any test section can then be deter-
mined without an actual rating by the panel. There will be, however, periodic ratings
by the panel to check the validity of the indices.
Once a number of present serviceabiHty ratings are obtained, they can be plotted
against number of load applications or against time. Ths plot will represent the per-
formance of a test section. The panel is then called upon to make a performance rating
after examining the plot of present serviceability against time. A performance index is
then derived in the same manner as the present serviceability index.
Although many variables will be analyzed, the performance index is the main
dependent variable in the test and will be plotted as ordinate against the independent
variables in studies of the relationships called for by the first objective. Once this index
is established, the analysis becomes a matter of determining appropriate mathematical
models for relationships between the index and the controlled variables of the experi-
ment. Analysis of the data with respect to these models will determine the extent to
which the controlled factors affected the performance index.
There is one further step — the development of a future condition index which can
be used to predict the condition of a highway at some future date if it is to be subjected
to known loading and environment. Some of the elements in this index may be the
same as those in the present serviceability index, but it will also probably include such
measurements as strains and deflections. The index will, of course, be validated by
comparing predicted conditions with actual conditions on the future date.
Bridge research at the AASHO Road Test is being carried out as 16 separate case
studies on spans built at four locations in the two main traffic loops carrying the
heaviest axle loads. Eight spans were constructed with steel I-beams, four with conven-
tional reinforced concrete beams, and four with prestressed concrete beams. All are s'mple
SO-ft spans with three beams and a reinforced concrete deck.
The bridge studies have two principal objectives: (1) To determine the behavior
of short-span highway bridges under repeated applications of overstress; (2) To determine
the dynamic effects of moving vehicles on short-span highway bridges.
The 16 spans were all designed at higher-than-usual stress levels, with some of the
steel beam bridges being designed at stress levels which approximate the yield point
of the steel.
The design of the three types of bridges were based on different criteria each aimed
at answers to problems peculiar to the type involved. Because of the differences in the
design criteria, there is no basis for comparison between the steel, prestressed and rein-
forced concrete test structures.
Four spans showed early distress and permanent distortion of such magnitudes as
to cause their removal from the test. Nonetheless, considerable valuable data on their
behavior were obtained.
The foregoing has been an attempt to prej^ent in brief what has been done at the
.^ASHO Road Test and what it is hoped to learn from it. .\n earnest attempt is being
(Text continued on page 1035.)
1028
High ways
Location map.
LOOP A I LOOP D , LOOP C , LOOP B
UTICA
I
r
4--H
Tu
LOOP E ^LOOP F
' ' I
-U.S. ^RT— ^6
OTTAWA
Layout of test loops.
Address of W. N. Carey, Jr.
1029
TYPICAL RIGID PAVEMENT SECTION
TYPICAL FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT SECTION
Typical cross sections of rigid and flexible test road construction.
•^■^t^
-■'*'■* " -^ai^^jiif
K
Concrete pavement operation.
1030
Highways
Flexible pavement operation.
Four of 16 test bridge slabs.
Address o f W. N. Carey, Jr
1031
Transverse profilometer. This instrument measures depth of ruts
in the traffic wheel path.
Field unit for nuclear measurements of construction densities.
1032
Highways
Traffic in operation on one of the test loops after a snow storm.
Test truck on flexible pavement tangent.
Address of W. N. Carey, Jr
1033
Tape to card punch. Data are recorded on perforated paper tape in the field
and transferred to punched cards in the processing center.
Test vehicle passing instrument van. Such vans contain instruments
to measure deflections and strains under traffic.
1034
High way s
Instrument van interior
Address of W . N . Carey, J r
1035
Automatic Benkelman Beam measures deflection of pavement
surface under load.
made to obtain information most needed by highway administrators and engineers.
Of course, the findings will also be useful to many others. The Bureau of Public Roads,
for example, intends to use data from the test in studies it is making of highway cost
allocation, and on the maximum desirable dimensions and weights of vehicles to be
operated on the federal aid highways, including the interstate system.
The test traffic is now under way, and the collection and analysis of the vast amount
of data have begun. The policy at the present time is that all data from the research
phase of the test will be restricted until completion of the testing program. It is hoped,
however, that the use of modern data handling techniques and analysis by electronic
computers will enable the research staff to keep analysis close behind the actual collec-
tion of data. In view of this, it should be possible to produce reports containing the
over-all findings of the test some time in 1961.
In the meantime, preliminary reports will be published by the Highway Research
Board. These reports will cover the basic concepts and planning for the project, the
construction of the test facility, the plans for the collection and analysis of data, etc.
They will provide the background necessary for a complete understanding of the
project. [Applause]
Chairman Hartsell: Thank you, Mr. Carey, for a most informative and interesting
discussion. I believe we railway engineers now have a better understanding of the how,
what, and whys of the road test.
It has been my pleasure to serve this committee and the AREA as vice chairman
for three years and as chairman for the past three years. I wish to express my thanks
to the Association for this privilege. To the members, members emeritus, associates and
1036 Contract Forms
guest members of the committee I wish to state that it was an honor and pleasure
to serve you. Your willing assistance and cooperation were excellent and greatly
appreciated by me.
May I now introduce the new vice chairman of the committee, R. W. Mauer,
assistant engineer, Office of Chef Engineer, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway,
Chicago. [Applause]
Your incoming chairman of Committee 9 — the able vice president and chief engineer,
Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago, J. M. Trissal. [Applause]
Mr. President, this concludes Committee 9's report.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Hartsell, for your very interesting report,
and I want to thank you, too, Mr. Carey. I can remember a number of years ago,
going to Maryland where similar projects were under way but on a very small scale,
and they did not have the electronic equipment available today. I hope sometime this
summer to stop in at Ottawa and see the present road test. I am sure many others
are interested, too.
Mr. Hartsell, it is with a sense of apprec'ation that we look back over the work
of your committee for the past three years. We welcome as your successor, Mr. Trissal,
and your new vice chairman, Mr. Mauer, knowing that these two able men will carry
forward effectively the work which you have d'rected so capably during the past three
years.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Contract Forms
[For report see pp. 301-314]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: To save time, will Committee 20 please come to the platform.
The chairman of this committee is E. M. Hastings, Jr., wire crossing engineer system,
Chesapeake & Oho Railway.
Mr. Hastings, you may now proceed with your report.
Chairman E. M. Hastings, Jr. Mr. President, members of the American Railway
Engineering Association, and guests:
Your Committee on Contract Forms has five assignments. Three of them are a con-
tinuation from last year, two are new. Our reports appear in Bulletin 546, beginning
on page 301.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Hastings: W. R. Swatosh, assistant superintendent of construction on
the Erie Railroad is chairman of Subcommittee 1 and will present the report.
W. R. Swatosh: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Your committee offers the following with respect to the Manual: Delete from the
Manual the agreement found on pages 20-7-8 and 20-7-9, and replace it with the form
entitled "Form of Agreement to Permit Subsurface Exploration on Railway Property,"
as published on pages 302 to 304 in Bulletin 546. The text of the revised form is
similar to the existing one but includes under "Notes" an alternate Sec. 4. Indemnity,
and 4a. Insurance, to cover the preparation of an agreement with an agent of a govern-
mental body, a private party or a corporation, thus widening its application. It is
pointed out that the basic form as prepared will only indemnify the legal liability of the
Railway Company. The agreement when written to comply with the notes will indemnify
the Railway Company's legal liability as well as its sole negligence and provides for
Discussion 1037
insuring the contractual liability assumed. Mr. President, I move that this new form
be approved for publication in the Manual.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Swatosh: That finishes the report of my subcommittee, sir.
President Meykrs: Thank you, Mr. Swatosh.
Chairman Hastings: Thank you, Mr. Swatosh. I would like to mention that Mr.
Swatosh is stepping down from the chairmanship of Subcommittee 1 at the close of this
convention. I want to express the appropriation of the Association, Committee 20, and
myself for his years of valuable service in this important position.
Assignment 2 — Form of Lease Covering the Use of Railway Tracks
for Storage of Tank Cars Containing Liquefied Petroleum Gases, Anhydrous
Ammonia, and other Flammable or Dangerous Materials, Collaborating with
Fire Protection and Insurance Section, AAR.
Chairman Hastings: Our next report is on Assignment 2. W. D. Kirkpatrick, as-
sistant to chief engineer of the Missouri Pacific is chairman of the subcommittee and
will present the report.
W. D. Kirkpatrick: Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
Assignment 2 was given to our committee by special action of the Board Commit-
tee on Outline of Work at the urgent request of R. G. May, vice president, operations
and maintenance department, AAR, in June of last year. We have prepared a tentative
form of agreement, which appears in the Bulletin, as a guide for those of you who may
need one. We would appreciate receiving, in writing, your criticisms and suggestions,
as we want to present this subject as Manual material next year.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Kirkpatrick.
Chairman Hastings: Thank you, Mr. Kirkpatrick, for the excellent job you have
done on this subject in such a short time.
Assignment 3 — Form of Lease Covering Right to Strip Mine on Rail-
way Miscellaneous Physical Property.
Chairman Hastings: Our next report is on Assignment 3. D. F. Lyons, assistant
engineer, Chicago, South Shore & South Bend Railroad, is chairman of this subcommittee
and will present the report.
D. F. Lyons: Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
We have been studying this subject this year and hope to have a tentative form
of agreement to submit to you next year.
Chairman Hastings: Thank you, Mr. Lyons.
Assignment 4 — Form of Agreement Covering Parallel Occupancy of
Railway Right-of-Way Property by Electric Power Lines, Collaborating
with Electrical Section, AAR.
Chairman Hastings: We unfortunately lost, by accidental death, "Kenny" Begc-
mann, the chairman of this subcommittee. He was a hard working committee member
and, needless to say, we miss him.
I would like to thank Frank Youngwerth and C. O. Ellis as collaborators from the
AAR for their able assistance in the preparation of this agreement. Mention of the
collaboration was inadvertently left out of the Bulletin.
Last year we presented as information a tentative form of agreement on this assign-
ment and asked for your criticism. This year we are presenting, for publication in the
Manual, the agreement presented in the Proceedings, Vol. 59, 1958, pages 435 to 439.
1038 Contract Forms
Mr. President, I move that the Association accept this agreement as Manual material
and that it be published at the end of Part 3, Electrical Agreements, Chapter 20.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 6 — Form of Agreement for Construction and Maintenance
of Highway-Railway Grade Separation Structures for Public Roads.
Chairman Hastings: Our next report is on Assignment 6. J. L. Perrier, division
engineer, Chicago & North Western Railway, is chairman of this subcommittee and
will present the report.
J. L. Perriier: While there is a good deal of verbiage necessary to cover the
details of procedures in an agreement of this type, the principal features have to do
with apportionment of expense and liability. Before the first skeleton drafts were pre-
pared your committee studied the statutory requirements of various states with respect
to these two items. It was obvious from the beginning that no single form could be
drafted that could serve as a standard in all states under present laws, rules, or customs.
However, we feel that the form as presented will serve as a guide in the preparation
of such agreements. We also hope that it will be of some help to those organizations
which are striving for standardization and unification of statues pertaining to grade
separation projects.
Your subcommittee presents as information a draft of form of agreement, which is
published on page 308 of the Bulletin. We invite your comments, criticisms and sug-
gestions.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Perrier. It will be so received.
Chairman Hastings: Thank you, Mr. Perrier. This is a most important subject,
and I hope the members of the Association will give you some valuable comments.
You have done an excellent job on this assignment.
I would like to acknowledge the valuable assistance and the contributions to our
committee work of J. V. McHugh, C. D. Dawson and F. A. Plesser, representatives of
the Fire Protection and Insurance Section of the AAR.
In conclusion, I would like to thank Neal Howard and his staff, my subcommittee
chairmen, and all the members of Committee 20 for their assistance in the preparation
and presentation of this year's work of this committee. No chairman could ask for finer
cooperation than I have received.
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 20.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Hastings, and members of your committee,
for the continued valuable work you do in behalf of our Association. I am sure we all
appreciate the value of properly prepared contracts from the standpoint of the railroads.
Your committee is to be particularly commended for the prompt action on its part
in coming up with'n one year with a tentative draft of a form of lease covering the use
of railway tracks for the storage of tank cars containing liquefield petroleum gases.
A recommended standard form of lease of this type is very much needed.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
[Vice President F. R. Woolford assumed the chair.]
U i s c u s s i o n 103*^
Discussion on Engineering and Valuation Records
I For report see pp. S6S-S94]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: According to our program, the next committee to make
report is our Committee 11 — Engineering and Valuation Record.s, of which Morton Fried-
man, chief valuation engineer. New York Central System, New York, is chairman. Will
Mr. Friedman and members of his committee come to the platform and present their
report at this time.
May I ask that the chairman, vice chairman, and secretary of the committee, and
all reporting subcommittee chairmen take seats as near the podium as possible. Mr.
Friedman, you may proceed with the presentation of your report.
Chairman Morton Friedman: Thank you, Mr. Woolford.
Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
The complete report of Committee 11 is published in Bulletin 548, January 105Q,
on pages 565 to 594, incl. During the past year the committee held three meetings at
which its assignments were reviewed and discussed. This year we are reporting on eight
of the ten assignments, one being a final report.
We regret to report the death of A. T. Powell on January 26, 1950. Mr. Powell
retired as assistant chief engineer of the Grand Trunk Western Railroad on August 31,
1958. He was a member of long standing in the Association and of Committee 11, and
will be remembered as an active worker and a good friend. A memoir to him will be
prepared and published in a subsequent Bulletin.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Friedman: W. A. Krauska, draftsman, Missouri Pacific Railroad, will
now present the report on Assignment 1. At the conclusion of each report you are
invited to d'scuss and comment on the report and to ask questions of the speaker.
W. A. Kr.auska: For the report on Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual, we refer
you to pages 566, 567, and 568 of Bulletin 548.
[Mr. Krauska then read the report on Assignment 1 as printed on the aforementioned
pages, moving that the recommendations set forth be adopted and published in the
Manual.]
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Chairman Friedman: Thank you, Mr. Krauska.
Assignment 2 — Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Engineering
and Valuation Records.
Chairman Friedman: J. Bert Byars, assistant to chief engineer, Denver & Rio
Grande Western Railroad, will now present the report on Assignment 2.
J. Bert Byars: The report of Subcommittee 2 as printed in the Bulletin lists publi-
cations containing articles pertaining to valuation and accounting published during 1958.
These articles are concerned with depreciation accounting and valuation and their
importance to the railroads in rate making; also the problems which railroad com-
panies face in seeking to control losses from unprofitable operations through discon-
tinuance.
Are there any questions or discussion concerning this report?
E. P. Hackert [Denver & Rio Grande Western]: Mr. Byars, in order to help
young engineers, is there any place where literature can be obtained concerning ICC
accounting?
1040 Engineering and Valuation Records
Mr. Byajrs: There is a publication by B. H. Moore available entitled "Working on
the Tracks," which is distributed through the Association of American Railroads. It has
pictures and illustrations showing the actual materials as you see them in the track and
also the correct ICC accounts for charging out these materials. He also has a book out
called "Working in the Shop."
Are there any other questions?
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Byars.
Assignment 3 — Office and Drafting Practices.
Chairman Friedman: W. M. Ludolph, retired assistant engineer of the Milwaukee
Road, will now present the report on Assignment 3.
W. M. Ludolph: Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
Your committee presents this report as information. On account of the great dif-
ferences in record materials that have been used from time to time, as well as the varia-
tions that have been experienced in regard to their life, it is not possible with our
present knowledge to predict the hfe of any record even if the conditions under which
it is to be kept are known.
This report should, therefore, be considered as a review of only some of the condi-
tions affecting the life of records.
Your attention is called to three typographical errors in this report as follows:
1. Page 571, line 1 under the heading Inks and Sensitized Coatings, the first word
should be "India" instead of "Indian".
2. In the same line the words "the most part" between the two commas, should
be deleted.
3. Page 571, hne 2 under Par. 3, Graphite Pencils, the second word should be
"unless" instead of "unles".
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Ludolph.
Assignment 4 — Use of Statistics in Railway Engineering.
Chairman Friedman: M. C. Wolf, valuation engineer, Northern Pacific Railway,
will now present the report on Assignment 4. This report was not published in the
Bulletin for the reason that it will require considerably more time to complete; however,
I feel that a brief progress report will be of interest to the Association.
M. C. Wolf: Mr. Chairman, fellow members and guests: Under this assignment
we are studying Service Lives of Depreciable Railroad Property.
When this study was assigned, it was suggested that we might begin with depot
buildings. A number of authorities have published acturial and other methods for analyz-
ing the data for such a study, not all of which are directly applicable to such groups
as long-life railway depots.
One approach which appears suitable to the present purpose starts with the analysis
of retirements summarized according to the age of the property upon the date of retire-
ment. Calculation is then made of the percentage of the surviving units at the beginning
of each year of age which is retired during that year. From this the percentage of
original units which is retired during each year of age, and finally the percentage sur-
viving, are calculated. The result m.ay be shown graphically to produce a survivor curve.
For long-life property, there seldom are sufficient historical data to produce a closed
survivor curve. The ultimate retirement of the oldest surviving units is predicted by
projecting the curve to the point of 0 percent survival. When there is a reasonably long
historical record, the probable error of such projection can be held within reasonable
limits.
^ Discussion 1041
We now have some data arranged to give this type of information for masonry
and brick depots. A detailed study has been made of the life experience of original
installations only. One dollar of original cost has been used as the study unit.
The collecting and analyzing of the data are burdensome tasks. Before seeking data
from more railroads and before proceeding further with the assignment, we propose to
review the progress which has been made so far, and to consider whether simplifying
the calculations will produce results which are sufficiently precise.
Are there any questions ?
D. B. Flemiing [Pittsburgh & Lake Erie]: You have stated that published methods
for analyzing the service lives of property are not always directly applicable to railroad
property. Will you explain this please?
Mr. Wolf: A great deal of the published information has to do with such special
methods as cycle of replacements. Of course, these were very old buildings when we
started this. There has not been enough experience to use such methods. Also, on such
structures as large depots, buildings or shop buildings, substantial changes and alterations,
and partial retirements are made before the ultimate retirement of the unit, and these
changes affect the life experience in your investment dollar.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Wolf.
Assignment 6 — Valuation and Depreciation: (a) Current Developments
in Connection with Regulatory Bodies and Courts.
Ch.airman Friedman: The report on Assignment 6 will now be presented by C. R.
Dolan, assistant engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad.
C. R. Dolan: Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
The report of the subcommittee mentioned the publication of the Elements of
Value for Class I line-haul carriers as of December 31, 1956, and December 31, 1957,
by the Bureau of Accounts, Cost Finding and Valuation of the Interstate Commerce
Commission. The Elements of Value as of December 31, 1957, were officially released
January 28, 1959.
The report of the subcommittee mentioned the successful outcome of the elimina-
tion of the 30 percent depreciation reserve which was imposed upon the railroads for
income tax purposes. Since the Committee 11 report was prepared, the Internal Revenue
Service has issued in draft form regulations that will implement the new statute. Rail-
roads have been making studies to determine whether or not to accept the new condi-
tions imposed.
I would like to report on some further legislative proposals concerning depreciation
which are of interest to railroads. Throughout industry there is urgent need for a realistic
depreciation policy — one which recognizes not only factors of obsolescence in this age
of technological advancement, but also the inadequacy of rates based on estimated lives
of depreciable property ranging up to 100 years in relation to current cost of replace-
ments. Nowhere is this more manifest than in the railroad industry. As a means of
accomplishing relief in this area, the railroads advocate the enactment of legislation
which would: (1) shorten the lives of railroad depreciable property; (2) authorize the
establishment of a construction reserve fund for use in connection with the acquisition
of equipment and other property used by the railroads; and (3) support a proposal to
provide for a reinvestment depreciation deduction. While deductions are involved in each
of these proposals, there is no tax forgiveness; rather tax deferral. This report is
presented as information.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Dolan. The report will be so received.
1042 Engineering and Valuation Records
Assignment 7 — Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting Clas-
siScations.
Chairman Friedman: The report on Assignment 7 will now be presented by M. M.
Gerber, accounting engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad.
M. M. Gerber: Mr. President, members of the Association and guests: The Bureau of
Accounts, Cost Finding and Valuation of the Interstate Commerce Commission on
April 23, 1958, amended Case A-101 relating to accounting for the cost of welding rail
into longer lengths, and for the retirement of track material not replaced.
This report is presented as information only.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Gerber. Your report will be so
received.
Assignment 9— Simplification of Annual Reports on Form 588 to the
Interstate Commerce Commission, and Underlying Completion Reports.
Chairman Friedman: H. N. Halper, valuation engineer, Erie Railroad, will now pre-
sent the report on Assignment 9.
H. N. Halper: Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
The report of this subcommittee was endorsed by our Board of Direction for sub-
mission to the Interstate Commerce Commission jointly with representatives of the
Association of American Railroads — Accounting Division.
Accordingly, we sent the report to Vice President Seder of the Association of Ameri-
can Railroads, who after circulating it to the Accounting Division, appointed a working
committee of accountants consisting of Messrs. Broberg of the Milwaukee, Pease of the
Illinois Central and Harris of the Southern. I appointed a working committee of engi-
neers, all members of this Association, consisting of Messrs. Higgins of the Santa Fe,
Restall of the Boston & Maine and Hager of the Southern.
This jo'nt working committee met, reviewed the report and unanimously approved
it with a few minor changes in phrasing. It is now with the proper Bureau of the ICC
for study and review by its engineers.
Meanwhile, at the suggestion of several members of our Board and instructions of
our president, the working committee continued to study the possibility of simplification
of recording and reix>rting of track material, which was not previously covered in our
report. We have made considerable progress and expect to submit a report thereon in
the near future, and then submit the outhne of the report for review and consideration
by our Board of Direction as well as the Accounting Division of the Association of
American Railroads.
This report is submitted as information.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Half)er. Your report will be so
received.
Assignment 10 — Uses of Photography in Railroad Construction and
Maintenance Work, Collaborating with Other Interested Committees.
Chairman Friedman: C. B. Martin, valuation engineer, New York Central Rail-
road, will now present the final report on Assignment 10.
C. B. Martin: Mr. President, members of the Association and guests:
Photography can assist the railroad engineer in many ways in the performance of
his duties and becomes an excellent record for future reference.
Your committee has compiled a Ust of the most convenient types and sizes of still
and movie cameras and the uses to which they can be applied by the railroad engineer
in maintenance, construction, location and training.
Discussion 1043
Aerial photography, aerial photogrammetry and aerial photographic analysis are
also of service to the engineer, but as this service is generally contracted for by outside
parties, only the uses are shown in the report.
Since photographs are useful for future studies as well as for the purpose for which
they were intended, it is the recommendation of the committee that an index be pre-
pared of the photographs available in the various departments of the railroad. It is
further recommended that the inde.x be placed in the library, chief engineer's file, or
some other central location for future reference.
This report is presented as information.
Vice President Woolford: Thank, you, Mr. Martin. Your report will be so
received.
Chairman Friedman: Mr. Vice President, this concludes the report of Committee 11.
It also marks the end of my term as chairman of the committee, The job has been
stimulating and rewarding, and I wish to thank the subcommittee chairmen and mem-
bers for their assistance and active participation in the work, and also the officers of
the Association and its secretary and his staff for their complete cooperation.
I will now introduce the officers of the committee for the ensuing term. I am sorry
that the chairman, L. W. Howard, land and tax commissioner of the Chicago & Western
Indiana Railroad could not be present. He will become chairman of the committee for
the next term. He is not here for the reason that it was necessary for him to attend an
urgent meeting on his railroad.
Our new vice chairman is M. C. Wolf, valuation engineer of the Northern Pacific
Railway. [Applause]
Our secretary will continue to be B. H. Moore, assistant to vice president. Associa-
tion of American Railroads. Mr. Moore. [Applause]
I am sure that they will have the utmost cooperation from members of the com-
mittee and of the officers of the Association. Thank you.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Friedman, and members of your com-
mittee, for the valuable work which you are doing for this Association and for the re-
ports which you have presented here today.
I want to commend you particularly, as did the Board of Direction, for the effort
your committee is making to bring about simplification of annual reports to the Inter-
state Commerce Commission on form 588, and likewise of completion reports. The recom-
mendations which you have made in this regard will go a long way in reducing the
amount of work involved in the preparation of these reports.
I want to especially thank you, Mr. Friedman, for the able manner in which you
have directed the efforts of your committee for the past three years and for the
splendid cooperation which has existed between your committee and the secretary's
office.
We are glad to welcome as the new chairman of Committee 11, Mr. Howard, and
as the new vice chairman of the committee, Mr. Wolf. I am sure they will continue the
good work which has been done by your committee under your direction.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
1044 Yards and Terminals
Discussion on Yards and Terminals
LFor report see pp. 289-300]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.] •
Vice President Woolford: The next committee to present its report is Committee
14 — Yards and Terminals, of which F. A. Hess, division engineer, Indiana Harbor Belt
Railroad, Hammond, Ind., is completing his third year as chairman. Will Mr. Hess and
members of his committee please come to the platform and present their report.
Again we will appreciate it if the chairman, vice chairman and secretary of the
committee, and all reporting subcommittee chairmen, will take places at the main
speaker's table, as near the podium as possible, in the interest of conserving time in
coming to the podium when called upon. And once more, I invite discussion from the
floor, in connection with any and all of the reports. When using the microphones please
state your name and connection for the benefit of the record. Mr. Hess you may
proceed.
F. A. Hess; Mr. Vice President, members of the Association and guests:
This committee, in appreciation of the fine work that J. N. Todd, retired superin-
tendent of scales and work equipment. Southern Railway System, has done for it, has
elected him Member Emeritus.
This is the last presentation that I will conduct as chairman of Committee 14. I
have enjoyed the undertaking and wish to thank the members for their wonderful
cooperation. I am pleased to announce that A. S. Krefting, assistant chief engineer —
bridges and structures, Soo Line Railroad, will succeed me and I know he will do a
good job. Would you please stand, Art? [Applause]
Our new vice chairman will be D. C. Hastings, superintendent Potomac Yard, Rich-
mond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Rairoad. Will you stand up, Dave, please? [Applause]
Committee 14 has six committee reports and a special feature consisting of films
showing various piggy-back operations. The committee reports appear in Bulletin 546,
pages 289 to 300, incl. Discussion from the floor is invited at the conclusion of each
report.
I wish to thank the subcommittee chairmen and their representatives for the re-
ports, which I know required much of their personal time.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Hess: F. E. Austerman, assistant chief engineer, Chicago Station Com-
pany, will now present the report on Assignment 1.
F. E. Austerman: Mr. Vice President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
Your committee offers a report on Water-Front Terminals, the recommendation that
it be adopted and published in the Manual as a continuation of the material on Freight
Terminals.
It will be a new section covering the tracks and facilities on the shore side of a
water-front terminal necessary to load and unload freight from railroad freight cars to
ships and from ships to freight cars. The subject matter will be expanded and developed
further to provide a more complete section on water-front terminal facilities.
I move that this report be inserted in the Manual on page 14-3-16 as Sec. I. Water-
Front Terminals.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Discussion 1045
Assignment 2 — Classification Yards, Collaborating with Committee 16.
Chairman Hess: F. R. Smith, chief engineer, Union Raihoad, chairman of Subcom-
mittee 2, will present his report.
F. R. Smith: Mr. Chairman, members of the Association and guests: Under this
assignment we are now studying "Rollability of Cars."
The study of improving car rollability for better control is new and challenging. It
was first presented to the Association by your comm'.ttee in 1957 with the suggestion that
the subject be referred jointly to the Mechanical and Engineering Divisions of the Associ-
tion of American Railroads.
As a result of this recommendation, the subject was assigned to the AAR Joint
Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment. Our Research Center has circu-
lated pertinent questionnaires to railroad chief engineers and chief mechanical officers,
and related industries. All questionnaires have not as yet been returned, so no summary
report can be made at this time. The subject is still active in the Joint Committee and
we hope it will continue to be until many of the unknowns have been explored.
Your committee submits this report as information with the recommendation that
the subject be continued in view of the need for important research.
Vice President Woolford; Thank you, Mr. Smith. Your report will be so received.
Assignment 4 — Use and Location of Yardmasters' Offices.
Chairm.\n Hess: R. H. Peak, Jr., division engineer, Illinois Central Railroad,
chairman of Subcommittee 4, will present his report.
R. H. Peak, Jr.: Mr. Vice President, members and guests:
Committee inspection trips to new and rebuilt yards have shown the yardmaster's
tower to be coming into widespread use. Your committee felt that a study of current
thinking in the location and use of yardmasters' offices would be useful to inform the
Association of the trends indicated by our observations.
Thirty-five offices on 14 railroads were studied. The use of towers for visibility was
widespread; most of the roads on which towers are not used reported that towers would
have been preferred, but the need for economy or special physical conditions prevented
their use.
Along with the towers, a large increase in the variety, quantity and quality of com-
munication facilities provided the yardmaster was noted.
The report is pres:nted as information with the recommendation that the subject be
discontinued.
Vice President Woolford; Thank you, Mr. Peak. Your report will be so received.
Assignment 6 — Facilities for Loading and Unloading Rail-Truck Freight
Equipment.
Chairman Hess: C. F. Parvin, engineer maintenance of way and structures, Pennsyl-
vania Railroad, chairman of Subcommittee 6, could not be present, so H. J. McNally,
area engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad, will present the report in his stead.
H. J. McNally: Mr. Chairman, members and guests: This report is submitted as
information with the recommendation that the subject be continued.
The number of facilities for handling rail-truck freight equipment is continually
increas'ng. Our report this year brings to your attention the handling of unit containers
and trailer bodies by traveling gantry crane in lieu of other types of unloading methods,
such as ramp unloading, etc.
1046 Yards and Terminals
There has also been considerable development in side loading and unloading of
trailer bodies with the use of standard tlat cars.
Vice President Woolford: Are there any questions from the floor? Thank you,
Mr. McNally. Your report will be received as information.
Assignment 7 — Parking Facilities for Patrons at Passenger Stations.
Chairman Hess: L. F. Pohl, office engineer, Chicago, South Shore & South Bend
Railroad, chairman of Subcommittee 7 will present his report.
L. F. Pohl: Mr. Vice President, members and guests:
The report of Subcommittee 7 on parking facilities for patrons at passenger stations
is a final report presented to you as information.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Pohl. Your report will be so received.
Assignment 8 — Use of Car Retarders at Locations Other Than at a
Hump.
Chairman Hess: G. H. Chabot, assistant division engineer, Chesepeake & Ohio
Railway, chairman of Subcommittee 8, will present his report.
G. H. Chabot: Mr. Vice President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
Car retarders in the past have been located primarily at the hump end of classifi-
cation yards. Within recent years these retarding devices have had more diversified
applications, and their use has been expanded to various locations in yard tracks and
in tracks serving private concerns.
This report is about the successful applications of car retarders at locations other
than at humps. In our report we have defined the two basic types of retarders, namely,
the operated retarder and the inert retarder, pointing out in each case its purpose and
where it is generally found. It includes a list of some of the practical applications to
date, along with the various benefits derived in each application. Finally, a table of
present installations is furnished for ready reference; this table includes the type of
traffic handled, the number and kind of retarders used, and the bas'c operation at each
of the locations enumerated.
This is a final report, presented as information.
Vice President Woolford: Are there any questions from the floor? Thank you,
Mr. Chabot. The report will be so received.
Chairman Hess: Thank you, Mr. Chabot.
This committee has an added feature consisting of several films showing various
forms of so-called piggy-back operations. You may have noticed in our report on Assign-
ment 6 we referred to "facilities for loading and unloading rail-truck freight equipment."
Originally, reference was made to trucks on freight cars. In some operations, as you will
see from the films, only the trailer body is placed on the cars. In one instance the
trailer becomes the freight car.
We have four films: the Chesapeake & Ohio's "Railvan", the Missouri Pacific's
"Modern Pace in Transportation", the American Car & Foundry's "Retractable Trailer
Hitch", and the New York Central's "Flexi-Van". The films show the various types of
operation.
This is the American Car & Foundry's "Retractable Trailer Hitch" film. They tell
me it is one of the original films they made when they were first making tests, but it
does demonstrate the method of hand loading which is the more or less conventional
type at this time.
[The "Retractable Trailer Hitch" film was shown.]
Discussion 1047
Chairman Hess: I think we can wind up that film and start another one. This is
the Missouri Pacific film.
[The ''Modern Pace in Transportation" film was shown at this time. J
Ch.airmax Hess: Proceed with the next one.
[The "Railvan" film and the "Flexi-Van" film were shown. J
Chairm.an Hess: I wish to thank the railroads and industry for making the films
available, Ed Gehrke for going over these films with me, and the projector operator for
his wonderful assistance.
I also wish to thank the men from Committee 11 who volunteered to man the
microphones.
Mr. Vice President, this concludes the reports and special feature of this committee.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Hess and members of your committee
for the informative report you have presented and the trouble to which your committee
went to show the interesting, informative films of various types of rail-truck freight
equipment being used.
I might say here that your special feature was most interesting, I am certain, to the
whole Association. One subject which is very alive in the Association — it certainly will
be this year — is standardization. I think we have too many kinds of piggy-back equip-
ment and undoubtedly the matter of standardization will apply here also in a few years
so we won't have so many different types.
Thank you, Mr. Hess, for the able and dedicated leadership which you have given
to Committee 14 for the past three years. As you lay down your responsibilities in this
regard, we are pleased to welcome as your successor, Mr. Krefting, and as the new vice
chairman of your committee, Mr. Hastings. We are satisfied that under their direction
the good work of your committee will continue to move forward.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion on Economics of Railway Location and Operation
[For report see pp. 209-244]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: We will next hear from our Committee 16 — Economics
of Railway Location and Operation, the chairman of which is R. L. Milner, staff assistant
to chief engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, who is completing his second year as
chairman of this committee. I shall be pleased if Mr. Milner and members of his com-
mittee will come to the platform and present their report.
As in the case of the previously reporting committees, I would ask that Mr. Milner
and the vice chairman and secretary of the committee take their places at the main
speaker's table, immediately to my left, along with all reporting subcommittee chairmen,
and for the benefit of those who may have just come into the room, I would repeat
that the privilege of the floor is granted to you to comment on any or all of the reports
of the committee. Those manning the aisle microphones will be glad to make them avail-
able to you for this purpose.
In using the microphones please state your name and the carrier with which you
are associated. Mr. Milner, I am pleased to turn the meeting over to you.
Chairman R. L. Milner; Mr. Chairman, members of the Association and guests:
During the past year your committee lost one of its valued members, Allen Hazen,
assistant engineer of the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad. A memoir
prepared by I. C. Brewer, H. B. Christianson, Jr., and T. C Nordquist will be published
with this report in the 1959 volume of the Proceedings.
1048 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
MEMOIR
MUtn ^a}cn
Allen Hazen, assistant engineer in the assistant division engineer's office of the
Chicago, Milwaukee, St Paul & Pacific Railroad at Minneapolis, Minn., was born in
Dobbs Ferry, N. Y., August 21, 1917. He died on October 20, 1958, at the age of 41, and
is survived by his wife, Lenore, daughter Rebecca, and two sons Allen and David.
He attended Dartmouth College, graduating in 1939. In 1940 he obtained a C.E. de-
gree from Dartmouth's Thayer School of Engineering.
Mr. Hazen's entire career was spent in railroad service. After previous service with
the Pennsylvania Railroad, followed by ten years with the Maine Central, he served
from 1951 until the time of his death with the Milwaukee Road.
Mr. Hazen became a member of the AREA in 1947 and served on Committee 16
from 1953. Active on all committee assignments, he had an intense desire for the ad-
vancement of railroading. He was a member of the Minnesota Society of Civil Engineers,
the Valley Community Presbyterian Church, and the Compass Masonic Lodge 265.
Committee 16 on behalf of the American Railway Engineering Association wishes
to extend to Mr. Hazen's family its sincerest sympathy and appreciation of its associa-
tion with him over the years.
Chairman Milner: Your committee is reporting on 7 of its 11 assignments. These
are presented on pages 209-224, Bulletin 546. One of these is a final report, submitted as
information, while six are progress reports. Your committee invites your comments re-
garding its presentations and will be glad to reply to any questions raised thereon.
Assignment 2 — Effect of Degrees of Curvature on Cost of Track Main-
tenance, Collaborating with Committees 4 and 5.
Chairman Milner: Our first report is on Assignment 2, and will be presented by
Subcommittee Chairman L. P. Diamond, assistant engineer — research, the Chesapeake &
Ohio Railway Company.
L. P. Diamond: This is a progress report on the analyses of the costs attributable
to track curvature, with special reference here to the costs lodged against ICC Accounts
218 — ^Ballast, and 220 — Track Laying and Surfacing. These analyses are a portion of
individual studies regarding the effects of track curvature on Account 212 — Ties, Ac-
count 214 — Rail, Account 216 — Other Track Material, Account 218 — Ballast, and Account
220 — Track Laying and Surfacing.
For an idealized track section, employing AREA standards, the percent increase in
ballast required to raise superelevated track as against tangent track may be calculated.
Such a theoretical determination might be used to determine the influence of curvature
on ballast material costs in Account 218.
However, a mathematical multiple regression analysis was performed on actual vol-
umes of ballast applied to differing types of railroads over a period of years, which indi-
cates that under usual operating conditions other factors are so influential as to overpower
such a theoretical expectation. These other factors that might exert an influence in deter-
mining the volume of ballast required in repairs to tracks are, among others, roadbed
stabihty, ballast subsidence, smoothing and cribbing.
In Account 220 there is a similar situation which prevents a simpHfied approach in
determining the effect of track curvature on costs. Account 220 includes the cost of labor
in applying ties, rails, other track material, and ballast. The corresponding material costs
Discussion 1049
are lodged against Accounts 212 through 218. In addition, Account 220 contains labor
costs attributable to alining, surfacing, gaging, shimming, restoration of track after acci-
dents, bolt tightening, etc., which costs constitute the major portion of this account.
Consideration of a recent study of the relationship between costs in Account 218
and Account 220 illustrates that even a moderate detailing of some of the factors in-
volved in primary account costs is not sufficient to permit only the use of primary
account totals in determining the effect of curvature on the cost of maintaining track.
There isn't sufficient information available when only the factors of ballast type,
railroad division, and traffic load per mile are taken into consideration in seeking a rela-
tionship between the costs in Accounts 218 and 220. By convention, there are many
other costs in .\ccounts 218 and 220 totals that mask the relationship between cost of
ballast dumped and the cost of labor to apply it properly to track. A mathematical
analysis of covariance was performed to demonstrate the validity of these remarks.
Differing accounting practices among the railroad companies present further compli-
cations in the use of primary account totals to meet the objectives of this assignment.
For e.xample, differing salvage values of rail may be credited to Account 214 — Rail,
sometimes with a d'stinction between relay rail and scrap, sometimes not. Also, in
Account 218 differing local practices might allocate differing proportions of a given size of
ballast raise to capital and to operating cost.
Accordingly, a more detailed breakdown of the costs in Accounts 212 through 220
is now underway in order to determine the effect of curvature on both labor and material
costs. Samples of sufficiently detailed costs have been obtained from three railroads and
are now under study. Analyses of these data will be presented in a future and final re-
port on this assignment.
Vice President Woolford: Thank j^ou, Mr. Diamond. Your report will be received
as information.
Assignment 3 — Determination of Maintenance of Way Expenses for
Various Traffic Volumes, Collaborating with Committee 11.
Ch.airm.\n Milxer: Our next report is on Assignment 3 — Determination of Mainte-
nance of Way Expenses for Various Traffic Volumes. It will be presented by Subcommit-
tee Chairman James P. Ray, regional engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
J. P. Ray: I do not know of any better comment to make on the report of progress
made by this subcommittee than the opening paragraphs of the published report. It
must be emphasized that this is a progress report, not a final report, and further empha-
sized that comment and criticism of the method outlined by that progress report are
invited.
Committee 11 is collaborating with us in analyzing this problem. Certain inaccuracies
in the printing of the report have been called to our attention. Appropriate action will
be taken toward making the necessary corrections at the earliest possible moment.
It is also desirable to call your particular attention to the last part of the report
under the heading "Comment on Use of Experience Method of Determining Normal
Maintenance Expense." In that section it is set forth that we have attempted only an
outUne and approach to the problem and that we are not attempting to derive a never-
changing universal formula. It is my personal conclusion that such a formula cannot be
found. There has been a suggestion that the committee recognize that competent statis-
ticians might want to employ more refined statistical techniques than those suggested
in this report. However, the report suggests methods that seem to be the best that can
be reasonably handled by people without advanced statistical training.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Ray. Your report will be received as
information.
1050 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Assignment 4 — Potential Applications of Electronic Computers to Rail-
way Engineering and Maintenance Problems in Research, Design, Inventory,
Etc., Collaborating with Committees 11 and 30, and Informally with the
Railway Systems and Procedures Association.
Chairman Milner: The next report is on Assignment 4 by Subcommittee Chair-
man Ferdinand Wascoe, manager, Bureau of Transportation Research, Southern Pacific
Company.
Ferdinand Wasco: Thank you, Mr. Milner.
Mr. Vice President: This is a progress report on the potential applications of elec-
tronic computers to railroad engineering and maintenance problems. The report lists
available equipment and estimated initial installation costs along with programs of en-
gineering problems which have already been developed.
A primary purpose of this report is to stimulate the interest of railroad maintenance
engineers in the help that modern electron'c data processing can give them in the solu-
tion of their present problems as well as open new vistas in the handling of problems
which they previously could not economically consider.
The greatest task of this subcommittee remains tor the future. It is in the area of
developing a library of engineering programs, which w.U be available to all railroad
engineering departments. The next and last logical step will be to work toward making the
programs of the various computer systems interchangeable.
Vice Chairman Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Wascoe. Your report will be received
as information.
Assignment 7 — Engineering, Maintenance and Operating Benefits to be
Derived from Increased Joint Use of Railway Facilities, Collaborating with
Committees 11, 14, and 20.
Chairman Milner: The next report is on Assignment 7. It will be presented by
Subcommittee Chairman J. W. Barrlger, president, Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad.
J. W. Barriger: Mr. Chairman, members: Your Subcommittee 7 submits a progress
report on the benefits from increased joint use of railway facilities. As pointed out in a
special presentation last year and in this report, there are thousands of joint facility
contracts in effect throughout the country, and yet the possibilities for new coordination
projects are virtually unlimited. We, therefore, commend to the railroad managements
the task of further exploration to determine the benefits that may accrue from improved
service and economy in administration, maintenance and operation of railroad properties.
We hope to be able to follow this report with specific examples of the progress which has
been accomplished during recent years, but in the meantime respectfully suggest a review
of the possibilities for your particular railroad. The political climate for coordination and
consohdation is better today than in the past 40 years, and the urgency for economic
measures is greater than ever.
Thank you very much. I remain for questions if there may be any.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Barriger. Your report will be received
as information.
Assignment 8 — Inovations in Railway Operations.
Chairman Milner: The next report is on our Assignment 8, to be presented by
Subcommittee Chairman A. L. Sams, principal assistant engineer, Illinois Central Rail-
road. Mr. Sams.
A. L. Sams: Mr Chairman, members and guests of the Association: This might be
called the subcommittee on daydreaming We have taken a good look at several operat-
Discussion 1051
ing and engineering problems in railroading today and have suggested a solution that
may be forthcoming. This is a progress report, presented as information. If any members
of the Association have suggestions along the lines of this assignment wc would be
happy to receive them for inclusion in future reports on this subject.
Vice President VVoolford: Thank you, Mr. Sams. Your report will be received as
information.
Assignment 9 — Economics and Methods of Utilizing Railway Property,
Right-of-Way, and Facilities to Develop or Increase Secondary Sources
of Railway Revenue.
Chairman Milner: The next report is on Assignment 9. It will be presented by
Subcommittee Vice Chairman J. W. Bolstad, chief engineer, Ft. Dodge, Des Moines &
Southern Railway, in place of F. J. Corporon, who is not here today. Mr. Bolstad.
J. W. Bolstad: Thank you Mr. Milner. Mr. Vice President:
This is a final report, presented as information. The complete report can be found
on page 237 of Bulletin 546. The ideas have been listed without detailed discussion
thereof and are grouped under general classifications as follows:
Executive, financial and legal; real estate and taxation; personnel; public relations;
research and development; accounting; traffic; operating; purchasng, stores and insur-
ance; mechanical; engineering; bridges and roadway; communications and signals; and
miscellaneous.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Bostad. Your report will be received
as information.
Assignment 11 — Review of Developments in New Methods and Modes
of Transport.
Chairman Milner: The next report of the committee is on Assignment 11. It will
be presented by Subcommittee Chairman Frank J. Richter, publisher, Modern Railroads
Magazine. Mr. Richter.
F. J. Richter: Mr. President, Mr. Vice President, members: Our assignment is a
little bit like 'Mr. Sams' Assignment 8 in that we are charged with doing a little dream-
ing. Ours is supposed to be primarily outside of the railroad industry rather than
within it. This is the first report to be prepared and presented by this subcommittee,
and we hope that there will be a series of other reports forthcoming in other years about
new methods and new modes of transportation that are beginning to make their appear-
ance on the horizon, and which may some day become railway competition or offer
possibilities as adjuncts to railway operations.
The report itself appears on page 240 of Bulletin 546. It goes into the actual system
of conveying suspended solids by pipeline, the nature of the applications that have
already been made, advantages and disadvantages of this particular type of operation,
and discusses the application of that particular type of transportation compared with
railroad operation.
I would like to read a paragraph of the report because of the possibility that this
type of operation does hold.
"In situations where a limited amount of material is to be moved each year, solids
pipelines can offer serious competition to the railroads. Over-all pipeline costs are likely to
be well below the fully allocated costs of rail transportation, particularly in a situation
where no railroad yet exists. Where a parallel rail line does exist, however, fully allocated
l)ipeline costs could well be higher than the marginal (i.e. out-of-pocket) cost of railroad
movement."
1052 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
The conclusions oi this particular report are somewhat obvious. If railroads can
reduce their out-of-pocket operating costs, and if they are permitted to price their serv-
ices on this basis, then solids pipelines may not pose any serious competitive threat. The
exception to this will be only in the case of new routes where the traffic volumes are too
low to justify railroad construction.
Today, of course, railroad out-of-pocket costs are still quite high, and marginal
pricing is frequently prohibited by the ICC, so the development of solids pipelines can-
not be ignored.
That's about the essence of our report, Mr. Chairman.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Richter. Your report will be received
as the first of a series of reports on this assignment.
Chairman IVIilner: I would like to add that considerable progress has been made
on the four other assignments on which we are not quite ready to submit reports.
I take this opportunity to thank and commend the members of the committee for the
exemplary work they have performed during the past year.
While this concludes the formal submission of reports by your committee, we have
one more presentation. This is a special feature on the subject "Economics of Railway
Engineering".
The member of our committee whom you have just seen will discuss this subject.
He has evidenced keen interest in this subject through his many fine, incisive .editorials.
Gentlemen, I again present Frank Richter.
The Economics of Railway Engineering
By Frank Richter
Executive Vice President and Publisher of Modern Railroads
I am certainly appreciative to Committee 16 for giving me the opportunity to ex-
press some of my own viewpoints about this particular subject. When I saw the program,
though, I was a httle disconcerted because it seems that some of the stars on the pro-
gram have or are going to speak in very much the same area that has been ass.'gned to
me. For example, Mr. Loomis talked this morning about "Change and Challenge in Rail-
road Engineering." Tomorrow Mr. May is going to talk about the "Engineer's Responsi-
bihty to Railroad Management", and then Mr. Heineman at our luncheon is going to
talk about "Railroad Economics Today."
That made we wonder a little bit: where does that leave me? I went over my
thoughts a little more clos-ely as a result. I feel that what I am going to say to you
gentlemen right now might complement the thoughts of the other three men. Actually,
I am not going to talk primarily about the economics of railway engineering. What I
would like to present to you are some thoughts on the human side of the economics of
railway engineering.
The reason why I think that is so important at this t'me is because when we look
at all of our activities, all of the activities of other people, we can see that nowhere
today can one separate man from his environment.
Moreover, every environment is subject to the great personality differences that are
inherent in human nature. Hence, one cannot speak realistically about the economics of
railway engineering without reckoning with the human side of it.
The engineer's environment is engineering knowledge. In practical application,
Address of Frank Richter 1053
though, the engineer must recognize the particular environment in which his engineering
knowledge is going to be applied. That superimposes upon engineering knowledge cro
nomic knowledge and analysis. Then a third factor enters — the engineer's responsibility
as a manager and a risk taker.
Thus entereth that all-important element: the human side of the economics of rail-
way engineering.
It is probably natural that I, as a member of one group within the American Rail-
way Engineering Association, should come to observe this facet of railroad engineering
department work. Remember, Committee 16 is a committee on the economics of railway
location and operation. While engineering-oriented in its own approaches as an AREA
group, it is fco«owjc5-or;ented as a committee. It looks into existing premises and newer
ones not only from the standpoint of whether they work, but also how each compares
with existing norms and what its potential may be.
Now, if any group of railroad officials is engineering-oriented, it should be you
gentlemen. That's so obvious, it hardly need be mentioned. But I do so for a purpose.
At the same time as you are so strongly engineering-oriented, far more of the day-
by-day reiponsibilities of most of you are of a non-engineering nature.
It is as much in the management phases of railroad engineering work as any other
that your own future, that of your railroad, and that of the entire railroad industry lies.
Many of you men have management responsibilities over organizations that are
much larger than some of the best-known business organizations in the country — com-
panies whose products are bywords in every household in the nation.
The engineering department of a typical large railroad numbers 10,200 people. Last
year, it spent $75 million on maintenance of way and structures.
A medium-sized road numbers about 3500. Last year, it spent $32 million for engi-
neering maintenance and improvement.
A typical small-sized one has a payroll of 600 people in its engineering department ;
it spent $4J^ million in 1958.
It takes a lot of skill to manage that many people effectively and spend that much
money judiciously. While knowledge of engineering is an essential, the managerial and
supervisory ability of many men becomes the real determinent of how well each railroad
performs.
On railroad after railroad, expenditures are made — and employes go about their
work — according to patterns that have evolved over the years. That system has been and
is today a very creditable one. But in terms of most effective supervision, training, work
relations, and spirit, it does not make the most of what have become the skills and
principles of management.
Railroads are now at a point, as a highly competitive industry, where a thorough,
realistic look at management practices is very much needed. For each of you, this should
mean examining most critically the very system which brought you to your present posi-
tions— and even more important — the very systems you now practice as your own man-
agement methods.
Railroad engineers start off their careers with an excellent foundation upon which to
build management skills. Yet, they generally have two handicaps to overcome.
Engineering students — and particularly the most promising ones — have a passion for
their engineering subjects. They literally eat them up. Often they consider other non-
engineering subjects as a necessary nuisance.
Among those who do start out on engineering work the ones who get most immediate
recognition for their engineering work obviously are those who are stronge.st in engineer-
1054 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
ing work (otherwise they might quickly move into transportation or traffic). As these
men mature, gain more experience, and move up the ladder in the Engineering Depart-
ment, they take on more and more responsibilities. The following then becomes in-
creasingly important:
— the engineer as a manager,
— the engineer as an economist,
— the engineer as a risk taker.
Yet, how much conscious effort is made to inculcate knowledge of these skills?
Once you leave school, such skills are acquired largely by what is roughly the apprentice
system of learning from others who have the greater experience. To be sure, that has
merit; but it involves many pitfalls. And that is particularly true of a form of manage-
ment like yours which is not management-oriented.
This isn't anything that is peculiar to the railroad industry. Just listen to a passage
in the January-February issue of Harvard Business Review. It is part of a most absorb-
ing article entitled "The Managerial Mind."
"Philosophers of science," observes this article, "tell us that scientists have a distinct
'innate prejudice' for selecting only those facts in the environment which can be
vi'asured.
"The quantitative attitude," it continues, "satisfies two important needs of the scien-
tist. It helps him to be objective, and it enables him to 'prove' his relationships or laws—
for instance, what will happen to 'X' units of 'Y' variable if 'B' variable changes by
'Z' units."
That, in fact, expresses some of the approaches that Committee 16 definitely must
apply to AREA work. You can see it in several of the reports just presented here.)
"This mathematical predisposition," continues the article, "can also be of value to
the executive (which is what you railroad engineers also are). It can result in improved
ways of doing things. The budget is an example, as are standard costs and financial
rat'os. . . .
"Unlike the scientific mind, however, the managerial mind can admire the beauty
and preciseness of measurement only up to a point. Otherwise, the decis'on maker may
delay things while the patient dies, the war is lost, or the firm misses its opportunity.
Business organizations (and let's not forget that's what railroads are) may need certain
people who are deeply, zealously interested in quantification. But the one who receives
quantitative facts and has to incorporate them into judgmental actions in a limited time
should not possess this temperament in excess degree.
"Quantification," as the Harvard Business Review terms it, hardly lends itself to
manag ng people. Yet, to show you how complex is the business of managing people,
consider how many of the management specialists themselves have fallen for quantifica-
tion— through their personality profiles; aptitude tests; and point systems for judging,
paying, and promoting people. Some of them have fallen into the trap of trying to re-
duce the all important human side of personnel work to a formula.
The management problems of chief engineer, engineer of maintenance, division engi-
neer are compounded by the complexity of conditions that are ever present. Your de-
partments use complex equipment and work procedures. What production lines there are
"move" while the work stands still — just the opposite of the type of production work
managed by an engineer in a manufacturing plant. And they're spread out all over the
countryside. That adds another dimension to management — the management of mov.'ng,
housing, and .scheduling.
Address of Frank Richter 1055
When conscious effort has been made in recent years to consider such work, as
management, the result has be;n some might dramatic shifts in railroad engineering
department work approaches.
Some railroads have included engineering officials in postgraduate type management
training which they have instituted. These intensive four- to eight-week courses bring
into the man's stream of consciousness principles that do not appear in the engineering
schools or in work experience. Even without the opportunity to participate in such
courses, the railway engineer can familiarize himself with ths vital aspect of his work.
He can get and read some ol the highly informative, well organizc'd management books
that have been published.
1 have heard enough railroad ofticials belittle both the- courses and the books to say
this: Certainly, the courses and books deal in a lot that is already known to each of you.
I'd hardly e.xpect you to have reached your present posit on in a railroad without having
learned a lot of that by experience and association. Dividends do come, though, from
realizing that sandwiched in between what is known is very much that is not known.
And that can be studied to your benefit and advantage!
Partaking of that can have the same effect in better equipping the engineer as a
manager as taking a set of golf lessons from a pro can help your golf game.
These observations are as fresh in my mind as any; for I have just completed read-
ing a book called "Principles of Management — an Analysis of Managerial Functions."
The second edition of this book has just come out. It dwells upon many of these very
aspects of management which I have merely touched upon here. Moreover, one of its
authors, Harold Koontz, writes with an understanding of railroad management. He was
assistant to Judge Fletcher when he was Vice President — Research of the AAR; chief of
the Traffic Branch of the War Production Board; and a consultant of the Sante Fe. He
is now Professor of Busbess Policy and Transportation at the University of CaHfornia,
When preparing my notes for this analysis, I was tempted to quote extensively from
this book of Koontz and O'Donnell. One of the reasons for that is because it is so full of
down-to-earth analysis of a lot of this management business.
It does not promise that anyone can become a topnotch manager in six easy lessons.
It recognizes the value of scientific methodology as the foundation for sound management.
But just as scient'fic methodology must be learned by the engineer, many of the prin-
ciples of management also can be learned. And this book is as good a starter — or re-
fresher— as any. Even the very top executives can gain a lot by reading and studying
such works.
Now to my second point — -the railroad engineer is an economist.
The railroad engineer has proved himself a good economist in terms of the definition
made by A. M. Wellington, the distinguished American engineer. Back in 1885, he said,
"It would be well if engineering were less generally thought of, and even defined, as the
art of constructing. In a certain important sense, it is rather the art of not constructing;
or to define it rudely but not inaptly, it is the art of doing that well with one dollar
which any bungler can do with two after a fashion."
There's a lot of meat in that. Yet, there's another side of the coin.
Let us not overlook that Wellington made his famous $1 instead of $2 observation
with the reservation that this is true "in a certain sense."
Economics is more than merely finding ways of gettings things done at less cost, as
important as that is. Many of the present-day engineering department advances in
productivity and a more durable "plant" require a higher initial investment. The ma-
chines require more dollars initially. The railroad manager as an economist needs an open
1056 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
mind to study carefully the potentialities of newer ways or machines. Appreciation of the
economic principles involved can nurture an even more well-rounded engineer-manager
than adherence to Wellington's "I can do it for less" theory done.
The world about us is changing at a fantastically rapid pace. There has been a great
inflow of technology. Patterns of work have been affected by that and the changing work
relations in all commerce. Finally, the kind of competition railroads must now cope with
from other carriers puts a different perspective on much railroad engineering work.
All three of these factors, in turn, put a great strain on the railroad engineer. Hence,
many economic principles need to be carefully re-examined and reappraised. Reappraisal
is also necessary for many engineering formulas that are based upon conditions that no
longer exist, relationships that have changed, or the possibility of using newer measuring
and control techniques.
Many of the committees of the AREA, incidentally, also must face up to this
problem.
In that sense, the railroad engineer — acting as a businessman — ris compelled to act as
an economist just as any other successful business man does.
That brings me to the third characteristic of the railroad engineer — the railroad
engineer as a risk taker.
When discussing this over-all subject with Dr. L. K. Sillcox, a fellow member of
AREA'S Committee 16, he observed pungently, "you get what you accept. Railroads
need men who fuse the economics with the practical to tell them what they can afford
to accept in this day and age.
"Forward planning," he continued, "is the most needed element in railroad admin-
istration. That is needed rather than doing business by measuring against dead statistics."
The railroads have a heritage as risk takers. This is particularly true of the engineer.
Does he have his counterpart today? I would say "yes." His counterpart is the man — or
men— amongst engineering department officials who combine the attributes of business ex-
ecutive, engineer and economist — but add one mighty important characteristic — that of
"chancing" innovation. He first considers its potentialities with an open mind. (You
never know from whence the next "big" advance will come.) Then he lends support to
try it out in a limited way. (The risk becomes a little riskier. Here he does apply positive
economics.) Finally, he sticks his neck out and presses for its use as a standard proce-
dure. He does it time after time. He doesn't necessarily wait to see what happens in
work being done by other risk takers.
I am not talking about foolhardy risks. Rather, it is "risks" that combine business
instinct with shrewd analysis of the economic advantage of really moving in on some-
thing that demonstrates a great potential.
The gifted can improve their leadership roles; the not-so-gifted can improve theirs
materially by becoming more conscious that the railroad engineer is more than an engi-
neer. He is also a business man, a manager. An appreciation of that is fundamental to a
positive approach to today's economics of railway engineering — with all its opportunities
to embrace advances in railroad technology.
The better trained the engineer is as a manager, the better qualified he will be to
appraise the soundness of future moves which hold great potential for improving the
railroad plant and railroad efficiency.
The better trained — also — will he be to help, direct, and inspire others in railroad
engineering departments to carry out such work.
And the better organized will railroad engineering departments be to cope with the
ever faster pace of living and transportation.
Discussion 1057
This is a mighty big and a mighty important subject to delve into in such a short
time. I am profoundly grateful for being given this opportunity to touch upon it ever so
lightly. I hope I have inspired you to give it even more serious thought; for it is as
much in terms of management as any other aspects of railroad engineering work that
your own future, that of your railroad, and that of the entire railroad industries Hes
today.
Thank you very much. [Applause]
Chairman Milner: Thank you, Mr. Richter, for this new perspective, this fresh
look, this most informative talk on a subject that is so timely and so important to us all
in an era when we are so preoccupied with engineering and technological events and the
problems brought about by rising costs.
That concludes the presentation of the committee, Mr. Vice President.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Milner, for another series of most
interesting, informative and well-prepared reports.
I want also to thank Mr. Richter for such a wonderful talk, with the emphasis
on economics, which, as you all must agree, is something we must never lose sight of in
anything we do.
Mr. Milner, your committee is excused wath the thanks of the Association.
[Applause]
[President Meyers resumed the chair.]
Discussion on Waterways and Harbors
[For report see pp. 331-339]
[President Meyers presiding]
President Meyers: The next committee to make a report is Committee 25- — Water-
ways and Harbors, the chairman of which is F. B. Manning, engineer bridges and struc-
tures, Northern District, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Detroit, Mich. Due to illness,
Mr. Manning could not be with us today.
In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, Allen Sams, who was on this
program previously and a recent past chairman of this committee, and who is principal
assistant engineer of the Illinois Central, will present the committee's report.
Mr. Sams, will you proceed now?
Allen Sams: Thank you, Mr. Meyers. I thought last year when my term of chair-
manship was up, I wouldn't appear on this rostrum in behalf of Committee 25 again,
but when Mr. Manning was unable to attend today and the vice chairman, Mr. Piper,
had to leave early, I was glad to occupy this front seat while the Committee on Water-
ways and Harbors makes it report.
The report of the committee is published in Bulletin 547 starting on page 331. We
are reporting on three of our six assignments. After each subcommittee report is pre-
sented, we would like to have any comments or questions on these subjects.
Assignment 3 — Bibliography Relating to Benefits and Costs of Inland
Waterway Projects Involving Navigation.
Mr. S.AMs: The report on Assignment 3 will be made by M. A. Michel, assistant to
chief engineer, Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad, and chairman of the subcommittee.
Mr. Michel.
M. A. Michel: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests: In continuing
1058 Waterways and Harbors
this committee assignment, five additional items not previously reported to the Associa-
tion have been included in this year's report, which is presented as information.
President Meyers: It will be so received.
Assignment 6 — Planning, Construction and Maintenance of Rail-Water
Transfer Facilities.
Mr. Sams: G. W. Mahn, Jr., assistant engineer, Illinois Central Railroad and .sub-
committee chairman, will present the report on Assignment 6.
G. W. Mahn, Jr.: Mr. President, members and guests: The assignment is so broad
in scope that it was felt that proper coverage could not conveniently be given the sub-
ject in one report. Your committee, therefore, hmited its study th.s year to a facet not
too often considered in a discussion of rail-water transfer facilities, that is, the faciUties
necessary to transfer railroad cars to and from car floats, car ferries and trainships. While
this report is concerned primarily with a discussion of existing installations, it is felt that
it contains material of value to members of the Association in view of the anticipated
expansion of train-ship operations.
This report is presented as information. - .
PREsroENT Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Mahn. It will be so received.
Assignment 7 — Relative Merits and Economics of Construction Mate-
rials Used in Water Front Facilities.
Mr. Sams: The third and last report is on Assignment 7. This report will be made
by J. J. Tibbits, office engneer, Erie Railroad, in the absence of Shu-t'ien Li, chairman of
the subcommittee. Mr. Tibbits.
J. J. Tibbits: Mr. President, members and guests: This selected bibliography on the
adverse effects of the environment on, and preservation of materials used in water-front
facilities has been compiled from the Engineering Guide, Readers Guide and several
random indices and lists of the Georgia Institute of Technology for the period from
1951 to 1958
The titles included in the bibliography are selected from descriptions given in the
indices. Altogether there are 87 titles, classified for easy reference.
This is a progress report presented as information.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Tibbits. It will be so received.
Mr. Sams: Mr. Meyers, ths concludes the report of Committee 25. In addition to
the three assignments reported on, we have made some progress on the other three
assignments. Before we leave the rostrum, I would like to thank the members of Com-
mittee 16 who are manning the microphones for us.
That concludes our report.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Sams.
I know a report such as the last one presented requires a lot of research work, and
we recognize that. I am sure that many of our members will have occasion to use it.
We appreciate your standing in for Chairman Manning, and Vice Chairman Piper,
neither of whom could be here. We are fortunate during emergencies such as this,
although they don't arise very often, because there always seems to be a competent per-
son that can step right in. We appreciate the reports which your committee has de-
veloped during the past year. The committee is now excused with the thanks of the
Association.
This completes the reports of our committees for today, but before adjourning
the meeting, I would like to announce that J. E. Wiggins, Jr., engineer water supply,
Discussion 105^)
Southern Railway System, Washington, D. C, has been appointed by your president
as chairman of the Tellers Committee to canvass ballots cast for the officers of the
Association for the coming year. The ballots will be counted in the Gold Room on the
first floor tomorrow morning, beginning at 9:30 am, looking to announcing the names
of the successful candidates at the Annual Luncheon tomorrow noon.
You w.ll probably be interested in the registration up to 4 o'clock this afternoon —
486 railroad men, 499 others, making a total of 1285 who have registered up to this
time.
The meeting is now adjourned and will reconvene tomorrow morning promptly
at 9 am in the George Bernard Shaw Room, which is one floor below the lobby near
the Randolph Street entrance.
[The meeting recessed at 4:50 o'clock.]
Tuesday Morning Session — March 10, 1959
[The meeting convened at nine o'clock in the George Bernard Shaw Room, President
Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: The meeting will please come to order. It is important that we
start on time because we have an intensive program this morning with si.\ committee
reports and one feature address to work in before our Annual Luncheon at noon. It is
also going to be important that committees keep within the time allotted them, while in
each case allowing a few minutes for any comments or discussion from the floor. We
again have manned microphones in the aisles which will be brought to anyone wishing
to comment. When addressing the chair from the floor, please use these microphones
and begin by stating your name and your company.
Discussion on Cooperative Relations with Universities
[For report see pp. 595-631]
President Meyers: The first committee to report this morning is Committee 24 —
Cooperative Relations with Universities, of which W. H. Huffman, assistant chief engi-
neer, Chicago & North Western Railway, Chicago, is chairman.
If there are any additional committeemen who are not already at the speaker's table,
I wish they would come up at this time.
Mr. Huffman, you may proceed.
Chairman W. H. Huffman: Mr. President, members, and guests:
The report of Committee 24 this morning will consist of brief reports by subcom-
mittee chairmen covering work accomplished during the past year.
Before proceeding with the presentation of our reports. Committee 24 wishes to
express its sorrow at the passing of two valued members during the past year.
Armstrong Chinn passed away on August 28, 1958, at St. Louis, following surgery.
His entire career was in the railway industry, starting with the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy Railroad in 1915. He was chief engineer of the Alton in 1929, advancing to chief
executive officer in 1945, the position he held at the time of his election in 1946 to the
presidency of the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis. Mr. Chinn joined thi.s
.Association in 1920, was very active on several committees, including Committee 24,
and was elected president of the AREA in 1947.
Fred Justin Lewis passed away on January 4, 1959. At the time of his pa.ssinu
he was dean. School of Engineering, Vandrrbilt University, located at Na^^hville, Tciui.
1 060 Cooperative Relations with Universitis
Hr was a graduate of the University of Maine, joined the AREA in 1046 and served
on this committee since 1949.
Members of Committee 24 sincerely regret the untimely passing of these two
illustrious men and will miss their pleasant and friendly association with them.
The committee reports for this year can be found in Bulletin 548, commencing on
page 595.
Assignment 1 — Stimulate Greater Appreciation on the Part of Railway
Managements of : (a) The Importance of Bringing into the Service Selected
Graduates of Colleges and Universities, and (b) The necessity for Pro-
viding Adequate Means for Recruiting such Graduates and of Retaining
Them in the Service by Establishing Suitable Programs for Training and
Advancement, and (c) The Use of the Best Techniques and Methods for
Recruiting College and University Students, These to Be Set Forth in a
Guide.
Chairman Huffman: I would like to call on J. F. Davison, assistant to system
chief engineer, Canadian National Railways, who will give his report on Assignment 1,
Mr. Davison.
J. F. Davison: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Under part (c) of its assignment. Subcommittee 1 submits a Student Recruiting
Guide, which is printed in Bulletin 548. For those who may be interested, it is expected
that reprints will be made available at a later date.
The need for a Student Recruiting Guide arises from the intense competition for
graduates from engineering colleges and the resultant organizations which the universities
have been forced to establish in order to bring representatives of industry into personal
contact with the students. To fulfill their function, the university placement offices
require certain information, and if railroad representatives expect a courteous reception,
they must be prepared to cooperate fully.
Sec. A of the report outlines the relations which should be established with the
university and with the potential candidates. This subject was considered sufficiently
important by the American Society for Engineering Education that it sponsored the
preparation of a code of ethics which was published in the December 1957 issue of
the Journal of Engineering Education. This code of ethics is embodied in the recruitment
guide.
Sees. B and C of the recruiting guide provide information to assist in selecting and
training your representatives in interview techniques. The importance of selecting suit-
able representatives and giving them proper training cannot be overemphasized, as in
the eyes of the student he not only represents your railroad, but to some degree at
least, the whole railroad industry.
Sec. D of the guide covers the use of standard interview procedures as a means
of assisting the interviewer in evaluating candidates and Sec. E provides information
to assist in selecting those most suitable for railway employment. The guide concludes
with comments concerning the management attitudes most likely to make your company
attractive to the newly graduated engineer.
Chairman iHuFFMAN: Thank you, Mr. Davison. I received advice just this morning
that the Board approved the publication of this Student Recruiting Guide in reprint
form, and each chief engineering officer of Member Roads will receive one of these
reproductions in the very near future. Personally, I think it is an excellent guide, and
I hope that all the recruiting officers of the railroads use it.
Discussion 1061
Assignment 2 — Stimulate Among College and University Students a
Greater Interest in the Science of Transportation and Its Importance in the
National Economic Structure by: (a) Cooperating with and Contributing
to the Activities of Student Organizations in Colleges and Universities, and
(b) Presenting to Students and their Counselors a Positive Approach to the
Attractive and Interesting Features of the Railroad Industry and the Advan-
tages of Choosing Railroading as a Career.
Chairman Huffman; Our next report was to have been given by Professor B. B.
Lewis of Purdue University, but about 30 min ago I received a call from him indicating
that he was snowbound and would not be in the act. Of course, there are a lot of us
that could have been in the same position and a lot that aren't here are in the same
position. Professor Lewis is chairman of Subcommittee 2, which deals with the stimula-
tion among college and university students of an interest in the science of transporta-
tion and particularly getting them interested in railroad work. The committee has been
active during the past year, and members of Committee 24 did visit many universities
during the year. We know that considerably more attention can be given to this phase
of the work, and we hope that others in the railway engineering field do visit the schools.
It is really surprising how well these visits are received.
As you all know, we have a set of slides that was developed a couple of years ago.
There are very few students who know anything about railroad work at all, and they
really get a charge out of seeing them.
Assignment 3 — The Cooperative System of Education, Including Sum-
mer Employment in Railway Service.
Chairm.'^n Huffman: Our next report, on Assignment 3, will be given by Professor
W. A. Oliver of the University of Illinois, in place of Professor E. I. Fiesenheiser,
Illinois Institute of Technology, who was unable to be here. Professor Oliver.
W. A. Oliver: Assignment 3 has to do with the cooperative system of education,
including summer employment in railroad service.
In March 1958 questionnaires were mailed both to railroads and engineering colleges
throughout the United States, the purpose being threefold, as follows:
1. To determine the extent of cooperativ-e work-study programs now in effect.
2. To determine some facts regarding the railroad industry's support of higher
eduaction, and
3. Specifically, the supply and demand with regard to railroad jobs available to
students during the summer of 1958.
The unusual and enthusiastic response to the survey by many railroads and colleges
i.^ evidence of the sincere desire for cooperation along certain hnes. Data concerning
summer jobs available were immediately tabulated and distributed to the engineering
colleges on May S. As a result, many students obtained their first introduction to railroad
work, and without question, some of them have become prospective future employees.
We intend to confnue the piocedure of last year of posting job opportunities at
engineering colleges as one way to keep students aware of the railway industry.
This concludes the report of the subcommittee.
CH.A.IRM.AN Huffman: Thank you, Professor Oliver.
As just mentioned, we intend to resubmit to chief engineers a questionnaire asking
how many summer positions will be open, and in this way find out how many men will
be available. These data will be tabulated and posted at colleges and universities. I think
I he ratio last year between the jobs available and tho.se wanting jobs was .something
1062 Cooperative Relations with Universitis
like 540 percent in favor of the students. From my own personal experience I received
somewhere near 100 applications for 5 jobs. I had qu te a choice.
There is one thing we are going to do this year that we didn't do last year — that
is to try and get the students to make application in their immediate area. A great
percentage of those I received were from the Eastern Coast, and it was rather difficult
to interview the applicants in a satisfactory manner. I know that anybody who did
have positions open certainly were able to fill them with sophomore and junior students.
Assignment 4 — The Role of Engineering Technicians in the Railroad
Field.
Chairman Huffman: Report on Assignment 4 will now be presented by D. W.
Tilman, principal assistant engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. iMr. Tilman.
D. W. Tilman: iMr. President, members, and friends:
In 1956, Committee 24 made a study of the role of engineering technicians in the
railroad field. In a continuation of that study, your committee sent a questionnaire
to 94 railroad chief engineers and maintenance officers and to 125 engineering colleges
and universities so as to analyze the over-all effect of the engineering technician program
and to determine the present and potential use of technicians by the railroads. The
questionnaire was answered by 51 percent of the railroads and 71 percent of the
schools.
The responses indicate that most of the colleges and universities and most of the
railroads agree that the engineering technician program has no adverse effect on the
engineering profession or the employment of college graduates.
The railroads report that engineering technicians are used for many tyi>es of work
in support of graduate engineers. The technician performance has been satisfactory, and
their progress meets reasonable expectations.
iMost of the railroads are using engineers with less than college degrees and conclude
that the employment of engineering technicians presents an opportunity to secure
qualified men.
The study has been concluded and this is a final report.
Chairman Huffman: Thank you, iMr. Tilman. I think this analytical report con-
firms what most of us believe, that there is a place for engineering technicians within
our organization.
Assignment 5 — Revise the Brochure "The Railroad Field — A Challenge
and Opportunity."
Chairman Huffman: Our next report, on Assignment 5, will be given by H. E.
Kirby, cost engineer system, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway. iMr. Kirby.
H. E. Kirby: Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
In accepting this assignment your subcommittee recognized the proportions of its
task in attempting to revise the great pioneering job so ably handled by its predecessor
five years ago. But time marches on; there are changes in men's thinking; there are
technological improvements; the economic law of supply and demand has not been
declared unconstitutional.
This work, which necessarily is of some length, contains many points of possible
interest to you, but to describe them would exceed our time limit. The book will, we
beHeve, achieve its purpose in effectually presenting the railroad picture if it reaches
the hands of those for whom it is intended.
In bringing thi.s work to a conclusion, your 5ubcommittcc chairman acknowledges
with gratitude the cooperation of his fellow subcommittee members, of the other mem-
Discussion 1063
bers of Committee 24 and of various specialists in several areas not represented on the
committee — including Dr. Thomas Sinclair and some of his colleeagues of the public
relations staff of the Association of American Railroads.
And, finally, your chairman wishes to express his distinct sense of gratitude to
those members of the Board of Direction who viewed this work understandingly at
their meeting last November 7. and voted for its acceptance and publication as recom-
mended. Thank you.
Ch.mrman Huffman: I am sure the Board Committee on Assignments had the
idea when assigning the subject of redeveloping this engineering brochure that there
would be a few minor changes made and then it would be submitted to the printer.
However, they did not figure on Herman Kirby and his subcommittee. Word for word,
picture by picture, page by page, they tore this whole brochure apart and came up
with another.
Our executive secretary was a little nonplussed I think, for a while, when we
started in on this, but he finally got into the swing of it.
I certainly want to thank the veritable workhor.se, Mr. Kirby, and his subcommittee
for a fine job well done.
Assignment 7 — Stimulate an Interest by College and University Staff
Members in Current Railroad Problems, Including AREA Membership.
Chairman Hvffm.an: The next report will be given by W. W. Hay, University
of Illinois, a director of this Association and vice chairman of this committee. Professor
Hay.
W. W. Hay: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, gentlemen:
Subcommittee 7 submits a report of progress.
The subcommittee believes that a first step should be to determine the attitudes
of academic staff members. A questionnaire for this purpose has been mailed to all
accredited engineering schools of the United States and Canada. The results of this
questionnaire will be reported at the next annual meeting.
As one means of interesting both students and staff in railroad problems, a list of
varied railroad problems suitable as topics for masters' and doctorate theses are being
compiled and will be made available to interested engineering schools, probably within
the year.
University staff members thus far contacted have invariably urged expanded rail-
road [participation in sponsored research, including a share of so-called pure or basic
research, as a means of keeping railroads within the range of academic interest.
Chairman Huffman: Thank you, Professor Hay.
As indicated, this study is in the embryo stage, and by this time next year we
expect to have a comprehensive report.
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 24.
President 'Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Huffman.
Your committee, with 12 professorial members, representing 11 different colleges
and universities, provides a splendid contact for our Association with the colleges, and
for the colleges with our Association, which I am sure is of mutual benefit. We greatly
appreciate the interest which the college representatives on your committee take in the
work of the committee, which is clearly reflected in the qual'ty of your reports.
Your committee, and especially Mr. Kirby and his subcommittee, are to be con-
gratulated for the fine job done in revising the second edition of our recruitment
brochure, and the Student Recruting Guide will be very helpful.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
1064 Address of R . G. May
Introduction of R. G. May
President Meyers: We want at this point to interrupt our committee presenta-
tions to hear an address by one of our members, with whom most of us are well
acquainted because of his appearance on our convention program for a number of
years. I refer to R. G. May, vice president, Operations and Maintenance Department,
AAR.
In our program as set up in the Convention Issue of the AREA News, inadvertently,
it appeared that Mr. May's address was a feature of the presentation of Committee 24,
and while I am sure the committee would have been pleased if such were the case,
it is a fact that his address is a special feature of our program as a whole, and will be
on a subject which cuts across all of our committees, and our membership as a whole.
Since, as I have said, Mr. May is well known to most of us, I am sure he will
pardon my making only brief reference to his career. But, for the benefit of any here
who may not be informed, I would like to say that he is a civil engineer, and that all
of his railroad experience prior to his coming with the AAR as vice president of its
Operations and Maintenance Department, on September 1, 1Q53, was with the New
York Central System — he having risen from rodman on that railroad in 1928 to vice
president in charge of operations and maintenance in 1952.
Since he came to the AAR in 1953, he has given informed and constructive leader-
ship to its Operations and Maintenance Department, and, in its capacity as the Con-
struction and Maintenance Section of that department, it has been the pleasure and
the good fortune of the AREA to work closely with him.
Without further encroachment on his time, I would like to present to you
R. G. May, vice president, Operations and Maintenance Department, AAR, who will
address us on The Engineer's Responsibihty to Railroad Management. Mr. May.
The Engineer's Responsibility to Railroad Management
By R. G. May
Vice President, Operations and Maintenance Department, AAR
Mr. Meyers, members of the American Railway Engineering Association, friends:
It is again my pleasure to appear before the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation. You know, there is one advantage to appearing in the middle of the program,
or some time well after the start of it, because then we kind of get the run of the
thing and maybe have a little bit more to say, but I was quite interested in Mr.
Meyers' remarks about the improved economic condition both of the country as a
whole and particularly of the railroads. We read a lot about the improved economic
situation in our papers and hear many reports by economists on it, but I ran across
one the other day that I thought perhaps might be of interest to you gentlemen. I am
going to read it to you.
"The Commerce Department reports with some glee that sales and income figures
show an easing up of the rate at which business is easing off, which is taken as proof
of the government's contention that there is a slowing up of the slowdown." Now
please don't try to follow me. [Laughter]
"In order to clarify the cautious terminology of the experts, it should be noted
that a slowing up of the slowdown is not as good as the upturn of the downturn,
but is a good deal better than either a speedup of the slowdown or a deepening of the
downturn, and does suggest that the climates are about right for an adjustment to
Address of R. G. May 1065
readjust. Turning to employment, we find a definite decrease in the rate of increase,
which clearly shows that there is a letting up of the let-down. Of course, if the slow-
down should speed up, the decrease in the rate of increase of unemeployment would
turn an increase into the rate of decrease of employment. [Laughter]
"In other words, a deceleration then would become accelerated, but indicators
suggest rather a leveling off followed by a general pick-up, then a faster pick-up, and
finally a slowing down of the pick-up."
I think the only thing we can gather from that, gentlemen, is this: The time is
about right for a pick-up if you are in a convertible and you are unmarried. [Laughter]
As some of you may recall, last year I directed my remarks to the legislative situa-
tion as it affected engineering and maintenance of way departments. This year, I would
like to talk to you about what might be called the engineer's responsibility to his indus-
try, his company, his management. But first, a word about the role of the engineer
in the railroad way of life.
It is a fact that practically every improvement and technological achievement in
railroad history has been the result of research. It is also a fact that nearly every
research project connected with maintenance of way and facilities has had its origin in
committees of the AREA.
We must, then, out of economic necessity if nothing less, continue to develop im-
proved materials and better methods of doing things. We also must continue our efforts
to attract technically trained personnel into the railroad industry.
About this time last year, we were feeling the effects of declining business activity.
It took a blow of this kind to jar the public into realizing the need for a healthy rail-
road industry as a supporting pillar under our national economy. This realization was
translated into the Transportation Act of 1958, with which I am sure you are familiar.
And I'm sure you are aware that the 1958 Act was no cure all, though it did mark a
positive step in the direction of providing much-needed relief along certain lines.
Let us take a minute now to review how the railroads fared in 1958. Carloadings
for 1958 were the lowest since the great depression of the '30s. They barely exceeded
the 30 million mark, and were the third lowest year of record — exceeding only the
aggregates of 1932 and 1933. This comparison, however, is not so dismal as the figure
would indicate. Included in the 1958 carloadings total are less-carload loadings, which
in 1958 were nearly 7 million under the 1932 level. Carload traffic, on the other hand,
showed a gain of nearly 9 million in 1958 over those of the low year 1932.
Ominously, the year 1958 marked the seventh consecutive year of decline in railroad
passenger traffic. Passenger miles in 1958 were 10 percent less than in the previous year,
and were, in fact, less than in any year since 1939.
Naturally an industry cannot maintain a program of improvements when the traffic
and revenues curve takes severe dips while the cost line keeps rising steadily. Railroad
spending since World War II for capital equipment and improvements has averaged
more than a billion dollars a year. Included in this tremendous program have been
such innovations as train and yard radio, closed-circuit television in classification yards,
new data-processing equipment, microwave, teletype and other means of immediate
communication.
All of these improvements were necessary if we were to remain in the competitive
arena with other modes of transportation, most of which have many basic costs paid
out of government subsidy. Sharply reduced revenues in recent months, however, have
resulted in drastic reductions in railroad spending for improvements of every sort.
1066 Address of R. G. May
Gross capital expenditures for 1958 aggregated $737.8 million, or about half what
they were in 1957. This is the smallest reported for any year since 1946. A breakdown
of the 1958 total shows that expenditures for road improvements were about a third
less than in the previous year, and that outlays for equipment were less than half the
1957 level.
Decreased traffic, however, is not the only malady from which the railroads are
suffering. Rising labor and materia! costs have eaten further into their meager earnings.
The seriousness of this problem can be illustrated by the fact that the annual costs
of labor and materials have increased by $880 million since November 1956.
Payroll expenses, for example, eat up 52.7 cents of every dollar the railroads receive
in revenues. For the sake of comparison, this is more than twice the national average for
all manufacturing, and some two-thirds more than in the iron and steel industry.
Featherbedding waste, as AAR President Loomis has already pointed out, gravely
aggrevates this situation. And there is more than one kind of make-work practice, too.
For example, a very serious form — and one that gets little public attention — is feather-
bedding by Congressional statute. Each year, the railway labor unions push various
make-work bills in Congress under the guise of improving railroad safety. These bills,
if enacted into legislation, not only would add to the already unbearable burden of
featherbedding costs but also would increase federal regulation of railroads, possibly
to the final point of strangulation. I need not point out to you how ruinous either of
these would be to the industry and, ultimately, to the nation.
Among the bills the brotherhoods again are asking their congressmen to support
are those calling for the operation of motor cars under train-rule conditions, and for
bringing Interstate Commerce Commission authority into track, bridge and car inspection
and maintenance procedures.
In general, these bills would require the use of more and more employees, and
would give the ICC virtual control over many aspects of railroading now left to the
discretion of management.
Although such bills are proposed in the name of improving safety, the fact is that
the railroads' safety record has shown continuous improvement over the years and is
outstanding among all of American industry. The basic objective of these measures in
reality is the creation of unnecessary jobs or the protection of existing ones irrespective
of operating needs. Such bills constitute a new kind of featherbedding — featherbedding
by legislation — and should be recognized by the Congress and the public for what they
really are.
The actual effect of such bills would be to tighten the hold of government over our
operations and to inflate our costs, thereby impairing our ability to serve the public.
Regulation was originally conceived and developed to protect the public interest. Carried
too far, however, it becomes destructive and ceases to work for the public good. Feather-
bedding by legislation would lead to the ultimate in destructive regulation and inevitably,
in turn, to government ownership and operation of the railroads.
The impact of featherbedding on both railroad employees and the public welfare
is so obviously destructive that it is a wonder labor leaders themselves do not demand
its elimination. While borne directly by the railroads, make-work waste is "reflected in
higher travel fares and freight rates and, consequently, in higher prices generally. And
by inflating charges to customers, such waste undercuts our competitive position and
contributes to the loss of thousands of railroad jobs — to be precise, more than 500,000
jobs since the end of World War II. What better way to secure jobs and expand employ-
ment opportunities than to become more competitive and expand business.
Address of R . G . May 1067
There is no question about how the public itself feels about featherbedding. Mr.
Loomis referred yesterday to the number of editorials that had been written in response
to his speech. We have seen public reaction expressed in unmistakable terms in scores
of editorials in big and small newspapers throughout the country. A recent nationwide
public opinion survey revealed that the people oppose featherbedding practices by more
than a 2 to 1 vote — in fact, they favor legislation to outlaw such practices. Even among
families of union members, the vote is nearly 4 to 3 in favor of curbing featherbedding
b>' new laws.
The impact of featherbedding on the railroads' ability to expand and maintain plant
is another doubly serious problem. This is best indicated by the railroads' car ownership
and repair situation. The fleet of railroad-owned cars at the beginning of 1QS9 numbered
slightly more than 1.7 million, or some 21,000 fewer than last year. In addition, a drop
in repair activities during 195S resulted in 148,000 cars, or 8.6 per cent of the total fleet,
lying idle on repair tracks at the beginning of the year.
This situation has given rise to some apprehension among railroad customers as to
our ability to handle an increase in traffic. Although repair and purchase activities have
been stepped up in keeping with present business trends, the only lasting solution lies
in the railroads' ability to earn more money so they can expand capacity and react
adequately to surges in business activity.
Looking to a solution of the need for greater spending for improvements, railroads
believe they might best be helped by legislative measures aimed at lightening their tax
burden. One such measure, which was eliminated from the Transportation Act of 19S8
on a technically, provides for tax deferral by establishment of construction reserve
funds.
Under the reserve plan, a railroad could establish on its books a fund earmarked
for capital expenditures. .Amounts placed in the fund would be deductible from taxable
income by the railroad in computing its corporate income tax. Following use of money
in the fund, there would be a corresponding reduction in the railroad's capital deprecia-
tion base. Thus, government would recover any initial tax loss through higher future
taxes paid by the railroad as a result of lower depreciation deductions. The program,
therefore, is one of tax deferral, not tax forgiveness.
The effect of the construction reserve fund program would be, among other things,
to level out the peaks and valleys in railroad capital spending. This, in turn, would
have a stabilizing effect on the economy as a whole, redounding to the benefit of the
shipper as well as the supplier.
The severe capital replacement problem posed by continual inflation in the cost of
plant and equipment can probably be solved only by some kind of reinvestment deprecia-
tion allowance that would take account of these inflated costs. Thus, if a railroad were
to replace a freight car with a new one costing four times as much, the tax laws should
allow immediate write-off of the difference between original and current price. Such a
reinvestment allowance would stimulate the retirement of old plant and equipment and
its replacement with more modern facilities which would provide improved service for
railroad patrons.
The railroads also ask to be permitted to recover the money they invest in plant
and equipment over a shorter period than present laws allow. In contrast to a present
average tax life of 40 years, we ask to reduce the life of railroad depreciable property
to a maximum of IS years in the case of cars and locomotives and to a maximum of
20 years for other property.
Such proposals deserve attention and action by Congress, and we believe the nation
1068 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
could only benefit from their enactment into law. In reality', the measures we plead for
are the bare essentials necessary to help us so improve our plant and services as to
attract more traffic, expand revenues and purchases, and create more jobs both on the
railroads and among all the supply companies that depend on railroad buying. Here is
a goal that is squarely in the public interest. Let's all keep our eyes fixed on it and
leave no means untried that may help to achieve it.
In conclusion, a word about your diligent work with universities to attract young
engineers into the industry. I have advocated the expansion of these programs for several
years. Furthermore, I believe the individual roads should become more active in
maintaining contacts with heads of engineering schools for this purpose.
The technician should be active in civic affairs, social clubs and become generally
known by and to the public. He has become well rounded professionally. But in this age
of rapid technological change, the engineer is also a natural to reach executive positions
and he should be prepared in advance to meet management's social and civic responsi-
bilities.
A summary of the engineer's responsibility to management would, under present-day
conditions, include many things outside of the scope of his professional duties and
responsibilities, so I emphasize these as the more important:
Maintain contacts to keep technically trained personnel coming in the industry.
Provide well-rounded training for new employees.
Be familiar with the individual railroad's problems.
Be familiar with all proposed legislation, state and national, which affects the
railroad industry.
Acquaint the public with the railroad story.
I realize this is a big order but if we are to gain recognition and remove some of
the shackles which restrain us today we must enlighten the public as to the precarious
position of the one mode of transportation which is not only essential to our economy
but stands in the first line of national defense.
Thank you. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. May. We appreciate your appearing on our
program each year because you always bring us something to think about. Certainly
one of the featherbedding things that is most important to the engineering and main-
tenance department is the requirement of full train crews for piloting work equipment.
It is one of the things that is forcing us to develop more off-track equipment. Again,
Mr. May, I want to thank you for appearing on our program.
Discussion on Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
[For report see pp. 2S9-288]
President Meyers: The second committee to report this morning is Committee
13 — Water, Oil, and Sanitation Services. I will ask that committee to come to the
rostrum now. Please keep in mind the chairman, the vice chairman, and those who are
to make reports will come to this table immediately to my left, so we won't lose time.
The chairman of this committee is H. M. Schudlich, engineer of water service.
Northern Pacific Railway, St. Paul. Mr. Schudlich, you may proceed with your com-
mittee report.
Chairman H. M. Schudlich: Mr. President, members of the Association, and
guests:
J
Discussion 106^
Before proceeding with the presentation of our reports. Committee 13 wishes to
express its sorrow at the passing of Member Emeritus Edwin Morrell Grime on February
7, 1959. He joined the Association in 1915, was one of our oldest members and was
formerly a chairman of this committee. A suitable memoir in his honor has been
prepared and it will appear in the Proceedings of this meeting.
MEMOIR
€btoin iHorrell #rimc
Edwin Morrell Grime, retired engineer of water service, Northern Pacific Railway,
passed away February 7, 1959, at the age of 82.
Mr. Grime was born in Minneapohs, Minn., July 1, 1876, the son of John and
Emma (Morrell) Grime. He was educated in the Minneapolis public schools and in 1000
received his degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Minnesota.
He spent seven years with the Chicago Great Western Railway in various positions,
serving as a division engineer before joining the employ of the Northern Pacific Railway
on May 1, 1907.
He served in various capacities, including bridge and building supervisor at Glendive,
Mont., and later, at Fargo, N. Dak., until 1925. He then spent six months on a special
committee surveying the water resources and the ensuing water requirements for the
railway, and was then transferred to St. Paul late in 1925 to become the first engineer
of water service. This position he held until he retired on December 31, 1946, after
40 years of faithful service.
He was an ardent and loyal Mason, belonging to Macalester Lodge No. 200, .\.F. &
A.M.; Minnesota Chapter No. 1 Royal Arch Masons; Damascus Commandery No. 1.
Knights Templar and Osman Temple, A.A.O.N.M.S.
He was also a very conscientious worker for St Clement's Episcopal Church and
devoted many hours after his retirement to its cause. He was senior warden and a
member of the vestry.
The impact of his personality in constructive contribution to the welfare and
success of both Masonry and his Church could not be fully realized or evaluated until
the time which brought him to the end of his duty.
He was very active in the AREA, which he joined in 1915, serving in various
capacities on Committee 13, having been a subcommittee chairman, vice chairman and
finally as chairman of the committee. He became a Life Member of the ARE.^ in 1047
and was elected Member Emeritus of Committee 13 on May 22, 1054.
He was also a member of the St. Paul Planning Board, ASCE, AWW.A, Engineers'
Society of St. Paul, Northwest Maintenance of Way Club, Minnesota Geological Society,
Interprofessional Institute and a Registered Professional Engineer in Minnesota.
He is survived by his daughter. Elsie M. Grime of St. Paul, and his sister. Florence
L. Grime of Tacoma, Wash.
Mr. Grime will be remember as a gentlemen of sterling character; thorough and
conscientious in his dealings, both personal and professional; and the .Association
expresses its sorrow for the less of so capable a member.
Chairman Schudlich: During 1958 Committee 13 held four meetings, one of which
was organizational, and at which detailed plans for the year were discus.sed and
clarified.
1070 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
At the other meetings the various subcommittee chairmen reported their progress
and were given suggestions and constructive criticism from the membership for the
development of their assignments and which are reflected in the reports.
All of our 11 assignments have been capably handled, and each subcommittee chair-
man has a report to present. These presentations will only briefly summarize the assign-
ment, but those who are interested in more of the details will find them in the November
1958 Bulletin 546.
I am inxating pertinent comments and questions from the audience after each report
has been presented, and the subcommittee chairmen will endeavor to clarify and answer
any of your questions.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Schudlich: Our first report is on Assignment 1, which will be presented
by the vice chairman of Committee 13, D. C. Teal, superintendent water supply —
system, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway.
D. C. Teal: Mr. President, gentlemen and guests of the Association:
The general rule regarding revision of Manual is that each committee shall
critically review the material in its chapter at such intervals as to insure that it be kept
up to date. Your committee has this past year reviewed parts 1, 2, and 3 of Chapter 13,
with the objective of eliminating those recommended practices that may have been
made obsolete by changing times or improved methods. We found in particular that
some of the current Manual material on wood water tanks, track pans, and pumps to
be no longer applicable. Our specific recommendations regarding revisions of Parts 1, 2,
and 3 have been presented to the Association in Bulletin 546.
Unless there is special request for it, I shall omit the reading of this material.
Mr. President, I move that the proposed revisions to Parts 1, 2, and 3 of Chapter
13 of the Manual as shown on pages 260 to 263, incl. of Bulletin 546 and as called to
your attention at this meeting, be accepted, and that these changes be incorporated in
the manual.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 2 — Prevention of Corrosion in Steam and Condensate Lines.
Chairman Schudlich: The next report will be presented to you by J. J. Dwyer,
chief chemist, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway.
J. J. Dwyer: The next report is on Assignment 2, entitled "Prevention of Corrosion
in Steam and Condensate Lines."
Since this report occupies ten pages in Bulletin 546, it would be impossible for me
to present it here, but we would like to give you just a short review of it.
About ten years ago one of our greatest corrosion experts, Dr. H. H. Uhlig of MIT,
estimated that corrosion damage in the United States was costing about $6 billion a
year. This would now be about $9 billion. Well, our assignment covers just one facet
of this corrosion problem, and that is in steam and condensate lines, but the damage
in this field alone still amounts to several millions of dollars a year.
So we still consider it quite important, and your committee has been investigating
ways and means of alleviating and combatting this tremendous damage and presents
its findings in the report referred to.
Up until a few years ago our main defense against this particular type of corrosion
damage were certain rules of good mechanical design and good boiler-water treatment
which would insure that the steam leaving the boiler would be as free as possible
Discussion 1071
of steam and carbon dioxide, since these were the two principal "termites" which were
eating away our pipes, so to speak.
A few years back substances were developed which would vaporize with the steam
and be carried along in the steam lines and condense when the steam condensed. These
substances, being of an alkaline nature, would neutralize the carbon dioxide in the con-
densate, and prevent the corrosion from this particular standpoint.
The first such substance to be used, of course, was ammonia, but ammonia is
deadly corrosive to copper and zinc and some other metals, and soon fell into disuse.
A few years ago certain materials which are now known as neutralizing amines were
developed which were not aggressive like ammonia, and which, therefore, have come
into popular use and have gone a long ways toward preventing corrosion from the
carbonic acid. However, the neutralizing amines have just one drawback. They do not
protect against oxygen. That is where the third part of our report comes in, which
describes the filming amines — a relatively new advancement in this field. The filming
amines protect against corrosion by an entirely different principle. Rather than neutral-
izing the acid and having to be used in amounts proportionate to the amounts of acid
in the line, the filming amines form a film — a non-wettable film — on the inside of the
pipe, and only very small dosages of from one to three parts per million are required to
do this job. It doesn't make any difference then whether the condensate contains carbon
dioxide, oxygen, or both. The filming amine still does the job. These filming amine
molecules are of a long slender type which attach themselves to the metal at one end,
and sort of stand on end and pack closer and closer together like a bunch of toy
soldiers standing in close order drill until finally there just isn't any room left to permit
the molecules of carbon dioxide, water, or oxygen, to get through to touch the metal.
If there isn't any contact, there isn't any corrosion.
This is a final report, presented as information, with the recommendation that it be
submitted in condensed form as Manual material next year.
I am told that we have time for possibly one question. Would anyone like to ask it?
R. G. Angell [A. M. Byers Company] : Mr. Dwyer, I have read your very excel-
lent report on the subject. I am wondering if it wouldn't be of interest to the Associa-
tion to comment on your recommendations in regard to weight of pipe. I think there
has been a change since your report was published.
Mr. Dwyer: Mr. Angell, I am happy to answer your question, particularly since
there has been a change in the pipe weight recommendations since the initial publica-
tion of the report in Bulletin 546 last November. The "good mechanical design" criteria
discussed in the first section of the report indicated that the heavier the pipe, the longer
it would last. On this basis, double extra strong pipe was recommended. However,
subcommittee investigations have continued since the first publication of the report,
with considerable credit being due to D. C. Teal for actual field service performance
records established by the filming amines. It is now indicated that, to a considerable
extent, we may have our cake and eat it, too. By this I mean that the efficiency of the
filming amines has been established so that it is no longer necessary to use the heaviest
weight pipe, which opens the way for great savings for the industry by permitting the
use of more economical weights of pipe. The revised recommendation of your committee
specifies that "extra strong wall pipe and fittings (ASTM Schedule 80 or heavier) should
be used in condensate return lines."
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Dwyer.
Mr. Dwyer; I would like to introduce J. C. Roberts, fire and sanitary engineer.
1072 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Union Pacific Railroad who is substituting for the chairman of Subcommittee ?>, J. M.
Bates, assistant to chief engineer, Union Pacific.
Assignment 3 — Design, Construction, and Operation of Coach-Servicing
Facilities to Comply with Regulations of U. S. Public Health Service, Col-
laborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
J. C. Roberts: Mr. President, Mr. Schudlich, ladies, and gentlemen:
Last fall at its regular September meeting Committee 13 approved a proposal to
submit a request to the Board of Direction of the AREA for a research project on
coach-water hydrants and established five objectives, which were published in Bulletin
546. Early this year the committee membership was requested to submit plans, pho-
tographs and other information on the coach-water hydrants in service on their railroads.
As a result of, the studies of these plans. Subcommittee 3 is recommending an appropria-
tion of $15,500 for research to be conducted at the AAR Research Center and to be
divided as follows:
Salaries for research personnel, including any sums paid for consulting services,
$8,500.
Travel expenses, $1,500.
Materials, including special designs, etc., $3,000.
Equipment, including specialties such as jigs, dies, and other tools, $2,000.
Miscellaneous, including stationery, postage, etc., $500.
We feel that such a project is justified for these six reasons:
1. There is no standard design of coach-water hydrants on the American railroads,
nor has any attempt at standardization ever been made, to my knowledge.
2. Plans submitted to Subcommittee 3, Committee 13, bear approval dates back
to 1928. Installations covered by these and other plans of more recent date will not
satisfy present minimum requirements of public health authorities. Construction of
coach-watering facilities to replace existing out-dated installations would, in most in-
stances, involve relatively large initial expenditures and high maintenance and operating
costs.
3. No individual railroad, or group thereof, is prepared to undertake a research
study of this scope on its own initiative.
4. There are no commercially manufactured coach-water hydrants on the market
which will meet the five objectives of Subcommittee 3's assignment.
5. Successful design and development of a coach-water hydrant satisfying the
objectives of the Subcommittee 3 assignment would make it possible, in many instances,
to replace existing facilities at nominal cost and realize significant savings in operating
and maintenance expense thereafter.
6. Many hydrant installations in service on the railroads today are known to be
inadequate in design and insanitary in their operation. It is paradoxical that the most
expensive hydrants to maintain and operate are probably the most insanitary.
Do we have time for some questions? If there are any questions from the floor,
I think we have a few minutes.
President Meyers: There doesn't seem to be any questions, Mr. Roberts. I am
afraid we are running behind. Does that conclude your report, sir?
Mr. Roberts: Yes, this concludes the report of Subcommittee 3, and I would like
to introduce now W. F. Arksey, engineer water service and fuel facilities, Great Northern
Railway, who will present the Subcommittee 4 report.
Discussion 1073
Assignment 4 — Cathodic Protection of Pipe Lines and Steel Storage
Tanks. Collaborating with Electrical Section, AAR.
W. F. Arksey: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Our report this year is the third part of a four-part study and is offered as infor-
mation. In it we cover the principles involved in the selection of instruments for con-
ducting preliminary surveys and for checking installations after cathodic protection has
been applied.
The report also gives a bibliography of pubHcations on the subject of cathodic pro-
tection which may be useful to those wishing more detailed information.
Are there any specific questions on our report as presented? If not, the next report
is on Assignment 5, and I would like to introduce Subcommittee Chairman E. M.
Walters, assistant engineer water service, Northern Pacific Railway.
Assignment 5 — Transportation of Solids by Pipelines, Collaborating with
the Pipeline Division, ASCE and Other Interested Organizations.
E. M. Walters: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, and gentlemen:
Two companies in the United States and one in Canada are transporting solids by
pipeline over long distances at the present time.
The American Gilsonite Company at Grand Junction, Colo., operates a 72-mile
pipeHne to transport Gilsonite from the mine to the refinery. Eight-mesh material is
pumped through a 6-in line as a 40-percent slurry at the rate of 700 tons per day. The
line cost $2 million to construct, and operating costs are $1 per ton. This line eliminates
a 180-mile truck haul.
Pittsburgh Consolidated Coal Company delivers 3600 tons of 14-mesh coal per day
through a 10-in pipeline 110 miles long to the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company.
The cost is 40 percent that of rail transportation.
International Nickel in Canada has a 7>2-mile pipeline for transportation of ore and
tailings. It uses 8 to 13-in wire-bound, creosoted wood stave pipelines. This process has
been used since IQSl.
Several foreign lines are said to be in the planning stage.
Subcommittee 11, Committee 16, has prepared a report on the economics of pipeline
transportation.
Transportation of solids by pipeline appears to be a promising project and should
attract considerable interest.
I would now like to introduce the chairman of Subcommittee 6, T. A. Tennyson,
engineer tests and sanitation, St. Louis Southwestern Railway.
Assignment 6 — Railway Waste Disposal, Collaborating with Joint Com-
mittee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
T. A. Tennyson: This year your committee accumulated information on waste
disposal by dividing the subcommittee into task groups, each with its own phase of the
over-all project, and our report summarizes the progress of this study.
Disposal of waste water containing oil, which is the major problem in railway
waste disposal, can be solved by reducing the waste of this material, handling oil-laden
wastes from cleaning operations separately from general shop storm water, and applica-
tion of primary separation with chemical treatment and final cleanup methods when
emulsions become a problem. A thorough knowledge of the regulations set up by state
and federal authorities and the chemistry and physics of the processes involved is
essential.
Final disposition of the waste oil which has been removed by separation requires
1074 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
careful study and analysis of local conditions. Disposal of solids removed from waste
separation plants along with general trash and rubbish must be carefully planned to
avoid further trouble and costly handhng. The use of enclosed containers, which can
be easily handled by fork-lift trucks, trailers, etc., as temporary storage facilities has
been worked out quite thoroughly by a number of firms which are in a position to
offer systems that can often save considerable sums in labor costs.
This report of progress is presented as information.
I would like to now introduce A. W. Johnson, steam heat and water service
engineer, Santa Fe, who is chairman of Subcommittee 7.
Assignment 7 — Inspection and Maintenance of Diesel Fuel Oil Storage
Tanks.
A. W. Johnson: Your committee recommends the procedure for maintaining diesel
fuel oil storage tanks and to insure good-quality fuel oil published in Bulletin 546,
pages 278-279.
This involves maintenance of the physical tank structure, periodic testing of diesel
fuel oil quality and recirculation to avoid oxidation or enlargement of particle size
which cause filter stoppage or locomotive fuel injector trouble, and finally, maintenance
practices to protect against fire.
This is a progress report to be completed this year.
If there are no questions, I will call on V. C. Barth, chief metallurgist and engineer
of tests, Chicago & North Western Railway, who will report on Assignment 8.
Assignment 8 — Methods of Controlling Spillage of Fuel Oil at Diesel
Fueling and Unloading Stations.
V. C. Barth: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman:
This report covers methods of controlling spillage of fuel oil at diesel fueling and
unloading stations and as such is only a progress report.
To control spillage when unloading fuel oil, it is the general practice to empty tank
cars either by overhead or bottom facilities. Spillage losses due to bottom unloading is
practically nil, while overhead unloading results in a loss of about 25 gal. which prin-
cipally represents the amount of fuel remaining in the bottom of the tank cars. This
loss, by some, is regarded desirable as it represents the sludge accumulated.
With respect to automatic fueling facilities, it is generally agreed that the devices
now available are in the stage of development. Several have been used quite exten-
sively, but none are actually acceptable because success of such equipment is largely
dependent upon standardization and interchangeability.
It is the committee's request that the manufacturers get together in an effort to
solve this problem.
Up to the present time it was impossible for your committee to establish the true
economics of unloading and fueling devices but expects to accomplish this end during
the next year. Thank you.
I now wish to introduce the chairman of Subcommittee 9, R. S. Glynn, director,
Sanitation Research and Development, AAR.
Assignment 9 — Disinfectants, Deodorants, Fumigants, and Cleaning
Materials, Collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
R. S. Glynn: The subjects studied under Assignment 9 are disinfectants, deodorants,
fumigants, and cleaning materials.
The data on cleaners were reported a year ago. During the past year the fumigants
and disinfectants received attention.
Discussion 1075
In fumigation, methyl bromide has become known as the "fumigant of choice" in
less than 25 years. Its advantages and the precautions to be taken in its use are dis-
cussed. Several fumigants for special applications are also discussed. The report on
fumigants is offered as information.
A preliminary report on disinfectants was made during the past year in which were
discussed some of the general principles of disinfectants, including a glossary of terms
to be used in the final report to be made this year.
If there are no questions, the next report will be presented to you by C. F. Muelder,
assistant to engineer of buildings, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, who will
report on Assignment 10 for R. A. Bardwell, nuclear engineer, Denver & Rio Grande
Western Railroad, chairman of the subcommittee.
Assignment 10 — Railroad Aspects of Radioactive Substances, Collabo-
rating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
C. F. Muelder: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
I am reading this report for Robin Bardwell who is chairman of this assignment.
Robin is a handsome young man who has been drafted to conduct the ladies on their
tour this morning.
During the past year, several railroads in the United States have used radioactive
piston rings to measure the rate of piston ring wear in diesel locomotives. These tests
have proved to be extremely fruitful. They have been used to measure the effects of
various fuel oils, lube oils, and engine components on piston ring wear.
The hazards involved in performing these tests have been very small. It has been
the experience of the railroads using the radioactive measuring technique that no person
has been exposed to as much as one third of the allowable radiation tolerance dose.
This can be stated in another way by saying that during the several months that these
tests have been run, the most radiation received by any one person has been less than
the amount of radiation received from one chest x-ray.
The disposal of waste products associated with these tests has been no problem.
The lube oil from the test engine has very little radioactive material in it. In fact,
after a brief storage period, the activity of this lube oil is below the allowable limit
for drinking water. The radioactive piston rings which are eventually removed from the
engine are disposed of by sending them to a licensed radioactive disposal firm.
At this time I would like to introduce C. E. De Geer, assistant engineer water
service and fuel facilities, Great Northern Railway, who will report on Assignment 11.
Assignment 11 — Methods of Heating Fuel Oil to Permit Winter-Time
Use of High-Pour-Point "Economy" Grade Fuel Oil.
C. E. De Geer: Mr. President: Our report this year covers the reasons for heating
diesel fuel oil, how to determine the amount of heat to maintain the desired temperature
level and to bring added cold oil up to this level in a specified time interval, and the
costs of heating fuel oil.
It also discusses the data found in a 2S,000-gal heated, above-ground, insulated
storage tank at Crookston, Minn., that has been equipped with various testing and
recording devices. As the mean temperature at this location during the months of
December, January, and February has been about 12 deg below zero, the tests have
been quite conclusive.
If there are no comments, I would like to turn the balance of our report back
to our chairman, Mr. Schudlich.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. De Geer.
1076 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
Chairman Schudlich: Are there any other questions on any of the reports?
If not, we will proceed with the special feature.
It now gives me a great deal of pleasure to present E. H. Myers, engineering
editor, Modern Railroads. Mr. Myers is a member of this committee and has a good
background in railroad engineering. He is very much interested in the facets of transi-
tion in modern railroading. Mr. Myers will now speak on, "The Broadening Field for
Railway Water Service Engineers."
The Broadening Field for Railroad Water Service Engineers
By Edward T. Myers
Engineering Editor, Modern Railroads
Mr. President: Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
It is a pleasure to be here today to talk to you people. When Mr. Schudlich invited
me to speak, I thought that some of you engineers would probably have topics of greater
interest than anything I could bring before you. However, he felt that I had a crystal
ball hidden away in the office. I guess editors are supposed to have crystal balls so
they can look into the future, so I went back to the office and looked into my crystal
ball. Well, I guess I must have looked into the same ball that Dan Loomis looked into
because this subject of the challenge of change and progress in railroading came to my
attention.
1. The Shifting Scene
I regret to say that many persons in the railroad industry look upon the water
service engineer as an anachronism — a leftover from the age of steam. Unfortunately,
these people completely overlook the growing place that testing — chemical testing in
this instance — holds in industry and especially in the railroad industry today. Perhaps
the very name "water service" suggests a limited field of endeavor — this is far from
the truth.
As I gaze into my crystal ball, I see a very different picture. I see the amazing
adaptability of the water service engineer in the face of drastic change. His area of
work, like the railroad business itself, has undergone a revolution since dieselization.
Today, even water must meet new standards of purity as it flows to diesel cooling
systems and automatic boilers.
Like the railroad industry itself, the water service engineer possesses vitality and
skill and can quickly adapt himself to changing conditions and new duties. His knowl-
edge of chemistry, testing techniques, and utilities, to name only a few areas, enables
him to meet the requirements of the atomic age. His skills will prove ever more valuable
to an ever-changing industry.
But who is a water service engineer? What kind of men form AREA Committee
13 — Water, Oil, and Sanitation Services? Some members are chemists, utilities men,
water supply engineers, engineers of tests, sanitation engineers, nuclear engineers, metal-
lurgists, and diesel fuel inspectors. This group of specialists and their work touch all
departments . . . deal in some manner with all phases of railroading.
Thus, you can see that Committee 13 represents a talent pool of experienced men
whose many skills are available to the railroad industry. Managements of all railroads,
not only those with extensive test departments but all, have the opportunity of drawing
upon the collective knowledge of these committee members. These men are capable of
AddressofEdwardT.Myers 1077
pointing the way to substantial economies by reviewing past operations and obsolete
practices . . . recommending new, efficient procedures and techniques.
The shift from steam to diesel power lightened the task of the water service engineer
only momentarily. The shift was largely one from quantity to quality. Diesel cooling
systems and automatic steam generators demand higher standards of water purity. Pre-
cise laboratory control of water is the word. Rust inhibitors necessary for the protection
of the system create problems of disposal and to.xicity.
Duties of the water service engineer in his original field are, thus, more critical
than ever. A trend from the large coal-fired boiler in a central boiler plant to automatic
boilers spotted where needed is continuing. The modern automatic boiler is a highly
scientific piece of machinery operating at a high level of efficiency. The importance
of proper feed water to equipment of this type can not be overestimated if full satis-
faction and efficiency is to be obtained.
Similarly, automatic steam generators used on diesel locomotives and in various
applications, such as car cleaning, require properly treated water and proper treatment
of the boiler coils.
Recently, demands of management for more economical diesel fuels in the face
of rising costs for light, straight-run distillates conflict, in some cases, with the desires of
the operating and the mechanical departments. This is no static situation, but rather
one in which almost daily changes can be expected. Competition from other fields con-
stantly threatens the supply of the high-grade fuels and drives up their prices. Advent
of the economy fuels is presenting the water service engineer with storage problems.
Some of these fuels are unstable in storage; some have increased sulfur content which,
it is believed, increases corrosion of tanks and distribution pipes.
Attempts to improve these fuels include treatment with atomic radiation. Experi-
ments on the D&RGW include the addition of irradiated coal to diesel fuel. Propane and
atomic fuels are being studied, elsewhere, for possible use. Each of these experiments
will create new problems in testing, storing, and handling.
Growing Complexity of the Field
As an example of the growing complexity of the water service field, consider the
prevention of corrosion in ste:im and condensate lines. To cope with this problem,
a nice understanding of chemistry is essential. \ot merely is feed-water treatment
involved, but steam itself must be treated to neutralize corrosion forming substances.
These treatment chemicals belong to the amine family and have, at least to me, very
formidable names. It's obvious I'm not a chemist or I'd roll off a few.
In employing the corrosion resisting chemicals, the water service engineer faces
another problem: for what is the steam used? If it involves food processing, then he
must guard against the application of toxic compounds.
But corrosion is not confined to the inside of pipelines, boilers, and tanks. Metal,
whether exposed to air, water, or soil, is subject to corrosion. While proper paint or
finishes, or wrappings will give extended protection against atmospheric corrosion, the
problem in buried metal is more severe. Here the water engineer calls upon his knowl-
edge of chemistry and physics to produce electric or cathodic protection. To detect the
need and to determine the requirement for protecting a given structure, the engineer
must make a survey of the electrical potentials and currents associated with the structure.
As a result of the water srevice engineer's efforts to stop or at least retard corro-
sion, life of structures is extended, and many millions of dollars are saved annually
for management.
1078 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
How does the modern water service engineer help the rest of you engineers? How
does he help the industry ? He helps in the compounding and checking of weed killers
... in the checking of creosote ... in testing paints and finishes ... in corrosion
prevention work . . . and in many other ways.
As you well know, an increased demand for the testing of products used by the
railroads has arisen. The aim is to insure economical purchasing plus the maintenance
of quality and uniformity.
As the number and the complexity of products increase, the role of the chemist
and the test department increases. The ever-changing variety of cleaners available must
be investigated. Thousands of new products must be checked or rechecked each year.
These analyses are an important aid to engineering, mechanical, and stores departments.
They aid in setting up specifications and controls to guide the purchasing department.
2. Important Duties of the Water Service Engineer
As I've pointed out, the duties of the railroad water service engineer have greatly
broadened in the past decade. They're broadened to keep pace with the changing con-
ditions of our industry. As might be expected, the area covered by this man is not
clear cut. His work varies from railroad to railroad. It involves many materials and
processes. It ranges across the fields of chemistry, mechanical engineering, health and
biology, atomic physics, transportation, plumbing, utilities, and many others. Almost
daily its scope broadens as scientific techniques are applied to an ever-broadening field.
Many railroads are finding it well worthwhile for them to broaden the budgets allotted
to the water engineer ... to improve the facilities of the chemical laboratory ... to
add new test instruments ... to extend the test department.
While I've mentioned the additional problems created by economy fuels, lubricating
oils are also of critical importance. Routine tests on these determine that specifications
are being met by the refineries.
Another way in which the water service engineer saves railroad management sub-
stantial sums lies in the watchful eye of the water service engineer who checks on diesel
fuel tanks. Here a valuable inventory may become contaminated through ground sources
of water or may actually leak away. The water engineers, acting through Committee 13.
continue to exchange information and study the means of reducing the loss of oil at
diesel fueling and unloading stations. Not only is this an economic waste, but also it
creates a disposal problem and a fire hazard.
With heavier grades of oil and high-pour-point economy fuels being stored in out-
of-door tanks, means of heating this oil must be devised for northern climates. A current
project of Committee 13 involves just this.
At times it seems that the water service engineer, like the small town doctor of
yore, must be an all-around specialist. Problems of the bacteriologist face him as he
choses from a variety of products and chemicals to meet specific needs in disinfecting,
deodorizing, fumigating, and cleaning.
One field which requires increasing attention is that of sanitation. It is up to water
service engineers to keep informed on the status of all railroad facilities and operations
that come under the interstate quarantine regulations and the various state river pollu-
tion laws. These engineers accompany the state health people on their inspection tours
and take whatever action is necessary for the correction of sanitary defects, including
plans and estimates for required improvements.
Disposal of noxious wastes (produced by chemicals used in the shops) will be
Address of Edward T. Myers 1079
more difficult as communities grow in size, surrounding once-isolated railroad facilities.
Accordingly, stiffer regulations against stream pollution can be expected.
Today, the chief offender appears to be emulsified oil, perhaps mi.xed with chem-
icals from a cleaning vat. To cope with this, the water service engineer falls back
upon his knowledge of gravity tjiie oil traps, settling basins, use of flocculating agents
and chemicals, filtration techniques, and absorption techniques.
The Water Service committee constantly comes up with money-saving ideas as
ways to utilize this waste oil. Where feasible, the committee suggests its use as boiler
fuel, or if this cannot be done, its use as a weed killer.
3. New Fields in the Atomic Age
On the horizon, as you well know, is a variety of applications for atomic and
various nuclear products— both in industry and on the railroad. The extensive use of
such materials will create problems for the water service engineer. In addition to routine
problems of disposal of radioactive wastes, the water service engineer will have to cope
with unexpected accidents on the road or in the shop when radioactive materials are
accidentally released, contaminating an area. And we should not overlook the pos-
sibility of radioactive contamination as the result of atomic bombings. Under such con-
ditions, it would be essential to decontaminate areas of railroad operations as quickly
as possible. Again management and operating men will look to water service engineers
to cope with such problems and to come forth quickly with a plan of action.
Other radioactive problems which may soon confront the committee range frcm
the weighing of freight cars by atomic radiation to the use of atomic fuel in boilers
and turbines. Here the water engineer so long concerned with water as a boiler fluid
may find himself confronted with other substances — liquid or gaseous — feeding the
atomic turbine of the future.
The new science of nuclear physics has created an entirely new tool for the study
of such old problems as rates of wear, rates of corrosion, and the causes of hotboxes.
Measurements of minute quantities of radioactive wear materials can be made with
great accuracy, and the amount of material involved and rate of wear can be calculated
accurately. Thus, in hours or days, results can be obtained that took months or years with
former techniques.
Using this technique, the D&RGW has carried out a remarkable study on the
granular interpenetration of overheated journals. Similarly, tracer techniques can be used
to study the eft'ects of sulfur content in diesel fuels.
Many other applications of atomic techniques are not only possible, but also have
been tried by railroads such as the NYC and the D&RGW. Ray McBrian, director of
research of the latter road, has reported on the progress abroad in atomic locomotives.
He has pointed out how radiation can be used to detect rotten ties and hidden rail
faults; how irradiation can be used to harden soft wood intended for ties.
For some years now, Cobalt 60, a radioactive material, has enabled railroad test
departments to look inside of metal castings. Subsurface flaws in metal parts can be
detected readily.
Undoubtedly these techniques are in their infancy and will be appHed in many
ways to extend our knowledge of the unknown. Experience of many railroads shows
that radioactive techniques are valuable and can be utilized at little or no hazard to
personnel.
To better move ahead with atomic developments, keeping all AREA members
informed. Committee 13 has formed Subcommitteee 10, '"Railroad Aspects of Radio-
active Substances," with R. O. Bardwell, D&RGW, as chairman.
1080 Water, Oil and Sanitation Services
The Field Ahead
Many exciting developments lie in the days immediately ahead. Would the water
service engineer of 25 years ago expect to be involved in a new method of transporta-
tion? Probably no more so than you would expect to be dealing with heavy water.
But as you know, Subcommittee 5 of Committee 13 is already in action studying
the transportation of solids in water pipes. This is being done in collaboration with the
Pipeline Division, ASCE, and other interested organizations. As your committee has
recommended, the railroads should maintain an interest in the development of these
pipelines so that they can take advantage of their economic aspects. Sulfur, coal, gil-
sonite (uintatite, asphalt), ores, and .similar granular material are either now moving
by pipeline or can be moved in that manner.
In connection with such projects, the water service engineer must be concerned
with pumps, internal and external corrosion, abrasion and erosion of the pipe, water
pressures, and de-watering at the end of the pipeline. In the future, the subcommittee
will report on these points.
New assignments undertaken by subcommittees of Committee 13 include "Plastic
pipe and its uses on railroads" and "Prevention of corrosion in hot and cold water
systems."
Applied research, more often than theoretical research, is a role to which the water
service engineer has become accustomed. Here lies a big future for railroad progress.
4. Utilizing the Talent Reservoir of Your Water Service Engineer
Doubtlessly in the preparation of this talk, I've overlooked many of the present
and future activities of the water service engineer. I'll blame that on my crystal ball.
I hope, however, that I have indicated the importance of these men and of their com-
mittee (Committee 13) to our industry and pointed out some of the areas in which their
special talents can aid their managements in the days ahead.
Whether these days are good or bad, much is expected of the water service engineer,
and you may feel certain that he is standing ready to meet the new and special require-
ments which technological change is producing. [Applause]
Chairman Schudlich: Thank you, Ed, for the informative, inspiring, and illum-
inating address.
Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 13. I wish to thank all the
subcommittee chairmen and the committee members for their active and enthusiastic
interest and cooperation during the past year, and last but not least, I want especially
to thank Neal Howard, for his wonderful advice and assistance.
I would now like to present Don C. Teal, superintendent of water supply — system,
Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, who will be the new chairman of Committee 13, [Applause]
and E. C. Harris, engineer of tests, Missouri Pacific Railroad, who will be vice chairman
of the committee in 1959. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Schudlich. I want to congratulate your com-
mittee on having reports on all 11 of your assignments. It is evident from both the
number and character of your reports, and the comments of Mr. Myers, that there
is still a large field of activity for your committee and for water service engineers in its
personnel.
We welcome Mr. Teal and Mr. Harris as the new chairman and vice chairman.
I also want to thank Mr. Myers for the special paper.
The committee is excused now with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion 1081
Discussion on Wood Bridges and Trestles
[For report see pp. 555-563]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: Since we are running behind time, I would like to have Com-
mittee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles, come immediately to the front table. The chair-
man of this committee is F. E. Schneider, assistant engineer, Bridge Department, Santa
Fc, Chicago.
Mr. Schneider, you may proceed with your report.
Chairm.an F. E. Schneider: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Since I have been appointed chairman, we have also had to appoint a new vice
chairman. At this time I would like to introduce the new vice chairman of Committee 7,
Kenneth De Blois, assistant engineer of bridges of the New York Central Railroad. Will
you ple.ise arise? [Applause]
The report of Committee 7 will be found in Bulletin 548, beginning on page 555.
We are reporting on three of our ten assignments this year. The reports on Assignments 1
and 6 are submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual, while the one on
Assignment 2 is submitted as information with the recommendation that the material be
published in the Manual a year hence. The committee invites your comments and
questions at the conclusion of each presentation.
I will introduce the topic and speaker of our special feature after we have presented
our committee reports.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Ch.airm.an Schneider: Our first report is on Assignment 1 and will be presented
by the former subcommittee chairman, Milton Jarrell, assistant engineer of bridges and
buildings, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. Mr. Jarrell.
Mllton J.arrell: Mr. President, gentlemen:
Last year your committee presented as information general notes and plans for open-
deck pile and framed trestles, multiple-story trestles, and ballasted-deck pile and framed
trestles. The report was published in the 1958 Proceedings, Volume 59.
As the result of further review by the committee and some suggestions by other
members of the Association, minor revisions have been made in several of the plans.
These revisions are described in report on .'\ssignment 1 in Bulletin 548, January 1959.
Your committee recommends, and I make a motion, that these general notes and
plans (Figs. 1 to 16, incl.), as rev-ised, be adopted and published in the Manual to
replace obsolete drawings. Figs. 1 to 8, incl., presently appearing in the Manual.
(Xote: In connection with the adoption of new Figs. 1 to 16, incl.. Figs. 9 and 10
covering timber pile piers presently appearing in the Manual should be renumbered as
Figs. 17 and 18, respectively).
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vole, and carried.]
Assignment 2 — Grading Rules and Classification of Lumber for Railway
Uses: Specifications for Structural Timber, Collaborating with Other Organ-
izations Interested.
Chairman Schneider: The second report is on Assignment 2. Since our subcommit-
tee chairman, R. E. Kuehner, structural designer, Nickel Plate, could not with us
this morning, I have asked Bill Howe, engineer of bridges and buildings, Bessemer &
Lake Erie Railroad, to present the report.
W. C. Howe: Your committee submits as information the table on "Classification
1082 Wood Bridges and Trestles
of Stress-Graded Lumber for Railway Uses" shown in Bulletin 548. The tables classifies
stress-graded lumber as to minimum quality recommended for railroad use for various
structures. The table is an end-use guide and was prepared to aid designers and requisi-
tion writers in reaching decisions as to stress grades of lumber. The grade listings for
these end uses are purely advisory and are not to be construed as mandatory for
requisitioning purposes where higher grades are deemed necessary for a given use at an
installation. The grades listed for southern pine, fir and hemlock have been reviewed
and approved by the proper lumber association.
This is the first table of this type that Committee 7 has prepared, and it is pre-
sented to the members of the Association for perusal and resultant comments or
criticism.
Next year, it is proposed to submit the table with the recommendation that it be
adopted and published in Part 1, Chapter 7, of the 'Manual.
Assignment 6 — Design of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks, Collab-
orating with Committee 8.
Chairman Schneider: The third and last report will be given by Professor OUver
from the University of Illinois. Professor Oliver.
W. A. Oliver: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Last year your committee presented as information a drawing showing recom-
mended design practice for timber-concrete composite decks for highway loading. Your
committee now recommends that this drawing be adopted for publication in the Manual
as Fig. 2 under Recommended Practice for Overhead Highway Bridges, and I so move.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Professor Oliver: As I did a year ago I would, also, like to call to the attention
of interested persons two reports which have previously been presented as information
by this subcommittee. A paper by T. K. May of the West Coast Lumberman's Asso-
ciation entitled "Composite Timber-Concrete Construction" will be found in the Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 642. This paper covers the development and use of this
form of construction. Two years ago we published as our report a paper entitled "Design
of Timber-Concrete Composite Decks" which can be found in the Proceedings, Vol. 58,
1057, page 678. This paper discusses the assumptions and approximations made in the
standard design procedures.
Mr. President, this completes the report of the subcommittee.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Oliver.
Chairman Schneider: Our special feature will now be presented by Mr. F. P.
Drew, assistant research engineer structures of the AAR research staff. Some old bridge
stringers in track and in the AAR laboratory have been tested under Mr. Drew's direc-
tion ; thus I consider Mr. Drew especially qualified on the subject, "How Serviceable
Are 50-Year-Old Bridge Stringers?"
It gives me a great deal of pleasure to at this time present to you, Mr. Drew.
Address of F. P. Drew 1083
How Serviceable Are 50-Year-Old Bridge Stringers?
By F. P. Drew
Assistant Research Engineer Structures, AAR
President Meyers, members and guests:
From the subject of this presentation, you may be led to believe that I am going
to give you some definite rules by which you can determine the remaining service life
of old timber stringers. Let me assure you that I can only give you some criteria or
yardsticks which may be useful, along with your own inspections, to enable you to
judge the probable remaining useful service life of old stringers as related to your own
particular requirements.
The fact that there are approximately ISOO miles of timber bridges on the American
railroads — equal to that of steel and twice that of concrete — is evidence that the railroads
have found timber to be a particularly useful material. One large Middle Western
railroad alone reports that it has 140 miles of timber trestles and that of this mileage
40 percent are over 45 years old and 16 percent are over SO years old. The reason such
a large percentage are about the same age is that these trestles were built in the early
1900's when the railroad was constructing many miles of new trackage. This is probably
typical of other railroads, too. If age alone were to be the criterion for trestle renewal
on the railroad just mentioned and if all its 50-year-old stringers were to be replaced
this year, about 2000 panels of trestle would be required ! Obviously all of these cannot
be replaced in one year, and a decision must be made as to which ones can be safely
carried over a few more years. It seems apparent, therefore, that the serviceability of
these old stringers becomes a very real and important issue.
The bridge engineer's decision on stringer renewal is usually based on inspection
reports from the field. However, inspection of a stringer in the field will often only
indicate certain physical characteristics which may have an influence on the strength
of the stringer. For instance, decay can be detected with a probe or increment borings,
but is the evidence of minor decay in the end of a stringer justification for its removal?
Such a condition may result in local crushing, and this can be corrected with shims.
How much decay can be tolerated? Checks can be detected by a visual inspection and
their depth can be approximated, but is such information adequate to justify removal
of the stringer? Checks can be readily detected in the outside stringers, but what about
those inside stringers where only the bottom surface is exposed? These strength-reducing
factors are important in the inspector's report, but are only relative with respect to
over-all serviceability of the stringer.
The degree of serviceability must also include the location of the stringer in the
deck and the magnitude of the stresses under service loads. In the current program of
tests of timber trestles conducted by the AAR, it has been found that the maximum
stress at the center of span under diesel locomotives rating between E40 and E49 does
not usually exceed about 800 psi. However, the stress varies considerably across the
deck, and those stringers near the outside carry much less load than those under center
of track.
Thus, there are many factors which should be considered before removing a stringer
from a bridge, but how often have you asked yourself when the stringer has been taken
out: could it have safely carried load for a few more years? It is the answer to this
question that the .AAR, upon the recommendation of Committee 7, is seeking in its
program of testing old bridge stringers.
Full-size stringers which have been removed from service are being used in this
1084 Wood Bridges and Trestles
investigation. The load is applied in the laboratory to closely duplicate that which the
stringer was subjected to in the bridge. The load is applied by a repeated load machine
in a controlled atmosphere to maintain the moisture content of the wood. After the
stringer has carried 1,000,000 cycles of its service load, the load is increased and cycling
continued for another 500,000 cycles. Stringers from the same bridge are tested statically
to determine their ultimate static strength. It has been observed in field tests that
equally high stresses occur occasionally under cars as under the locomotives. Hence the
use of 1,000,000 cycles of stress in the laboratory indicates that if these high stresses
were produced in the stringer six times during the passage of a train, that 25 trains a
day could cross the stringer for nearly 20 years. Thus, these 1,000,000 cycles could be
interpreted as an extended service life of 20 years.
This laboratory program has been underway only a short time, but already the
results are significant.
The stringers in the first series of tests were SO years old and untreated, and from
all outward appearances the bridge engineer was certainly justified in removing them
from service. There was some checking, but the most serious defect was extensive decay
in the ends which reduced the available timber for end bearing. Otherwise the timber
appeared sound.
During the first few applications of the service load, the soft, decayed end bearing
crushed about }i in, and during the next 500,000 cycles an additional ^ in of crushing
was observed, but the rate of crushing reduced as the load cycles increased. The bending
stress was 800 psi, and it appeared that the stringer could have sustained many more
cycles of this service load. Under a load of IJ^ times the service load one of the
stringers carried 300,000 applications of load before failure from loss of part of the
bearing area. Loaded statically, one of these stringers carried nearly five times its service
load and over twice its design load. Failure occurred in bending, but the crushing
at one end was a contributing factor. The load was reapplied after failure and the
stringer carried nearly four times its service load. Both the static and repeated load tests
of these stringers indicate that in spite of their age and physical condition they were
still able to carry load considerably in excess of their service requirements.
The stringers in the second series of tests were 50-year-old treated stringers which
had been removed from service as part of the railroad's renewal program. Upon arrival
at the Research Center they appeared to be in excellent co.idition. The AAR had previ-
ously measured the flexural strains in these stringers under regularly operated diesel
locomotives, and these strains were used in the laboratory to duplicate the service
loading. A repeated load was applied to one of these stringers and at a bending stress
of 570 psi, 1,000,000 load applications were made without any indication of failure by
bending, shear or end bearing. The load was then increased to develop a bending stress
of 2300 psi, which is approximately 50 percent in excess of the design live load not
including impact. When 44,000 cycles of this load had been applied the stringer failed
in horizontal shear at one end by splitting longitudinally at about mid-depth. When
this happened the deflection increased from 3^ in to 15^ in. It still maintained its load,
however. The shearing stress was 170 psi. A similar stringer was then loaded statically
and it carried a load seven times its service load and over twice its design load. After
the stringer had failed initially, it was reloaded, but it still carried nearly the same load
as before. These stringers are on display at the Research Center and I welcome you
to the laboratory to see them.
Here again is indication that even though these stringers were SO years old, they
were capable of carrying static and repeated loads equal to their service loads as well
Discussion 1085
as a limited number of overloads. This also demonstrates that the repeated load strength
of these stringers rather than the static strength is more indicative of their actual
ultimate capacity. Furthermore, consideration must be given to shearing stresses as well
as flexural stresses in evaluating these old stringers.
While it may not be possible to predict exactly how many additional years of service
life are possible in these old stringers, these tests should give the bridge engineer assur-
ance that the.v do have considerable reserve strength. Age alone should not be the
criteria for removal of a stringer from service. With the support of Committee 7, the
AAR will continue its investigation of these old bridge stringers and obtain data which
will enable the Committee to make recommendations for better evaluating their strength.
Thank you. [Applause]
Chairman Schneider: Thank you, Mr. Drew. Your remarks should answer some
of the questions as to the remaining life of old timber stringers, which has been of utmost
concern to many bridge engineers.
As Mr. Drew told you, we are presently testing old timber stringers under repeated
loads in the AAR laboratory for one of our assignments and hope we will be able to
give you additional information in the near future.
Mr. President, this concludes our report.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Schneider. I don't know whether the members
know it or not, but Mr. Schneider carried the load for this committee during most of
his term as vice chairman and then accepted the chairmanship not too long ago when
it was necessary- for the chairman to resign. You have the appreciation, I am sure, of the
entire .Association membership.
I want to thank Mr. Drew for his presentation with regard to the serviceability
of old bridge stringers. I could say some more about your committee, but will now
excuse you with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Masonry
[For report see pp. 473-496]
President Meyers: Will Committee 8 please come to the platform.
I would like to inform everybody that it will be necessary to close the meeting
promptly at 12 o'clock, regardless of where we are, or who is speaking. I would appre-
ciate it if you would then move up promptly to the Ballroom for the Annual Luncheon.
Also, the program shows that the afternoon session is to reconvene at 2:30. Because
we are running behind schedule, I would like to move that up a little and start the
session about 10 min after the luncheon session closes. I am hopeful that we can get
started about 2:15.
The chairman of Committee 8 is E. A. McLeod, assistant bridge engineer, New
York Central System, New York. Mr. McLeod if you are ready, you may proceed.
Ch.\irm.'\n E. a. McLeod: Mr. President, members of the Association, guests:
Committee 8 — Masonry, is reporting on three assignment. The reports will be
found in Bulletin 547, December 1958, starting on page 473. Following the presentation
of the reports there will be an illustrated talk by our guest speaker.
Assignment 2 — Design of Masonry Structures, Collaborating with Com-
mittees 1, 5. 6, 7, 15, 28, and 30.
Chairman McLeod: J. U. Estes, associate bridge engineer of the Louisville &
Nashville Railroad will now present the report on Assignment 2.
1086 Masonry
J. U. EsTEs: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Your committee recommends the adoption of the revisions and additions to certain
Manual material, as indicated on page 474 of Bulletin 547. Mr. President, I move that
these revisions be adopted.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Estes: Your committee also presents as information a tentative draft of
"Specifications for Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Trestles for Rail-
way Loading," as shown on pages 475 to 488, incl., Bulletin 547, to replace the previous
specifications adopted in 1936 under Part 9, which have been temporarily withdrawn.
There is now a great need for such specifications in the Manual to help standardize
practice and act as a guide in problems of design and construction. The specifications
cover all important features of design and construction for concrete panel lengths of
14 to 22 ft, and several different types of bents.
I wish to acknowledge the great amount of work by members of the AAR research
staff, and the valuable suggestions of the collaborating committees, in the preparation
of these specifications.
These specifications are presented as information, with an invitation for comments
and criticisms before again presenting them in 1960 for approval and publication in the
Manual.
This concludes the report on Assignment 2.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Estes.
Assignment 5 — Tunnel Linings: Design, Construction, and Maintenance,
Collaborating with Committees 1, 5, 17, 28, and 29.
Chairman McLeod: G. H. Dayett, Jr., assistant maintenance engineer, Baltimore &
Ohio, will present the report on Assignment 5.
G. H. Dayett, Jr.: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Your committee submits its report in two parts.
Part one is a bibliography on tunnel repairs and is presented as information. Some
of the subjects covered by the bibliography are roof bolting, general repairs, pressure
grouting, reinforced concrete lining, fire and repairs, and enlarging tunnels.
Part two presents the "Specifications for Lining Railway Tunnels with Timber" for
reapproval with revisions. The revisions consist of requiring timber treatment to conform
to the requirements of Committee 17 — Wood Preservation, deletion of a requirement for
a specific construction allowance for settlement and a number of relatively minor changes
in the drawings showing details of timber lining.
Mr. President, I move that these specifications be reapproved as revised.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 7 — Quality of Cement and Mortars, Collaborating with Com-
mittee 6.
Chairman McLeod: R. A. Ullery, assistant to chief engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie
Railroad, will present the report on Assignment 7.
R. A. Ullery: Mr. President, members, and guests:
The use of fly ash either as an admixture or as a replacement for concrete in heavy
construction work has been known for some years. However, some railroads are not too
well acquainted with its possibilities, and it is for this reason that your committee
prepared the first Association report on this subject as information.
The report defines fly ash, describes its characteristics, its history, its uses, its advan-
Address of Ben C . G e r w i c k , Jr. 1087
tages and disadvantages, and lists certain precaution that should be observed for good
results.
A comprehensive bibliography, covering the past ten years, is included for reference.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Ullery.
Chairman McLeod: The Masonry committee feels very fortunate in being able
to offer to you as a special feature an illustrated talk on "Prestressed Concrete In West-
ern Europe and Russia," by Ben C. Gerwick, Jr., president of Ben C. Gerwick, Inc.,
San Francisco. Mr. Gerwick.
Prestressed Concrete In Western Europe and Russia
By Ben C. Gerwick, Jr.
President, Ben C. Gerwick, Inc.
Last May a delegation of American engineers was invited by the Academy of
Construction and Architecture of the U.S.S.R. to visit the Soviet Union to inspect the
prestressed concrete industry there. Our trip was timed so that we could also attend
the international conference on prestressed concrete held in Berlin.
I was greatly impressed by the extensive utilization in all the European countries
of prestressed concrete in buildings, bridges, and a wide variety of industrial uses.
I believe you have had a previous report on prestressed railroad bridges in Europe
by Mr. Ruble. His observations and studies have been of great value to those of us
who are engaged in the manufacture of prestressed concrete here in the United States.
German and French engineers have made tremendous strides in the construction
of prestressed concrete railroad and highway bridges. West Berlin for example is in a
feverish state of reconstruction and new construction. One of the most urgent tasks is
that of building a direct subway line connecting the three western sectors. As it is now,
the lines are all radial, with the center located in East Berlin. This construction is being
almost entirely carried out in prestressed concrete. Of similar political importance is the
construction of sewage treatment plants in West Berlin, since the old disposal beds are
in what is now East German territory. Beautiful pear-shaped tanks, 150 ft high, are
being built in prestressed concrete, showing a freedom of design that nevertheless meets
the strictest considerations of economy.
A "ring" freeway around the center of Berlin has a great many viaducts and bridges
over railroads and canals. One of the largest of all these bridges is now under construc-
tion by the cantilever method of prestressed concrete construction that eliminates the
need of falsework.
Substantially all of the German construction is cast-in-placc and then post-tensioned.
Each of the major contractors has his own patented system of post-tensioning and
anchorages.
The new railway station at Heidelberg utilizes prestressed thin shells very effectively,
as well as prestressed light standards. Prestressed railroad ties of several different types
are in quite extensive use throughout Europe.
There have been some difficulties experienced with grouting of post-tensioned cable
ducts, primarily due to freezing. The problem seems to be that small pockets of water
are entrapped in the ducts when the grout is pumped in. There is a coordinated study
of this subject by the engineers of several nations. The matter is particularly difficult of
complete solution because it depends so much on the technique of the field personnel.
For this and other reasons there is a decided trend in Europe to the placing of the
tendons externally on the member, in grooves, and then encasing the tendons in con-
1088
Masonry
Prestressed concrete highway bridge in West Germany.
Crete. Such a system permits accurate inspection of the cables after placing and again
after stressing. Since no ducts have to be formed, the web members can be much
thinner and lighter. Friction losses are reduced because of complete elimination of the
"wobble" effect of the duct. Shear is transferred to the web by mild-steel stirrups. The
final encasement can be carefully controlled and inspected.
To meet similar considerations here in the United States, many manufacturers are
now producing bridge girders by the pretensioning method, using deflected strands.
I personally feel this is the superior method for all girders which are capable of being
precast; i.e., for all except very long-span bridges.
Engineers from several countries, notably England, advocated the use of this exter-
nal post-tensioning combined with precast concrete units for long span bridges. These
units are precast in short lengths, are erected on falsework and joined by the welding
of mild steel reinforcing bars with either grouting or a cast-in-place plug; then the
external post-tensioning is performed. We saw this system used in Russia on the main
span of the Moscow River Bridge, which carries highway traffic on its upper deck and
subway trains on its lower deck, with a station at mid-span. We were told that bridges
of similar concept were being built across two of the large rivers in Siberia.
In Russia we found a highly developed prestressed concrete industry. Substantially
all construction is based on the principle of factory-produced prestressed concrete ele-
ments. The primary construction effort in Russia today is that of housing. In Moscow
and Leningrad the skyline everywhere shows apartments in the process of construction.
Some 25 factories in Moscow and 15 in Leningrad manufacture standardized precast
Address of Ben C. Gerwick, Jr
1089
Cantilever method of constructing prestressed concrete bridges,
Rhine River, Germany.
Prestressed concrete light standards and passenger sheds at railway
station, Heidelberg, Germany.
lOQO
Masonry
Prestressed concrete conveyor bridge, Stockholm, Sweden.
concrete floor, wall, and roof slabs. These are transported to the site by truck, and
erected by welding and grouting.
The Russian industry was quite well integrated. It comprised extensive research
and development, engineering and architectural design, factory production, and field
construction.
The typical Russian factory is set up for mass production of one or two standard-
ized units. Its capacity is very large, about 200,000 cubic meters per year when running
at full volume. Most of those we saw were running at about SO percent capacity. The
plant is elaborately mechanized, featuring continuous prestressing by means of wrapping
the high-strength wire around pegs under tension. Individual steel frames on a chain
conveyor carry the product through the production processes.
The Russians are using rectangular frames as ties for subways and railroads. These
frames can be mass-produced by the same method as the building units described above.
Although the units produced by the Russian factories lacked the high quality and
excellent appearance we demand and obtain, there is nothing basically wrong with the
method. It showed the tremendous possibilities that can be attained by standardization
and mass production of prestressed concrete.
I have some slides of some of the more interesting structures in prestressed concrete
which I would like to show you now.
Address of Ben C. Gerwick, Jr.
1091
All elements of apartment houses in Russia are factory-made precast and
prestressed concrete, including stairs, vents (vertical panels with cored
holes), partition and bearing walls, floors and roofs, and even spread footings.
Precast prestressed approach to Moscow River bridge.
1092
Masonry
Main span of prestressed concrete bridge across Moscow River, USSR,
being floated into position.
[Mr. Gerwick showed some 42 slides, commenting on each, but only a few are
reproduced herein.]
While the methods and applications of prestressed concrete vary rather widely from
country to country, there is everywhere a tremendous surge of growth to the point that
prestressed concrete is now the dominant structural material in Europe. The develop-
ments in Western Europe and Russia, although hastened there by special economic
considerations, nevertheless portend a continued steady and sound growth of prestressed
concrete in the United States. Thank you. [Applause]
Chairman McLeod: Thank you, Mr. Gerwick, for an interesting and informative
discourse and the excellent pictures.
Mr. Woolford, this concludes the report of Committee 8.
[Vice President Woolford assumed the chair.]
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. McLeod, and members of your com-
mittee, for a most valuable and informative report including the specifications for design
and construction of reinforced concrete trestles for railroad loading and several significant
revisions in our present Manual material.
The Association wishes to thank Mr. Gerwick for his excellent address. We appre-
ciate your telling us, Mr. Gerwick, about the developments, the manufacture and use
of prestressed concrete in Western European countries, Russia, and Germany. The more
we learn about this development, the sooner with confidence we can make use of it
on our American railroads where it proves advantageous.
i
Discussion 1093
Had it not been for you and your committee who visited Communistic Russia,
I am afraid most of us in this country would have doubted what we hear about the
progress of prestressed concrete in Russia.
As you know, most of us are a little doubtful of what the Communist nations can
do, or at least what they tell us. I think we can certainly take what you have told us
as being realities. I certainly do for one, as I know you do and several in your committee
that made the trip to Russia.
Mr. McLeod, your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association,
f Applau.'^e]
Discussion on Impact and Bridge Stresses
[Fo. report see pp. 379-384]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: Our next report will be that of Committee 30 — Impact
and Bridge Stresses, of which D. S. Bechly, assistant to engineer of bridges, Illinois
Central Railroad, is completing his third year as chairman.
Mr. Bechly, we will be glad to have you and other members of your committee
come to the platform promptly and give your report. Gentlemen, may I ask that you
be as quiet as possible so that Mr. Bechly can proceed with his report.
Chairman D. S. Bechly: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Before proceeding with the presentation of our report, this committee wishes to
express its sorrow in the death of one of its members during the past year. He was
Professor W. M. Wilson, emeritus research professor of structural engineering at the
University of Illinois, and Member Emeritus of Committee 30. A memoir in honor of
Professor Wilson will be included in the report of Committee IS — Iron and Steel
Structures.
In gathering together my thoughts for this report, the perhaps misleading name
of this committee caused me to pause and think a minute. Impact! That is the first
word you see in the name, and to many members and other railroad men it brings forth
the conclusion that we spend all of our time— and money — studying only this problem.
In fact, I have heard the question raised that it would seem that we should have this
item all figured out by now. Even the word "Impact" is a misnomer. Our study in this
field is really with regard to the dynamic effect of moving loads on railroad bridges.
That is, trains moving across the bridges, not being dropped on them !
At the time of the formation of Committee 30, impact was the principal feature
to be studied, and we are continuing to do so, not only for steel girder spans and
trusses, but also for timber and concrete bridges, and, of late, for prestressed concrete
structures. The field has also diverged to cover diesel locomotives and rolling loads,
as well as the once familiar reciprocating steam locomotive. Knowledge of the correct
impact percentage has become increasingly important in the rating of existing bridges
for the passage of heavily loaded cars.
It appears to me, however, that the second portion of the committee's title, "Bridge
Stresses," now constitutes the major feature of our work. We are working towards an
understanding and evaluation of the stresses in all types of railroad bridge structures —
girders, trusses, beam spans, fioor systems, continuous bridges, substructures, timber
trestles, prestressed concrete beams, and glued laminated timbers, to name the items that
come to mind. This work covers not only impact stresses, but also dead- and live-load
stresses, distribution of stress, relation of actual stress as measured in the field to the
calculated stress, duration of stress, and the effect of repetetive loading, or fatigue stress.
1094 Impact and Bridge Stresses
One new assignment, which is reported on for the first time this year, deals with the
newest tool which structural engineers are using for design calculations . . . the elec-
tronic computer. The Committee also maintains a close contact with structural research
being carried on by other organizations.
I hope that this has given you an idea as to the scope of Committee 30's work.
These investigations are carried out with the cooperation of the staff of the AAR
Research Center, and in collaboration with the other structural committees of the
AREA. A good portion of our work is done at the request of these committees, and
the results are used by them in the preparation of new or revised specifications. It is
the intention of the members of this committee that these investigations will result
in savings in construction and maintenance costs for the American railroads.
Nine of the committee's 11 assignments are reported on this year in Bulletin 547,
pages 379 to 384. These are progress reports, and are presented as information. These
reports will not be dealt with directly today, and you are referred to the Bulletin for
specific information as to the progress during the past year. I would now like to com-
ment briefly on these assignments.
Assignment 1 — Steel Girder Spans.
Chairman Bechly: A summary report on the complete series of tests covering 37
steel girder spans, which have been made over the past several years, is in preparation,
and should be completed for publication this year. This report compares these girder
spans as to the effect of their length, type, standard of design, type of floor, and loading.
When completed, it will increase our understanding as to the behavior of girder spans.
One obvious conclusion that has already been drawn is that the current impact formula
for girder spans is quite adequate. This feature is being given further study toward a
recommended revision in the impact formula.
Assignment 3 — Viaduct Columns.
Chairman Bechly: Data on the behavior of viaduct columns is continually being
collected in connection with our tests on railroad bridges. This data have been reported
from time to time, and it is the committee's plan to continue this practice until such
time as sufficient information has been gathered to present a comprehensive final report
on these columns.
Assignment 4 — Longitudinal Forces in Bridge Structures, Collaborating
with Committees 7, 8 and 15.
Chairman Bechly: As in the case of Assignment 3, data on this assignment are
also being collected during our field tests. The latest information obtained was during
the tests on the timber trestles on the Seaboard Air Line Railroad, reported on under
Assignment 7. In these tests, as in previous ones, it was found that the preponderance
of the longitudinal force was carried off the structure by the rails.
Assignment 5 — Distribution of Live Load in Bridge Floors.
Chairman Bechly: The current project under this assignment is a study of railroad
bridge floor systems at the University of Illinois. Comparisons are now being made of
the results of their analytical analysis with the data obtained in previous field tests.
This program is directed toward the development of a simpHfied procedure for cal-
culation of stresses in bridge floors. It is of interest that the university is using its
digital computer in this work to make it possible to include all of the variable factors
in its analysis.
Discussion 1095
Assignment 6 — Concrete Structures, Collaborating with Committee 8.
Chairman Bechlv: All of the work currently in progress on concrete structures is
in the field of prestressed concrete. Our report on this assignment covers theoretical and
laboratory investigations of the fatigue resistance of prestressed pretentioned concrete
beams, which were conducted at Lehigh University. These tests were set up to prove
that J^-in strands will perform satisfactorily under a large number of repeated loads.
The performance was verified, and plans are presently under way to continue this study
to substantiate these findings and to extend the range of the investigation.
Also in the field of prestressed concrete, field testing has been completed on spans
consisting of 70-ft post-tensioned girders on the Santa Fe Railway, and on a double-
track concrete trestle on the Southern Railway having 26-ft spans consisting of 6
hollow rectangular pretensioned beams per track.
Assignment 7 — Timber Structures, Collaborating with Committee 7.
This is the first report under this assignment on tests conducted specifically on
timber trestles. The report covers the investigation of two ballasted deck pile trestles
on the Seaboard Air Line. These bridges were selected because of the relatively high
humidity in the area, which resulted in the moisture content of the timber being above
fiber saturation. These tests indicated that the decks of trestles having alternate stringers
which are continuous over the bents act as a partially continuous structure.
In the test program on these trestles not only was the magnitude of the stresses
measured, but also their duration. The results of this study are included in the report,
and it is interesting to note that the cumulative effect of loading from the cars may
be of greater importance than that from the diesel locomotives.
A report on similar tests of four ballasted-deck pile trestles on the Santa Fe is
nearing completion. These trestles are located in Arizona, and were selected to obtain
the comparative effect of an arid atmosphere. It is next planned to extend this test
series to include open-deck pile trestles.
Timber bridges constitute roughly 40 percent of all of the railroad bridges in the
United States. They have a combined length of about 1800 miles. Multiplied by this vast
number of bridges, an improvement in this type of structure will be of appreciable
benefit to the railroads. For this reason, we feel that our investigation of these timber
trestles is one of the most important studies being made by Committee .30.
Assignment 8 — Vibrational Characteristics of Bridges Affecting Deflec-
tions and Depth Ratios.
Chairman Bechly: This is the first of four new assignments undertaken by Com-
mittee 30 this year. This one was brought about by a desire to study the effect of
increasing the deflections and depth-span ratios of railroad bridges. Particularly in the
field of grade separation projects has there been an interest in increasing these variables
in order to permit the use of thinner floors and to promote greater economy.
An analytical study of the problem is in progress at New York LTniversity. As a part
of the project, data previously secured under actual train operations by the research
staff will be compared with the analytical results. It is interesting to note in this project,
too, that use is being made of an electronic computer to permit the simultaneous solu-
tion of equations containing numerous variables.
Assignment 9 — Use of Electronic Computers for Railroad Bridge
Problems.
Chairman Bechly: With the introduction of electronic computers into the field
of engineering, it has been found that their use will save valuable time in the solution
1096 Impact and Bridge Stresses
of lengthy or repetitive problems. One such problem common to railroad bridge depart-
ments is the rating of bridges and moving loads, particularly truss bridges. As a part
of this assignment, we have begun the development of a computer program for the
stress analysis and rating of truss bridges subjected to moving railroad loads. Because
of the shortage of necessary personnel on the Research Center staff, it was decided to
contract for the development of this program. Hazelet and Erdal, consulting engineers
in Chicago, have been engaged to do this work.
The first phase of this project, which is the programming to produce shear and
moment tables for any given combination of wheel loads, has been completed. As an
example of what can be done, such tables have been produced for a 12-axle special flat
car used for the transportation of heavy shipments. This table was distributed to the
chief engineers of the member roads, and because of the interest expressed, we now plan
to develop similar tables for about 25 other heavy-duty cars. These tables will be dis-
tributed to the railroads, and should provide valuable assistance in the speedy checking
of these cars for movement over bridges.
Assignment 10 — Steel Continuous Structures, Collaborating with Com-
mittee 15.
Field testing has been completed on three bridges having continuous steel spans
on the Southern Pacific. A three-span deck truss bridge, a three-span deck girder
bridge, and a two-span through girder bridge are included in this project. Analysis of
the data has been completed, and preparation of the report is under way.
This completes a brief resume of the current work of Committee 30. In order to
acquaint you with some of the men who are responsible for the committee's activities,
I would now like to introduce the subcommittee chairmen. As I give their names, I ask
that each chairman stand, in order that he may be recognized.
M. J. Plumb, Plumb, Tuckett & Pikarsky, Consulting Engineers, Subcommittee
on Steel Girder Spans
E. S. Birkenwald, engineer of bridges. Southern Railway System, Subcommittee on
Steel Truss Spans
Dean A. T. Granger, College of Engineering, University of Tennessee, Subcom-
mittee on Viaduct Columns. Mr. Granger was not able to be present.
J. A. Erskine, assistant bridge and building engineer, Gulf, Mobile & Ohio Railroad,
Subcommittee on Longitudinal Forces. Also not present.
Dr. N. M. Newmark, Department of Civil Engineering, University of lUinois,
Subcommittee on Distribution of Live Load. Not present.
P. L. Montgomery, assistant designing engineer. Nickel Plate, Subcommittee on
Concrete Structures.
C. V. Lund, assistant to chief engineer, Milwaukee Road, Subcommittee on Timber
Structures. Mr. Lund had to be out of town today.
Dr. James Michalos, Department of Civil Engineering, New York University,
Subcommittee on Vibrational Characteristics. Not able to be present.
E. R. Andrlik, bridge designer, Santa Fe Railway, Subcommittee on Electronic
Computation.
A. R. Harris, engineer of bridges, Chicago & North Western Railway, Subcom-
mittee on Continuous Structures.
N. E. Ekrem, assistant bridge engineer, Great Northern Railway, Subcommittee
on Composite Design. Mr. Ekrem is not here.
D i s c u s s i on 1097
Thank you, Gentlemen. In that I am at this time completing my term as chairman
of Committee 30, I would like to express my appreciation for the assistance you have
given to me during the past three years. My thanks, also, are extended to the members
of the committee, and to the staff of the Research Center for their cooperation during
this period.
At this time, I would like to introduce the new vice-chairman of Committee 30.
He is J. W. Davidson, assistant bridge engineer of the Burlington Railroad.
I would now like to introduce D. W. Musser, design engineer, Erie Railroad, who
will become the new chairman of Committee 30. Mr. Musser has been an able assistant
during my term of office, and I am certain that he will do an excellent job of admin-
istering the affairs of the committee.
Mr. Woolford, this concludes the report of Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge
Stresses.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Bechly. We certainly appreciate the
interest your subcommittee chairmen have taken in this most important subject. Year
after year your committee carried forward many important investigations and tests which
have an important effect on bridge design and on more economical bridge construction
and maintenance. I know how important these special studies and investigations are
to the work of our other structural committees, and to the structural men on individual
railroads.
I congratulate your committee upon its work during the past year, and you upon
the able direction which you have given to the committee for the past three years. We
welcome Mr. Musser as the new chairman of your committee, and Mr. Davidson as
the new vice chairman. I am sure we can look to them to continue the effective work
which has been done by your committee in the past.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion on Iron and Steel Structures
[For report see pp. 505-553]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: Gentlemen, it is getting pretty close to the time for our
Annual Luncheon. I am going to ask Mr. Messman, who is the chairman of Committee
15, now coming to the podium, if he would like to start his report now or wait until
after the noon luncheon.
D. V. Messman: Let's start now.
Vice President Woolford: Fine, sir. Will Committee IS members come to the
podium.
The last of our structural committees to report this morning is Committee IS — Iron
and Steel Structures. The chairman of this committee is D. V. Messman, engineer of
bridges. Central Lines, Southern Railway System, Knoxville, Tenn., who is completing
his first year as chairman.
Chairman D. V. Messman: Mr. Woolford, members of the Association, and guests:
Your Committee on Iron and Steel Structures is reporting on seven of its eight
assignments. These reports appear in Bulletin S48 starting on page SOS.
During the past year our committee lost one of its valued Members Emeritus,
Professor W. M. Wilson of the University of Illinois and a memoir prepared subsequent
to the issuance of Bulletin S48 will also be included in our presentation here.
1098 Iron and Steel Structures
MEMOIR
mUhtv m. Miimx
Committee IS records with deep regret the death on November 28, 1958, of a long-
time member and Member Emeritus, Wilbur M. Wilson.
Professor Wilson joined the AREA in 1921 and became a Life Member in 1949.
He became a member of Committee 15 in 1924, and was made Member Emeritus in
1954. Professor Wilson was also a member of Committee 30. He became affiliated with
that committee in 1937, and was elected Member Emeritus in 1954.
Professor Wilson was born on a farm near West Liberty, Iowa, July 6, 1881. He
received the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering from Iowa State College in
1900 and served on the staff of that institution in mechanical engineering from 1901 to
1903 and from 1904 to 1907, as instructor, assistant professor and associate professor.
His alma mater conferred on him the professional degree of Civil Engineer in 1914 and
the honorary degree of Doctor of Engineering in 1942. Professor Wilson also received
the degree of Master of Mechanical Engineering from Cornell University in 1904, having
been a graduate fellow there in 1903-1904.
Following six years of professional practice with the Illinois Steel Company and
the Strauss Bascule Bridge Company in Chicago, Professor Wilson joined the civil engi-
neering staff at the University of Illinois in 1913 and, except for a two year absence in
1917-1919 for military service, served that institution continuously until his retirement
in 1949.
Professor Wilson's analytical and experimental investigations brought him world-
wide renown, and greatly influenced design specifications and practice in the field of
structural engineering. He was ingenious in devising methods for testing large-size struc-
tural members, and the large-capacity fatigue testing machines he developed at the
University of Illinois have been copied in laboratories all over the United States and
elsewhere in the world.
The last major investigation initiated by Professor Wilson may become his most
important contribution to his profession. Becoming interested in more efficient structural
fasteners he brought about the establishment of the Research Council on Riveted and
Bolted Structural Joints, and was personally responsible for much of its early work.
The investigations accomplished by the Council in the years following its founding have
resulted in a remarkable increase in the use of high-strength bolts for structural con-
nections, particularly for field connections. In some recent large bridges they have almost
entirely eliminated field riveting.
Professor Wilson was active in many professional societies other than the AREA,
and an indication of his contributions to their activities may be obtained from the fact
that he was awarded the Chanute Medal of the Western Society of Engineers on two
occasions, the J. James R. Cross Medal of the American Society of Civil Engineers
and the Wason Medal of the American Concrete Institute. He received the Marston
Medal from Iowa State College in 1949. He served the American Society of Civil
Engineers as a director, 1944-1947 and was elected an Honorary Member of that Society
in 1950.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Messman: Report on Assignments 1 and 3 will be given by E. S. Birken-
wald, engineer of bridges. Southern Railway System, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Discussion 1099
E. S. Birkenwald; Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Assignment 1 concerns the revision of Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges, the
revision of Rules for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges and the reapproval without
change of other Manual material.
Revision of four items in the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges are submitted.
The first concerns the substitution of the words "High-Strength" for the word ".Mloy"
in the Table of Contents, in order to be consistent with the Manual material. The sec-
ond change is in the ma.ximum span limits for plate girders and the minimum span
limit for riveted trusses, to be in accord with present practice. The third concerns rivets
and is a clarification which outlines what the existing specifications term "specially
designed." This revision omits reference to the phrase "to fill the holes completely
when driven," since cross sections made of rivets driven in plates show that this con-
dition is rarely fulfilled. The tapered rivet specially designed in accordance with the
proposed revision will provide the necessary tension in the cooled driven rivet which
makes it function effectively. The fourth is a clarification necessitated by inquiry as to
the shop practice desired.
I therefore move that these revisions to the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges,
lisfed on page 506, Bulletin 548, be adopted for publication in the Manual and that the
remainder of these specifications be reapproved.
[Past President Ray McBrian assumed the chair.]
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Birkenwald: Last year revisions to Art. 14 of the Rules for Rating Existing
Iron and Steel Bridges were presented to the Association as information. It now develops
that certain coefficients for the column formulas and the formulas for compression in
extreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders and built sections, subject to bending, for the
high-strength steel need to be modified slightly to obtain values more in accord with
the secant formula. These modifications are given on page 507, Bulletin 548. Attention
is called to the term l~r in third line. This term should be f/r.
I therefore move that the Rules for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges be
reapproved, including the adoption of the revisions for Art. 14 set forth on page 507
of the Bulletin, with the modification just mentioned.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Birkenwald: The following Manual material, listed on pages 506 and 507,
is due for reapproval without change:
Specifications for the Design of Rigid-Frame Steel Bridges.
Instructions for the Mill Inspection of Structural Steel.
Instructions for the Inspection of the Fabrication of Steel Bridges.
Instructions for the inspection of Bridge Erection.
Classification of Railway Bridges.
Fusion Welding.
Track Anchorage on Bridges and Similar Structures.
Method of Shortening Eyebars to Equalize the Stress.
Each of these items has been reviewed and the committee has taken a letter ballot,
in which more than a two-thirds majority favored reapproval without change.
I therefore move that the Manual material, set forth on pages 506 and 507, be
reapproved without change.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Birkenwald: This concludes the report on Assignment 1.
1100 Annual Luncheon
Assignment 3 — Specifications for Use of High-Strength Steels.
Mr. Birkenwald: In connection with Assignment 3, the Association last year
adopted a specification for the use of high-strength steel. A study of the column formulas
and the formulas for compression in extreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders, and built
sections subject to bending indicated that the coefficients needed modification to be
consistent with the application of the secant formula. These changes are given on
page 508.
I therefore move that those changes in coefficients, outlined on page 508, be adopted
for publication.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Birkenwald: Since the committee has completed its work in preparing the
specifications for use of high-strength steels, the committee recommends that Assign-
ment 3 be now terminated.
This concludes the report on Assignment 3.
Past President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Birkenwald.
Assignment 4 — Stress Distribution in Bridge Frames: (c) Model Rail-
way Truss Bridge.
Chairman Messman: Report on Assignment 4 (c) will be given by C. H. Sandberg,
bridge engineer system, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Chicago.
C. H. Sandberg: Mr. Chairman, gentlemen:
This assignment has to do with stress distribution in bridge frames.
During the past year the committee has been mostly concerned with our truss
bridge research project. This is a joint project sponsored by the AAR, Northwestern
University, the Army Engineers, and the Bureau of Public Roads.
During the year the steel building was erected enclosing the truss. Erection has
also been started and is nearly completed of the hydraulic jacking system. The first
members to be tested will be the batter posts. These test members are in place and
stress gages have also been put on. These tests will be started shortly.
This report is presented as progress.
Past President McBrian: Thank you, Mr. Sandberg.
Chairman Messman: Mr. McBrian, I think we have used all our time this morning.
We will recess until this afternoon.
Past President McBrian: We will now stand recessed for the Annual Luncheon,
to reconvene at 2:30.
[The meeting recessed at 12 o'clock.]
Annual Luncheon
Grand Ballroom — 12 Noon
Tuesday, March 10, 1959
[The Annual Luncheon was held in the Grand Ballroom with a background of organ
music. At the main Speaker's Table were seated executives of various railroads and
past and present officers of the Association. At a long table immediately in front of the
main Speaker's Table were seated the chairmen of the Association's 23 standing and
special committees.
After the Luncheon, those assembled sang the National Anthem, following which
President Meyers introduced those at the main Speaker's Table and then those at the
Address of Ben W. Heincman 1101
Chairmen's Table. He also introduced the incoming committee chairmen, who were
given gavels. Then, after announcing the results of the election of officers (see Tellers
Report appearing on page 982), President Meyers introduced the speaker at the Luncheon
— Mr. Ben W. Heincman, chairman, Chicago & North Western Railway.]
Economics of Railroads Today
By Ben W. Heineman.
Chairman, Chicago & North Western Railway
[In introductory remarks to his prepared address, Mr. Heineman, as a special an-
nouncement— which came as a surprise both to President Meyers and others attending
the Luncheon — stated that on the preceding Thursday— March 5 — the Board of Directors
of the Chicago & North Western Railway had elected Mr. Meyers vice president and
chief engineer of the North Western, and had kept it a secret so the announcement
could be made at the time of the Annual Luncheon.]
Mr. Chairman, members of the AREA, and guests:
It is an honor to be invited to discuss with so distinguished and influential a group
the economics of railroads today. None of you will make the mistake of thinking that
this subject is abstract or removed from your daily preoccupations.
You, of all people in the industry, are aware that whether and how well we solve
our economic problems will directly determine whether and how well you will be able
to discharge your own present and future responsibilities. For our engineering depart-
ments are truly the economic litmus paper of our industry. You are the first to reflect
the chemical effects of retrenchment and lack of funds.
No analysis of our economic problems can be meaningful without recognizing that
the single most conspicuous economic fact about the railroad industry is the existence
under its private ownership of a vast, irreplaceable steel highway reaching into every
nook and cranny of the United States.
There are some 220,000 miles of railway line in the Continental United States.
This represents only the total point-to-point length of the railroads and does not include
yard track, sidings or multiple track; if these were included, another 170,000 miles of
railroad would be added.
It is unnecessary for me to tell you that this is a lot of railroad. You know it
better than I, for you have walked it, maintained it and been responsible for it. Its
dimensions are staggering. Compare it for example with the mileage of the federal aid
primary highway system. This system connects all of the principal cities, county seats,
ports, manufacturing and other traffic generating areas in the United States. In general,
it is also the main state trunk line system. And yet the total extent of the federal aid
primary highway system is but 235,000 miles.
Now there are many fascinating facts and statistics that could be compiled about
this huge railroad network: the numbers of ties, the pounds of steel, the yards of
ballast, the feet of bridges, or the number of frogs, switches and crossings. Or perhaps the
number of miles of railroad-owned pole lines or wire for signals or communications
parallehng substantially its entire length.
Or one could approach the analysis by considering such matters as the maintenance
cost or the tax cost per mile of track or road, all borne by the privately owned railroads
of the United States.
Yes, the possibilities for statistical analysis of the components of our rights-of-way
are numerous. And yet, valuable and instructive though such analyses may be for some
1102 Annual Luncheon
purposes, they tell us no more about the function and potential of our rights-of-way
than we would learn about the capacities of a human being by being told that within
the body there are 206 bones, 32 teeth, 10 pints of blood and millions of specialized cells.
For just as the human being is infinitely more than the sum of his individual parts,
so in our right-of-way do we have a highly efficient and specialized tool that is in total
infinitely more than the wood, metal and stone that comprise it. By its mere existence,
it provides the dominant fact of our industry's economic life, and certainly a dominant
fact of our nation's.
That this is an efficient tool has been fully demonstrated over a period of more
than 100 years. But this tool — this fixed plant — efficient though it may be, is today
seriously under-utilized, to the detriment of both the railroads and the consuming public.
Since 1940, there have been only three years in which our revenue ton miles were
as low as in 1958 estimates, and there was no year in that period, including the war
years, when it could have been said that our fixed plant was operating at capacity.
The mere fact of dieselization, with its longer trains and fewer freight train miles, has
materially increased the existing capacities of our right-of-way. And through centralized
traffic control, technical means are at hand to increase this capacity still further and
at will, and at a relatively low cost per mile of road.
It is facts such as these that have led many students of transportation economics
to the conclusion that one of our industry's major problems is excessive fixed plant or
right-of-way. To some, these conclusions are fortified by the apparent inability of the
railroads to participate proportionately in the expansion of our economy. For although
the volume of all inter-city freight hauled by all carriers has more than doubled between
1940 and 1957, the railroads' volume in absolute terms increased by only SO percent,
and, except for a period of war-time rubber and gas rationing, our proportion of the
whole has diminished in every year.
Now, if the market or need for our services — for transportation services — had been
diminishing, then this pessimism might seem justified. But the hope, the challenge, and
the opportunity lie in the fact that the demand for transportation services — our markets —
have been steadily increasing. And this is true even if we wholly exclude all traffic handled
by so specialized a carrier as the pipeline. And the next IS years will bring an increased
demand for transportation services that will exceed our fondest hopes.
Yes, the markets are there and growing. All that is necessary is that we have the
courage and vision to recapture them.
Improvement in service through faster and safer handling and increasing and more
specialized equipment, we may take for granted. At least it is not my purpose to discuss
it here. But better or improved service, essential though it is, and come though it must,
is by no means the only or principal answer.
For our markets will be regained only through price. For it is price that moves
goods. It moves goods in volume from the shelves, and it moves goods on the trans-
portation highways of the world.
It follows that, in my opinion at least, the railroads, for the indefinite future, must
resist every temptation to increase their rates, regardless of inflationary pressures, and
must seek to reduce their rates wherever possible.
The truckers, who (apart from the specialized pipelines) have made the greatest
gains at the railroads' expense, regularly maintain their rates at levels under those of
the railroads. It may be conceded that there are shippers who need the greater speed
and flexibility of the truck, but there are countless shippers who utilize the truck not
because they genuinely require the greater speed and flexibility, but because they are
Address of Ben W. Heineman 1103
able to get these attributes for nothing as part of a price structure lower than that
charged by the railroads.
Of course, there is a definite need for the truck in our economy. I know of no
railroad that would contend otherwise. But there is also a genuine need for a realistic
price structure under which those who genuinely require the greater speed and flexibility
of the truck would pay a premium for it over a lower railroad rate structure.
The railroads have too long sheltered their competitors. Moreover, this sheltering
process has been uneconomic, not based on any reasonable estimate of costs, and at the
expense not merely of the railroads, but of the public and the consumer.
It is a characteristic — a most important characteristic — of railroad operations that
our incremental costs do not increase anything like in proportion to our incremental
revenues. This is due in part to the under-utilization of our existing fixed plant, and
also due in part to the ability of railroads, unique in the transportation industry, to
multiply load without a proportionate increase in the direct costs of transportation.
For a generation, we in the railroad business, and I include those who regulate us,
have been the victims of a price neurosis. Although for a generation the railroads have
been engaged in one of the most highly competitive businesses in the country, we have
responded automatically and without regard to competitive factors, to wage and material
increases by seeking ever higher and higher rates, while at the same time retaining costly
services having no current economic justification.
The railroads' function in our economy today is that of volume transportation.
Neither in the hauling of goods nor of people is there any basis for custom-tailored or
highly specialized transportation, unless it be solely for promotion or advertising pur-
poses. It is our function — in my opinion, it is our duty — to haul ever increasing volumes
of goods at the lowest possible prices.
If the railroads had carried in 1957 their IPSO proportion of the total revenue
freight available in 1957, and had carried it at their 1950 rates, their operating revenues
in 1957 would have been nearly a billion dollars more than they were.
It can not be questioned, in view of the excess capacity of our fixed plant and our
ability to carry additional volume at decreasing unit costs, but that both the railroads
and the public would have been far better off.
Regulatory agencies were initially provided with rate-making powers for one pur-
pose and one purpose only — to fix maximum prices to protect the public against the
danger of exorbitant prices that might be established by a monopolistic railroad trans-
portation system. But with the fantastic growth of competing forms of transportation,
such dangers have long since disappeared.
It is perhaps not as surprising to find competitors who have in the past generation
increased their proportion of an ever-increasing volume from 32 percent to 54 percent
at the expense of the railroads, using their political and regulatory influence to resist
rate decreases by the railroads for fear, or so they say, that they may put them out
of business.
Not all attacks upon rate reductions by railroads are direct; many are oblique.
Some proceed by way of placing upon railroads the burden in advance of proving
beyond all reasonable necessiity that the proposed rate reductions are not in fact below
their actual costs.
This is indeed a slippery concept. The theoretical foundations of railroad costs have
not even been agreed upon. Even if the theoretical foundation of railroad cost determina-
tions had been laid, it would take not one but a dozen lifetimes to establish in quasi-
1104 Annual Luncheon
judicial proceedings the costs of hauling particular commodities under the thousands
of rates in effect throughout the county.
As a matter of fact, since our unit costs diminish as our incremental revenues
increase, what is bare return ol cost today on a given product may be highly profitable
tomorrow if the rate fulfills its purpose.
And what of the pubHc and the consumer in today's economy? A major economic
threat is inflation. Surely the interest of the farmer and of labor and the consuming
public in decreasing railroad rates and lower transportation costs — in short, in a decreas-
ing cost of living — should be given the highest priority by our legislatures and regulatory
agencies. And surely no obstacles should be placed in the way of a resurgent and increas-
ingly efficient railroad industry seeking to contribute to these objectives through lower
rates.
Today, however, the regulatory agency, its original rate-making purpose destroyed
by the march of history, is an allocator of business, parcelling it out through the medium
of minimum prices to the various modes of transportation. No government agency can
effectively take the place of a market mechanism where competition exists.
I am convinced that it is in the interests of the consumer and the public for rail-
roads to be put in the same position as all other industry in terms of rate or price
making. Where railroads seek to reduce rates, I can conceive of no legitimate purpose
in placing the burden intially upon them to justify such rate reductions. In my opinion,
at any time, but particularly in a period of threatened inflation, there is a presumption
that rate reductions are in the public interest.
There exists in all industries the possibility, infrequent in practice, that prices may
be reduced below costs for predatory, monopolistic or discriminatory purposes. I see no
reason why, if railroad rates are reduced for any such reasons, such complaints may
not be heard subsequently, just as in any other industry.
But unfortunately, there are some that view any price reductions by railroads which
have the effect or recapturing a portion of the traffic theretofore lost, as made for
predatory or monopolistic purposes. Those who take such a view will never acquiesce
in any railroad rate sufficiently low to regain traffic. And if this view should become
the majority or legislative view, the cost will be borne by the consumer.
The full capacity of railroads to absorb inflationary pressures without increasing
rates, and, indeed, their ability to lower them, has never been fully explored. If the
railroads are permitted to transform their inherent efficiency into the lowest possible
rates, in part through realizing the benefits of increased volume, in part through the
reduction of costs by the elimination of service that has become economically obsolete
and unneeded, and in part through the modernization on a fair and equitable basis of
existing labor contracts, the consumer will be the immediate and direct beneficiary,
the railroads will once more be participating proportionately in the growth of the
country, and we no longer will regard excess in fixed plant as a major concern.
[Applause]
Afternoon Session — March 10, 1959
[The meeting reconvened at 2:15 o'clock, Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: Will the meeting please come to order.
We have a long program still ahead of us this afternoon. It is important that we
get started on time and keep the show on the road if we are to close this session any-
where near on time today.
I ask each chairman to adhere strictly to his time schedule, allowing a few minutes
for any comments or discussions from the floor.
4
Discussion 1105
Discussion on Iron and Steel Structures (Continued)
Vice President Woolford: Just before lunch we had Committee IS on the podium
giving their report. Will Mr. Messman please continue.
Assignment 6 — Preparation and Painting of Steel Surfaces.
Chairman Mlssmax; We now come to the report on Assignment 6 which will be
given by R. C. Baker, engineer of structures, Chicago & Eastern Illinois Railroad,
Danville, 111. Mr. Baker.
R. C. Baker: Mr. President, members and guests:
The original assignment on this subject dates back to before 1946, the original
assignment having been inaugurated to report on the flame cleaning of steel. Flame
cleaning of steel was publicized very highly during the 1940's and is still used today
for special work, but it did not prove to be the final answer to the problem of surface
preparation for painting.
In 1947 the assignment was changed to read "Preparation of Steel Surfaces Before
Painting."
In 1949 a request was made to the AAR by a Member Road for a reseach project
to be inaugurated to determine means for removing paint from steel, presenting to the
AREA at that time a proposal from a research institute for carrying out this work.
Your Association decided that this project should be kept within the work of the AREA,
but was confronted with the problem of where and how to carry out the necessary
research work. In 1950 the Steel Structures Painting Council was formed, and the AREA
became a contributing member in 1951.
The AAR paint test on a New York Central railroad bridge in Chicago was started
in 1951 to test the suitability of a chemically cleaned and pretreated surface compared
with the usual hand-cleaned surface. The chemical paint remover was very difficult to
use in the field, and the results from this test refuted many of the claims for the advan-
tages of chemically cleaned and pretreated surfaces for the repainting of steel structures.
In 1953 the assignment was changed to read "Preparation and Painting of Steel
Surfaces."
I would like to call to your attention the test started this past year on the Chicago
Great Western Railway, which is described in our report under the heading: "The pro-
tection of Top Flanges of Bridges and the Treatment of Welds Before Painting." We
hope that this test will furnish needed information for better protection to the top flanges
of our open-deck bridges.
Since it is the general opinion that there will be more welded bridges in the future,
this study on the treatment of welds before painting, together with the laboratory tests
now being conducted by the Painting Council, should be of great interest to the AREA.
This completes our report on this subject.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Baker.
Assignment 7 — Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Re-
quirements in AREA Specification Relating to Iron and Steel Structures.
Chairman Messman: In the absence of E. K. Timby, consulting engineer and
subcommittee chairman, the report on Assignment 7 will be given by J. M. Hayes, pro-
fessor of structural engineering, Purdue University.
J. M. Hayes: Mr. Chairman, members of the Association, and guests:
Assignment 7 calls for a bibUography and technical explanation of various require-
ments in AREA specifications relating to iron and steel structures.
1106 Iron and Steel Structures
This subject grew out of a need for explaining the various parts of our specifica-
tions. This need is especially felt by younger engineers who sometimes have difficulty in
interpreting the intent and limitations of our specifications.
This year's report, which is concerned with the structural sections of Chapter 15,
covers the historical background of certain parts and also gives information supple-
mental to Manual material to help the engineer exercise judgment. A bibliography is
included for those interested in further study.
The study disclosed questionable bases for a few parts in the light of present
knowledge. These parts are now under scrutiny ; e.g., wind loading.
Mr. Tammen, Member Emeritus of Committee IS, contributed much to the work
of the subcommittee.
The material is presented as information, looking to its adoption and publication
in the Manual next year as Appendix B of the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges.
Further work on the assignment will include similar reports on material other than
the structural sections.
This concludes the report on Assignment 7.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Prof. Hayes.
Assignment 8 — Specification for Design of Corrugated Metal Culverts,
Including Corrugated Arches.
Chairman Messman: In the absence of Subcommittee Chairman W. E. Dowling,
assistant system bridge engineer, Union Pacific Railroad, A. R. Harris, engineer of
bridges, Chicago & North Western Railway, will give the report on Assignment 8.
A. R. Harris: Mr. Chairman, members of AREA, guests:
The purpose of Assignment 8 is to review the specifications for metal culverts and
arches and prepare such revisions or such new specifications as are considered necessary.
The current specifications for corrugated structural plate pipe were adopted in 1954
and appear in Chapter 1, Part 4 of the Manual. The material presented in this progress
report is intended to bring certain portions of these specifications in line with established
industry practices and to better define accepted design and field installation procedure.
The report also recommends the inclusion of specifications to cover design and
installation of corrugated structural plate pipe-arch and arch forms, which are being
widely used by railroads under rather shallow fills.
It is anticipated that the revisions suggested in this report will be recommended
for adoption and publication in the Manual next year.
That concludes the report of the subcommittee.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Harris. Your report will be considered
as information.
Assignment 10 — Specification for Design of Continuous Bridges.
Chairman Messman: Report on Assignment 10 will be given by J. F. Marsh,
designing engineer of DeLeuw, Cather, and Company, Chicago.
J. F. Marsh: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Last year your committee presented Specifications for the Design of Continuous
Steel Railway Bridges with the recommendation that they be adopted and published
in the Manual. To the present time no criticisms have been received which would
necessitate revisions in the adopted specifications.
The committee submits this final report as information with the request that the
assignment be concluded.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Marsh. The report will be so received.
Discussion 1107
Chairman Messman: The abstract of the memoir for Professor W. M. Wilson
will be given by his former colleague, J. G. Clark of the Arm Clark, Daily, and Dietz,
Urbana, 111.
[Mr. Clark read abstracts from the Memoir for Wilbur M. Wilson, presented at the
beginning of the discussion on Iron and Steel Structures.]
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Clark.
Chairman Messman: Mr. Woolford, unless there are any comments or questions
from the floor, that concludes the report of Committee IS.
Vice President Woolford: Does anyone on the floor wish to make any comments
or ask any questions of Mr. Messman on the report of Committee 15?
Thank you, Mr. Messman. Your committee is to be commended for the valuable
material which it has again submitted in its reports. It is a well known fact the railroads
of America, and throughout much of the world, look to your committee and its recom-
mendations not only for the basic features of bridge design, but also for the latest
advancement in the art of bridge design and construction.
I am glad to see your committee give so much attention to the reviewing of its
Manual material, recommending revisions where necessary or reapproving it without
change to give it an up-to-date date. This is a matter to which most of our committees
will have to give increased attention in the next two or three years, under the rule that
committees must resubmit all Manual material for revision or reapproval at intervals
of not less than 10 years. I say this because so much material throughout our Manual
bears a 1Q53 date, the year in which the Manual, you will remember, was completely
overhauled and reprinted.
Mr. Messman, vour committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Clearances
[For report see pp. 501-504.]
[Vice President Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: The next report is that of Committee 28 — Clearances,
of which S. M. Dahl, assistant division engineer, Milwaukee Road, at Milwaukee, is
chairman. Mr. Dahl and his committee have now assembled on the podium. Will Mr,
Dahl please give his report
Chairman S. M. Dahl: The report of Committee 28 is found in Bulletin 547,
December 1958, beginning on page 501. Reports will be made on four of six assignments.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Dahl: Since no revisions have been proposed, there will be no report
on Assignment 1.
Assignment 2 — Clearances as Affected by Girders Projecting Above Top
of Track Rails, Structures, Third Rail, Signal and Train Control Equip-
ment, Collaborating with Signal and Electrical Sections, and with Mechani-
cal and Operating-Transportation Divisions, AAR.
Chairman Dahl: Report on Assignment 2 will be presented by Subcommittee
Chairman J. G. Greenlee, clearance engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad.
J. G. Greenlee: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Your committee is reviewing clearance with respect to modern-day equipment in
third-rail territory.
Submitted as information are two diagrams. Diagram 1 is for tangent track and
1108 Clearances
curves up to 7 deg, 10 min (SOO ft radius). Diagram 2 is for curved track exceeding
7 deg, 10 min.
Your committee has collaborated with Committee 13, Railway Electrification, of the
AAR Electrical Section and the diagrams have been made mutually acceptable to the
Electrical Section and Committee 28, except that it has been recommended that the
two diagrams be combined into one, which work has been progressed.
Committee 28 will recommend in its next annual report, adoption of the composite
diagram, looking to Association action thereon at the 1960 convention.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Greenlee.
Assignment 3 — Review Clearance Diagrams for Recommended Practice,
Collaborating with AREA Committees Concerned, and the AAR Joint Com-
mittee on Clearances.
Chairman Dahl: The next assignment is No. 3. Although there is no report on
this assignment, a statement of progress will be made by R. L. Williams, assistant
engineer, Illinois Central Railroad, who is subcommittee chairman.
R. L. Williams: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Your committee has been moving steadily in its work on this assignment. It is with
regret, however, that no recommendations can be made at this time.
Your committee has been collaborating closely with the AAR Joint Committee on
Clearances. Both committees realize acutely the impact upon the industry of any changes
in clearance diagrams and are, therefore, proceeding slowly and cautiously. It is expected
that concrete results will be forthcoming soon, and your committee will be prepared
to present a full report of its recommendations at the next Association meeting.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Williams.
Assignment 4 — Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements of
the Various States.
Chairman Dahl: Report on Assignment 4 will be presented by Subcommittee Chair-
man J. F. Smith, inspector, Illinois Central Railroad.
J. F. Smith: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Your committee submits as information a tabulation of the clearance requirements
of the various states brought up to date as of November 17, 1958.
The clearance requirements of the states of Connecticut, Kansas, Maine, Montana,
New Hampshire, Oklahoma, and Rhode Island are shown for the first time. Also, revi-
sions in clearance requirements are shown for the states of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania,
South Dakota, and Washington.
Your committee is now engaged in a complete reworking of the clearance chart
and would appreciate any suggestions. Thank you.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Smith.
Assignment 5 — Clearance Allowances to Provide for Vertical and Hori-
zontal Movements of Equipment Due to Lateral Play, Wear, and Spring De-
flection, Collaborating with the Mechanical Division, AAR.
Chairman Dahl: Report on Assignment S will be presented by Subcommittee
Chairman E. E. Mills, draftsman, Pennsylvania Railroad.
E. E. Mills: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Unfortunately, the main part of the report of this subcommittee, together with
three exhibits, were inadvertently left out of the report as it appears in the Bulletin.
Mr. Howard has advised, however, that the report, in its entirety, will appear in the
proceedings. [See following page].
Discussion 1109
The report this year, suggests a method of determining clearance allowances for
horizontal movements of passenger cars and concludes one phase of the assignment.
The report has been submitted to the Mechanical Division for collaboration, with the
view of presenting it for inclusion in the Manual in 1960.
At the convention last year, you were informed that additional tests on freight
equipment would be carried out in 1958 on the Lackawanna Railroad. Due to unfore-
seen circumstances these tests were postponed and are now scheduled for this year.
In addition to these tests, the AAR research staff, in collaboration with the Bur-
lington Railroad, is planning tests with trailer-on-flat-car equipment, to be carried out
this year. The information secured from these tests will be of considerable value in
progressing the assignment, and will be the subject of a future report.
[Following is that part of the report on Assignment 5 which was inadvertently
left out of Bulletin 547.]
CLEARANCE ALLOWANCES FOR HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTS OF
PASSENGER CARS DUE TO LATERAL PLAY, WEAR
AND SPRING DEFLECTION
The calculation of lateral clearance requirements for passenger cars on curved track
involves the following factors:
1. Width of cars.
2. Overhang at ends and middle of cars due to curvature.
3. Elevation of outer rail.
4. Lateral play between wheels and rails.
5. Roll of car body, due to unequal spring deflections and play in side bearings.
6. Displacement due to swing-hanger movements and lateral play and wear in
truck parts.
7. Allowances for the effect of track irregularities and dynamic behavior of equip-
ment.
The first four factors can easily be calculated and present no problem. .'\ method
of determining allowances for factors 5, 6 and 7 is presented below.
The roll of the car body, with respect to the truck, on curved track occurs when
the effect of the centrifugal force is not exactly balanced by the elevation in the track.
When this condition exists, there is an "unbalanced elevation" equal to the deficiency or
excess of elevation required for equilibrium. Such unbalanced elevation has a similar
effect on a moving car as elevated track has on a standing car for equal values of unbal-
anced elevation and track elevation.
The determination of the lateral displacement of the car body due to swing-hanger
movements and lateral play and wear in the truck parts, may, for all practical purposes,
be combined with the lateral displacement due to tilting, and the two factors may be
determined, as follows:
1. Make static tests on elevated track, preferably at 2 in, 4 in and 6 in elevation.
2. Make measurements as shown in Fig. 1 to determine value of L.
3. Plat L values, as in Fig 3, and draw line through the zero of coordinates and
of average of L values and extend line into area of positive values of unbal-
anced elevation and displacement.
(Text continued on page 1113)
1110
Clearances
/ — Total Displacement at Rest»L
Tilt Displacement ^^^Lateral Play
, Plate He-.gW
L=(S + N)Sin(^-«x)+ (B+ ^Coso<) - (| Cos^ + N Sin^ + C SincK)
FIGJ DIAGRAM SHOWING STATIC TEST MEASUREMENTS REQUIRED
FOR CALCULATION OF "L"
Discussion
1111
Total Displacement = R
Lateral Play — \l I r, ,, r>. .
-Jvu^j ° Displacement
FIG. 2 DIAGRAM SHOWING DISPLACEMENT "r" OF A CAR
MOVING ON A CURVE IN EXCESS OF EQUILIBRIUM SPEED
1112
Clearances
,0)OON-tOif)^K)CVJ — Oi I I I I I Iq
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Discussion
1113
100
90
80
70
60
< 50
0- 40
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
/
/
/
/
/
/
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0
10
20
30
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80
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30
20
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100
40 50 60
Speed-MPH
Fig. 4- Diagram Showing Percent of Average Laterol Displacement to be Added, as an Allowance
for the Effect of Track Irregularities and Dynomic Behavior of Possenger Cars.
The lateral displacement of a moving car with reference to the center line of car
trucks may now be determined, as follows:
4. Calculate unbalanced elevation from formula
En — Er — Ea
where
E,i = Unbalanced elevation
Er = Elevation required for equilibrium
Ea = Actual elevation in the track
5. Determine average lateral displacement R (Fig. 2) corresponding to the unbal-
anced elevation, determined in step 4 from chart drawn under step 3.
The value of R may be either plus or minus, depending upon whether the speed
of the car is more or less than the speed required for equilibrium.
The results obtained are only as good as the basic information, such as degree of
curvature and elevation. For best results, it is recommended that actual field conditions
1114 Wat erproofing
be determined by actual field measurement, determining curvature by string lining and
elevation by cross levels. Variation of a few minutes in curvature should not be ignored.
Since track and equipment conditions are variable, to some extent, allowance must
be added to the calculated average displacement to provide for track irregularities and
the dynamic behavior of equipment. This allowance cannot be determined exactly.
Recommended allowances, expressed as a percentage of the average displacement, for
various speeds, are shown in Fig. 4 and are based upon field tests on high-speed track
of eight passenger cars having various types of trucks. This allowance is to be added
to the displacement as calculated above.
References: Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 125; Vol. 56, 1955, page 559; Vol. 59,
1958, page 661.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Mills.
Assignment 7 — Methods of Measuring High and Wide Shipments.
Chairman Dahl: Report on Assignment 7 will be made by Subcommittee Chairman
W. F. Hart, division engineer, Union Pacific Railroad. Mr. Hart.
W. F. Hart: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Your committee reports progress in developing acceptable measuring devices, fixed as
well as portable, recognizing the fact that with the increased number of high and wide
loads it has been necessary to measure these loads many times, generally at plant sites.
Initially, we have developed drawings of a fixed device for installation at terminals and
interchange points. This device will afford a method of measuring these loads at the
original terminal or interchange with a view that such loads can move through inter-
change points without the necessity of repeated re-measurements.
This will expedite movement of these loads and thus avoid complaints due to delays
in handling.
The preliminary drawings are being reviewed, and it is contemplated that they will be
included our 1959 report.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Hart. Your report will be considered
as information.
Chairman Dahl: Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee 28.
Vice President Woolford: The Association thanks you, Mr. Dahl, for your efficient
handling of this report. The committee is working on a number of very important assign-
ments. It is evident that in connection with most of them it is necessary that you col-
laborate closely with the Mechanical Division, the AAR Joint Committee on Clearances,
the Joint Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment, and of course, the
AAR research staff.
Modern train operation, new types of equipment, high and wide loads, piggy-back
operations, and other factors are all presenting new problems today, and we are looking
to your committee for the answers.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Waterproofing
[For report see pp. 469—471]
[Vice president Woolford presiding.]
Vice President Woolford: Our next committee to report this afternoon is Com-
mittee 29^-Waterproofing. The chairman of this committee is E. A. Johnson, engineer
Discussion lllS
of bridges, Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago. Will you please give your report, Mr.
Johnson.
Chairm.an E. a. Johnson: Mr. Chairman, members, and guests of the Association:
The report of Committee 29 — Waterprooiing, is printed in the December 1958
Bulletin 547.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Johnson: The report on Assignment 1 will be presented by Subcom-
mittee Chairman R. J. Brueske, assistant division engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St.
Paul, and Pacific Railroad.
R. J. Brueske: Mr. President, members, and guests of the Association:
Your committee is now reviewing our specifications for inconsistencies and gram-
matical errors. We expect to complete this review during 1959, and next year will recom-
mend the adoption of these corrections along with two revisions to our membrane water-
proofing specifications.
This report is presented as information.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Brueske. Your report will be so
accepted.
Assignment 2 — Waterprooiing Materials and Their Application to Rail-
way Structures, Collaborating with Committees 6, 8, and 15.
Chairman Johnson: The report on Assignment 2 will be presented by Subcom-
mittee Chairman E. T. Franzen, engineer of bridges, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
Railroad.
E. T. Franzen: Mr. Chairman, members of the Association, and guests:
Those of you who have had occasion to use the specifications of this committee
will be interested to know that the committee, at its last meeting, formally approved
rewriting Part 2 — Waterproofing Membranes, to modernize these specifications. Wherever
applicable ASTM specifications will be incorporated for materials and tests.
We hope to overcome past difficulties in obtaining materials to meet the requirements
of our specifications. The results of the basic research projects conducted at Purdue
University for several years will guide us in rewriting the specifications. We will also
incorporate the results of tests presently being conducted by the AAR research staff in
Chicago wherein they are determining the effects of various bituminous materials, and
the number of plies, on the waterproofing quality of the membrane. We have requested
funds for research at Purdue University on asphalt plank and mastic, and hope to have
results of this investigation available to guide us in rewriting the portion of the specifica-
tions pertaining to these materials.
This is a progress report.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Franzen. Your report will be so
received.
Assignment 3 — Coatings tor Dampproohng Railway Structures, Collabo-
rating with Committees 6 and 8.
Chairman Johnson: The report on Assignment 3 will be presented by W. P. Hen-
drix, engineer of bridges and buildings, Pennsylvania Railroad, chairman of the sub-
committee.
W. P. Hendrix: Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
This report is submitted as information.
1116 Wood Preservation
The testing of water-repellant coating materials was continued at Purdue University.
The degree of wetting of these materials by water, as measured by determinations of
the wetting angle, is being used as a crtierion of waterproofness. Measurements have
been made on 14 bituminous emulsion films in both a dry state and after immersion
in water. Such immersion materially reduces the ability of the coating to withstand the
entrance of water into imperfections.
These coatings, as well as several sihcone waterproofing materials, are being weathered
in an accelerated test to determine the degree to which their water repellancy is affected
by such weathering.
The diffusion of water through intact, free films of the bituminous materials is
being measured in an effort better to understand this process.
A report was submitted on the durability of a large number of bituminous coatings
after outdoor exposure for five years. Very large differences in durability were found
for the various materials.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Hendrix. Your report will received as
information.
Chairman Johnson: Mr. Franzen in his report called attention to rewriting our
specifications for waterproofing membranes. This is also being done for easier reading
and understanding, which is now most important because of the many states and new
contractors which are using these specifications in connection with new grade separation
projects.
Your committee is represented on ASTM Committee D8, Membrane Waterproofing
and Built-Up Roofing.
Progress has been reported on our various assignments, and the committee welcomes
suggestions from members of the Association regarding the work of this committee.
Mr. Chairman, this concludes the report of Committee 29.
Vice President Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Johnson. Your committee necessarily
has had a very limited number of assignments, but they are very important ones if we
are going to find the answers to developing the most effective waterproofing and damp-
proofing materials and keep our specifications abreast of the best practices. We hope
your committee will keep after these problems until they are solved satisfactorily.
I know, Mr. Johnson, your committee is somewhat short of the number allowed
on the committee. I wish to take this opportunity to request the various carriers repre-
sented in our association to get a few more members on your committee, which I think
would be beneficial.
Mr. Johnson, your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
[Applause]
[Vice President E. J. Brown assumed the chair.]
Discussion on Wood Preservation
[For report see pp. 341-377.]
[Vice President Brown presiding.]
Vice President Brown: We will next hear from Committee 17 — Wood Preservation.
P. D. Brentlinger, forester, Pennsylvania Railroad, is chairman. Mr. Brentlinger and his
committee is all here I see. Will you present your report, please.
Chairman P. D. Brentlinger: Mr. President, members, and guests of the Asso-
ciation:
Committee 17 reports on several of its assignments this year. Before presenting our
Discussion 1117
reports, we would like to report the death of three members — Martin Jaeger, A. L.
Simpson, and most recently, on December 20, 1958, Walter Fulweiler.
Memoirs for Mr. Jaeger and Mr. Simpson, were published with our report in
Bulletin S47, and a suitable memoir will be prepared for Mr. Fulweiler to be printed
in the Proceedings.
MEMOIR
laialtcr J^erfacrt Jfultociler
Walter Herbert Fulweiler, consulting engineer and a member of the American Rail-
way Engineering Association for 34 years, died on December 20, 1958, in Paoli, Pa.,
after an extended illness. He is survived by his wife, the former Lydia Baird; three
sons, John H., Spencer B. and Thomas B.; a daughter, Mrs. H. R. Pyne, Jr.; and a
brother.
Mr. Fulweiler was born in Philadelphia, Pa., on January 3, 1880. He attended
public schools in Philadelphia and graduated from the University of Pennsylvania with
a B.S. degree in chemistry in 1901.
After graduation Mr. Fulweiler was engaged as chemical engineer by the United
Gas Improvement Co. In 1930 he became associated with the Philadelphia Gas Works
Co. From 1935 until his death he was a consulting engineer with offices in Philadelphia.
This work gained Mr. Fulweiler wide affiliations and contacts.
Mr. Fulweiler joined the AREA in 1924 and had been a member of Committee 17 —
Wood Preservation, since 1945. He made major contributions to the art of wood preserva-
tion in the development of specifications for creosote, creosote-coal tar and specifications
for analysis of these materials. His outstanding work in this field contributed to funda-
mental wood preservation policies of railroads.
Mr. Fulweiler was a past president of the American Society for Testing Materials,
1925-1926, and was active in the American Wood-Preservers' Association. Other society
affiliations included the American Chemical Society, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Society of Chemical Industries, Physical Society and Optical Society. He was
also affiliated with the International Association for Testing Materials, serving as vice
president in 1934.
Mr. Fulweiler achieved a number of distinguished awards, including the Grasselli
Medal in 1922 and the Beal Medal of the American Gas Association in 1934. He was
made an honorary member of the American Society for Testing Materials in 1946.
Aside from his business duties Mr. Fulweiler enjoyed his hobby of astronomy and
spent many happy summer hours with his family at their summer home in Bar Harbor,
Me. He was a member of the Episcopal Church.
Walter Fulweiler has left behind a wealth of achicv-cment and personal service that
provide a monument to his fruitful life and career.
Assignment 2 — Specifications for Wood Preservatives.
Chairman Brentlinger: Under Specifications for Wood Preservatives, Assignment
2, a progress report will be presented by Walter Barger of the Santa Fe.
W. W. Barger: Mr. Chairman, gentlemen:
The report on this assignment is made up of five parts and is submitted as infor-
mation only.
Part 1. Keep up to date current specifications for preservatives :
We have no changes this year but one is in pro.spect for ne.xt year.
1118 Wood Preservation
Part 2. Review and report on new preservatives.
Your committee has been studying osmosalts as a new preservative. Definite
decision on this subject is expected next year.
Part 3. Review method of sampling creosote in tank cars.
This subject has been studied extensively and we are in position to make a full
report next year.
Part 4. Study advisability of establishing the flash point of creosote.
Your committee is of the opinion that the establishment of the flash point of
creosote is not necessary at this time and recommends that this part of the assignment
be dropped.
Part 5. Review "comments" after preservative specifications ; report on need for
comments with view toward continuance, deletion or change in title.
This subject has been studied extensively and we are in position to make full report
next year.
Vice President Brown: Thank you, Mr. Barger.
Assignment 3 — Specifications for Petroleum as a Carrier for Standard
Wood Preservatives.
Chairman Brentlinger: Report on Assignment 3 will be made by T. H. Patrick,
supervisor of tie bureau, Milwaukee Road.
T. H. Patrick: Members of the Association and visitors:
There are two parts to this assignment this year. The first part is to review and
bring up to date our specification for petroleum for blending with creosote. We have
had considerable discussion on this, and we recommend that there be no change in this
specification made at this time. Under Part 2, we prepared a specification for petroleum
for blending with pentachlorophenol, which you will find on pages 344 and 345 of
Bulletin 547. I wish to call your attention to two errors in this report. At the bottom
of page 344, at the end of the last sentence there should be added "AWPA Method
A5-58." At the top of page 345 the first sentence says, "Test to determine the foregoing
requirements shall be made in accordance with the ASTM method currently in effect."
Reference to "ASTM" should be deleted because there are two methods used in this
specification.
Pentachlorophenol, as you know, is receiving considerable use, and some standard
was needed for the petroleum solvent. Due to the many changes that are taking place
in the production of petroleum, we are prepared to revise the specification to meet
the changes as time passes on.
I move that the Specification for Petroleum Solvent for Pentachlorophenol printed
on pages 344 and 345 of Bulletin 547, with the corrections mentioned above, be adopted
and published in the Manual.
[The motion was duly seconded, was pute a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 4 — Specifications for Preservative Treatment of Forest
Products, Including Laminated Timbers, Collaborating with Committees 6
and 7.
Chairman Brentlinger: The report on Assignment 4 will be presented by L. C.
Collister, manager. Tie and Timber Treating Department, Santa Fe.
L. C. Collister: Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
In reviewing the species classified as Td, it will be noted that the heart sections
of some of these trees are included in group Ud, that is, those that can be used untreated,
namely, the catalpas, chestnut, sassafras, and red mulberry. The other species — ashes.
Discussion 1119
beech, birches, cherries, elms, hackberries, hickories, hard maples, soft maples, poplars,
sycamores, and white walnut — treat pretty much alike and can be easily loaded with
preservative. Therefore, it is recommended that the Td species, as listed, be treated to
9 lb retention as indicated in the table accompanying our report in Bulletin 547.
This is a progress report presented as information.
Vice President Brown: Thank you, Mr. CoUister.
Assignment 7 — Service Test Records of Treated Wood.
Chairman Brentlinger: The report on Assignment 7 will be presented by Subcom-
mittee Chairman R. P. Hughes of the Santa Fe.
R. P. Hughes: Mr. "President, gentlemen of the Association:
Your committee submits four reports on service test records of treated fence posts,
as follows:
1. Report on 1958 inspection of Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fc Railway's treated
fence post test at Cleveland, Tex.
2. Report of 1955 inspection of treated fence posts in right-of-way fence of Missouri-
Kansas-Texas Railroad between South Canadian River and Canadian, Okla.
3. Report of 1957 inspection of treated fence posts in fence line on Lars Friesth
farm near Humboldt, Iowa, by Wood Preserving Division, International Paper Company.
4. Comparison of Wood Preservatives in Mississippi post study, 1958 Progress
Report, by J. Oscar Blew, Jr., technologist, and John W. Kulp, technologist, Forest
Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
This report is submitted as information.
Vice President Brown: Thank you, sir.
Assignment 8 — Destruction by Marine Organisms : Methods of Pre-
vention.
Chairman Brentlinger: Next comes the report on Assignment 8, but since Sub-
committee Chairman A. P. Richards couldn't be here this afternoon, his report is presented
as printed in the Bulletin.
Assignment 9 — Destruction by Termites: Methods of Prevention, Col-
laborating with Committees 6 and 7.
Chairman Brentlinger: Assignment 9 is Destruction by Termites, Methods of
Prevention, Collaborating with Committees 6 and 7. I call your attention to the fact
that the termite control investigation being carried on under this assignment is sum-
marized in Bulletin 545. Subcommittee Chairman F. J. Fudge, timber engineer, New
York Central, will make a report on the progress of this research.
F. J. Fudge: The first inspection of the termite control test plot at the University
of Florida was made January 8, 1959, by Dr. Huffman, L. R. Morgan and myself.
The test was 14 months old at time of inspection.
Results of this inspection will be presented in next year's report of Committee 17;
however, a brief summary of the inspection is as follows:
Slight and moderate termite attack was found in some stakes having a light reten-
tion of chromated zinc chloride and celcure preservatives. Localized to slight decay was
found in some stakes having a light retention of tanalith, celcure, boliden salt and green
salt preservatives.
The untreated control stakes had various grades of decay and termite attack. One
oak stake failed from decay at the ground line.
The logarithmic indexes of decay and termite damage for the untreated controls
(10 specimens each species) after 14 months exposure are as follows:
1120 B uildings
Decay Termite
Species Index* Index*
Southern yellow pine (sapwood) 71 85
Red oak 80 89
Douglas fir (heartwood) 98 81
* 100%, indication of no damage.
Where termites were found, they were still active.
The test plot has not been in service long enough to make any conclusions.
During 1959, the test plot will be enlarged to include stakes treated with creosote
coal-tar and creosote-petroleum solutions.
Chairman Brentlinger: Mr. Chairman, this concludes the reports of the subcorn-
mittees on their assignments. We would like to say that we made note of President
Meyer's remarks this morning that he believed that perhaps standardization in the
treatment of cross ties might reduce the cost. We would like to have you know that the
committee is always on the lookout for new and better ways, and probably standardized
ways of treating forest products.
Vice President Browtst: Thank you, Mr. Brentlinger.
In view of the vast amounts of timber used by the American railroads in track and
structures, your committee has had a tremendous responsibility to keep the specifica-
tions of the Association up to date with respect to wood preservatives and methods of
wood preservation, and in developing new specifications as may be required. Accordingly,
we are glad to note the continued attention you give to the matter of specifications
each year.
Thank you and the members of your committee for a very effective year. Your
committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Discussion on Buildings
[For report see pp. 315-330.]
Vice President Brown: Our next committee to make a report is Committee 6 —
Buildings, of which S. G. Urban, architect, Texas & Pacific Railway, Dallas, Tex., is
chairman — Mr. Urban having been advanced from vice chairman to chairman of the
committee last fall to fill the vacancy created by the death of Dwight E. Perrine,
assistant chief engineer, Chicago & Western Indiana Railroad. Mr. Urban, will you and
the members of your committee please come to the platform and present your report.
Chairman S. G. Urban: Mr. Vice President, members, and guests:
Committee 6 — Buildings, Respectfully submits its report as printed in Bulletin 546,
November 1958, on pages 315 through 330. Interesting and useful information is included
on three committee assignments. Our remaining assignments are under study with a
good amount of material gathered for future informative reports.
Following an illness of six months, death on September 21, 1958, took Dwight E.
Perrine, chairman of this committee. Sorrow for the passing of this valued member
of the Association has been expressed by his many friends and associates. A memoir
for him was published with the report of this committee.
Assignment 2 — Specifications for Railway Buildings.
Chairman Urban: The report on Assignment 2 will be made by the subcommittee
chairman, H. T. Seal, engineer of buildings, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Richmond, Va.
H. T. Seal: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Discussion 1121
Your committee is submitting for adoption and publication in the Manual, specitica-
tions for application of asphalt shingles.
Mr. President, I move that these specifications as presented on page 317 in Bulletin
546 be included in the Manual.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 6 — Buildings and Structures for Hump Classification Yards
with Retarders, Collaborating with Committee 14.
Chairman Urb.^n: The report on Assignment 6 will be presented by Subcommittee
Chairman A. B. Ryan, chief architectural draftsman, Louisville & Nashville Railroad,
Louisville, Ky.
A. B. Ryan: Mr. Chairman, members, and guests: This report is for information
only.
The need for information concerning the requirements of the various types of
buildings necessary for the operation of a modern "push-button" hump classification
yard is apparent. The members of this committee, realizing this need, have approached
this study with the purpose of making available to the architect or engineer of any
railroad the basic minimum architectural requirements for these buildings.
Every retarder yard has its own particular requirements which are impossible to
cover in report such as this. However, all of these modern yards have certain essential
requirements for buildings. For instance, every retarder yard must have a retarder tower,
one or two yard offices and checker buildings. These are the absolute essentials.
Confining its study to retarder yards with 50 to 60 classification tracks, your Com-
mittee presents in its report, in detail, the ideal requirements for the four most essential
types of buildings: retarder tower, main yard office at hump, yard office between
classification and departure yards (referred to in this report as bowl yard office,) and
car inspector booth ahead of hump. It also presents brief information on checker build-
ings and tool and storage buildings.
The committee hopes the information presented will be an aid to the railroad archi-
tects and engineers facing for the first time the necessity of designing buildings for
hump classification yards with retarders.
Vice President Brown: Thank you, Mr. Ryan.
Assignment 8 — Infra-Red Ray Heating, Collaborating with Electrical
Section, AAR.
Chairman Urban: A progress report on Assignment S will be made by the sub-
committee chairman, J. W. Gwyn, assistant engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis,
Mo. Mr. Gwyn will also introduce the speaker for the special feature offered by this
committee.
J. W. Gwyn: Mr. President, gentlemen:
Your subcommittee assigned to the investigation of infra-red ray heating as applied
to railway buildings has been collaborating during the past year with the Electrical
Section of the AAR. We are submitting at this time a progress report as information.
Much of the work in progressing this joint assignment has been done by Leonard
R. Morgan, assistant research engineer structures, AAR, who will now present an
adaptation of our preliminary report. Mr. Morgan.
1122 B uildings
Practical Application of Infra-Red Ray
Heating to Railway Buildings
By L. R. Morgan
Assistant Research Engineer Structures, AAR
Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests:
I believe that consideration of this subject should be prefaced by a brief explanation
of the fundamental characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum and the relative
position of the infra-red ray band.
As shown on Slide 1 the spectrum covers a wide range of wave lengths ranging
from those of the gamma ray of nuclear processes to the electronic waves of the order
used in broadcast work. The term "infra-red" is used to denote the position of it in
relation to the red color of the visible light band, being beyond the longest visible ray.
The terms "near infra-red" and "far infra-red" are common to a discussion of this
subject in regard to the visible light band; the near infra-red comes from that part
nearest the visible hght while far infra-red comes from that farthest from such light. It is
thus seen that the conventional electric infra-red or heat bulb is of the near-infra-red
order, with part of the energy in the form of light.
Your attention is called to the relative position of the ultra violet ray band which
shows that such rays are on the opposite side of the visible light band, thus insuring
that no ultra violet rays can be included in infra-red ray heating. Infra-red rays being
beyond the visible light band can, of course, produce no glare.
Infra-red rays are the source of all the heat derived from the sun and travel from
there at a speed of 186,000 miles per second, reaching the earth in about 8 min. Such
rays do not heat the space through which they pass because they are in themselves not
heat, but convert to heat when they strike an object which absorbs the rays. These
rays can be focused and reflected, the latter property being used in the design of
heaters. The infra-red rays are generated on the surface of the sun by the combustion
of gases at an estimated temperature of 6,000 deg C or 11,000 deg F. In a similar
manner the infra-red rays can be generated by heating a surface by means of burning
gas — natural, mixed or propane. The wave length of the infra-red radiation emitted
by a hot body depends on the temperature of its surface (hotter surfaces giving off
shorter waves), while the quantity of heat radiated increases as the fourth power of
the absolute temperature. For example, a surface at 1600 deg F (2060 deg absolute)
emits 96 times as much infra-red as a surface at 200 deg F (660 deg absolute) of the
same area.
One of the principal types of infra-red ray heaters as manufactured in this country
is shown on Slide 2. This heater operates at the above-mentioned 1600 deg F tempera-
ture. Another view of a similar heater, but of one unit size, is shown on Slide 3. Slide 4
shows the basic size of the ceramic mat used in this type of heater. It is 2J^ in long,
If^ in wide and }i in thick. It is perforated with 896 holes and permits the develop-
ment of the 1600 ^g temperature at its face while only developing 400 deg at the rear,
thereby insuring against flash back into the body of the burner. Slide 5 shows a typical
overhead installation of this type of burner; one railroad inspected had a similar installa-
tion with the heater about 41 ft high so as to clear a traveling crane, this height having
no adverse effect on the operation of the heater since the intervening air is not heated
by the passage of the infra-red ray.
A newer development has produced parabolic reflectors which may be mounted on
the inner surface of outer walls with good results. Individual venting of this type of
Address of L. R. Morgan 1123
infra-red ray heater is not required since adequate powered or gravity exhaust vents,
located in the center of the building, will prove satisfactory. Before the capacity of any
ventilation system is determined all applicable codes and insurance requirements should
be considered. The air required for complete combustion of gas is approximately 10 cu
ft per hr for every 1000 Btu per hr. This amount is the additional quantity of air
required because of the installation of this type of heater.
Condensation is a common occurrence on the inside surface of industrial and com-
mercial buildings, and the use of infra-red ray heating not individually vented does,
of course, release the products of combustion, including water vapor, in the building
enclosure. Condensation can be most economically controlled by insulating cold surfaces
to keep the inside surface above the dew point of inside air and by cooling and diluting
the products of combustion so as to maintain the relative humidity as low as possible.
The use of this first-mentioned type of infra-red heat is permissible in semi-
hazardous areas, such as in garages and diesel shops, provided that a stainless steel screen
is mounted so as to cover the entire open end of the heater. When heaters are so
equipped the installation meets the requirements for semi-hazardous areas as outlined
by the Underwriters' Laboratories.
The design of this type of infra-red ray heating system requires the use of the
conventional method of determining the heat loss for the building. The results of such
calculations are then subject to the influence of the following factors, largely peculiar
to infra-red ray heating:
1. Placement of the heaters.
2. Consideration of the fact that the heating will be from floor up rather than
roof down; resulting in comfortable temperatures in the immediate area where
work is to be done.
3. Decrease in movement of air.
Records of several typical installations ranging in size from 900 to 45,000 sq ft
indicate that savings in fuel costs may average about 30 percent, with some instances
reporting up to 50 percent saving. The installation costs, including both labor and mate-
rial, of this brand of infra-red ray heating may in some instances run up to 30 percent
in excess of conventional installations except where boiler plant is required; in that case
the infra-red ray heater installation cost may be even less than that of the conventional
system.
I am sure that you all realize that the limited time available does not permit detailed
consideration of the design of heating systems; however, I am equally sure that you
will encounter no difficulties in familiarizing yourself with the additional steps incidental
to the use of infra-red ray heating.
In some installations the pilot flame may be exposed to possible drafts or gusts of
wind, in which case, after such exposures have been minimized, arrangements can be
made so as to insure automatic relighting of the pilot in event of extinguishment.
Another trade brand of infra-red ray heater is basically similar to the first described;
in fact, its manufacture is permitted under the same license. This brand is shown on
Slides 6, 7 and 8. There are certain features of this brand which should be considered in
any study of the over-all picture, among which is the claim that they are more efficient
due to a smaller "dark" area on the face of the ceramic mat. This brand has not attained
the wide distribution enjoyed by the first-described brand. Present information is to the
effect that it has only limited approval by the Underwriters for use in hazardous areas;
this fact is important and should be thoroughly investigated for any specific case.
(Text continued on page IIM )
1124
Buildings
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Buildings
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Address of L. R. Morgan
1120
Slide 10.
1130
Buildings
Slide 11.
Slide 12.
A ddressofL. R.Morgan 1131
There is a third trade brand of gas infra-red ray heater of quite different construc-
tion, which is shown on Slide 9. This heater is of also the overheat type with standard
gas burner with primary and secondary air intakes. The combustion chamber is built
of heavy special aluminum-bearing alloy steel protected by a high-temperature vitreous
enamel. This enamel is highly heat resistant and is intended to provide maximum durabil-
ity against the corrosive products frequently found in commercial gases. The panel-type
heating chamber is scientifically designed with tortuous gas passages to insure full
utilization of the fuel, thereby promoting high efficiency.
This type of heater requires individual venting for each unit; however, such being
the case there are no additional problems involving ventilation and condensation. The
same method of design of heating system is recommended except that the manufacturer
suggests that heat loss through the walls above a l5-ft level be neglected in arriving
at total heat required. There are many installations of this type of heater and its con-
sideration seems warranted, particularly in relatively small structures or rooms. It seems
adapted to general office heating and possibly for light manufacturing work. Slides 10
and 11 show other installations of this trade brand of heater.
All of the three brands of infra-red ray heating so far considered are adaptable to
spot heating of points in an otherwise unheated building. Likewise, they may be arranged
so as to heat open loading platforms and similar outdoor areas, the outdoor use being
principally confined to the first two types discussed.
Another type of infra-red ray heating is that generated by electric heating of sur-
faces which, in turn, generate infra-red rays. There are several trade brands of such
heaters. Two railroad installations, each located in an open-sided car repair shop, con-
sist of racks placed alongside the repair track; each rack had nine 2,500 w heater
tubes. The rack is 108 in long by 32 in wide, and the tubes occupy most of the area
of the rack. The racks, in groups of two, are arranged in staggered position, first one
on one side and then one on the other side of the track, with 5 ft longitudinal spacing
between the racks. In this position two racks adequately heat a track length of about
28 ft. The cost of such heat, except in areas served by TVA or similar means, is gen-
erally excessive except for certain cases where the cost would be more than offset by
the particular advantages gained from such method of heating. Slide 12 illustrates a
typical electric infra-red ray heater.
The foregoing presentation has dealt with some of the fundamentals of infra-red
ray heating and the slides have shown the location of heaters in buildings not unlike
those freequently found on railroads. Interested members are referred to the report of
this committee earlier presented by Mr. Gwyn, since it contains an inspection report of
several installations involving the use of the various types of infra-red heaters herein
described. The expanding network of gas distribution mains continues to widen the avail-
ability of natural gas at costs which will permit the economical operation of infra-red
ray heaters in increasing numbers.
In closing may I thank you for your careful attention and immediately following
the presentation I will be available to answer any inquiries and to give references to
factory representatives who are also immediately available. [Applause]
Chairman Urban: Thank you, Mr. Gwyn, for the progress report, and Mr. Morgan,
thank you for the very interesting presentation and also for the help you have been
to the committee in the study and research on the subject of infra-red ray heating.
At this time I would like to introduce the new vice chairman of Committee 6,
Kenneth E. Hornung, architect, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, Chicago.
1132 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
For his outstanding service to the committee during the terms of five chairmen,
I take this opportunity to introduce for the special recognition he deserves the secretary
of Committee 6, Dan Converse, bridge engineer of the Akron, Canton & Youngstown
Railway Company, Akron, Ohio.
Mr. Vice President, thank you for the kind reception of the report of Committee
6 — Buildings, now concluded.
Vice President Brown: Thank you, Mr. Urban.
We know as a result of the long illness and death of Chairman Perrine during the
past year, that your committee has carried on with a heavy heart, but we congratulate
you for the able way in which you directed the work of the committee in tKe absence
of Mr. Perrine, first in your capacity of vice chairman, and subsequently as chairman.
We welcome as your new vice chairman, Mr. Hornung, assured that Committee 6 again
has good leadership, and will continue to carry forward its work on a highly productive
basis.
We thank Mr. Morgan for the presentation of his slides.
Your committee is excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
[President Meyers resumed the chair.]
Discussion on ]V[aintenance of Way Work Equipment
[For report see pp. 417-468.]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: Few aspects of maintenance of way and structures work on the
railroads have attracted more attention than the intensive mechanization which has
taken place in nearly all track and structures maintenance operations, and this is just
as live a subject today as at any time in the past. Our Association can be justly proud
that it has a committee which has contributed immeasurably in this important
development. I refer to Committee 27 — 'Maintenance of Way Work Equipment.
The chairman is A. W. Munt, supervisor work equipment, Canadian Pacific Rail-
way, Toronto. Mr. Munt, will you now proceed.
Chairman A. W. Munt: Mr. President, members, and guests:
The report of Committee 27 will be found in Bulletin 547 on pages 417 to 468
incl. We are reporting on nine assignments, two of which are progress reports and seven
of which are final reports. Eight of the reports are submitted as information only, and
one report contains recommended revisions for inclusion in the next issue of the Hand-
book of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment. The
presentation of these reports is confined to brief summaries, but this committee hopes
that those who are interested in work equipment will find the full reports both inter-
esting and informative, and suggests that they be read in their entirety.
This committee invites pertinent comments from the audience. While we do not
pretend to know nearly all there is to be known about work equipment, the subcom-
mittee chairmen will do their best in an attempt to answer any questions you may
wish to ask.
Assignment 1 (a) — Revision of Handbook of Instructions for Care and
Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment.
Chairman Munt: The report on Assignment 1 (a) deals with the additional types
of machines recommended for inclusion in the handbook. S. E. Tracy, superintendent
of work equipment, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, who is the subcommittee chairman,
is unable to be present because of another meeting at this time. His report will be
Discussion 113.^
presented by R. E. Rcr^'irren, supervisor maintenance of way and equipment, Illinois
Central. Mr. Berggren.
President Meyers: I think Mr. Tracy is escorting the ladies today on their trip.
That is pretty important.
R. E. Berggren: Mr. President, fellow members, and guests:
To date S742 copies of the 1957 revised edition of the handbook have been sold.
Investigation developed that the three units included in the report for this year
have sufficient general distribution and use to justify publication of rules and instructions
covering their care and operation. It is the recommendation that this material be included
in the next revision of the handbook.
Assignment 3 — New Developments in Work Equipment.
Chairm.an Muxt: The next report, on .Assignment 3, represents an effort to include
a brief description of all the new and important developments in the work equipment
tield during the past year. F. H. McKenney, engineer of track of the Chicago, Burlington
& Quincy, who is the subcommittee chairman, is unable to be here because of illness.
His report will be presented by J. W. Risk, superintendent of work equipment,
Canadian National Railways. Mr. Risk.
J. W. Risk: Mr. President, gentlemen:
This assignment, as Mr. Munt said, covers a brief description of new developments
in machines during the past year.
Your subcommittee is reporting on eight new developments which have been
brought to its attention since the report of last year. Three of these are new machines
which are directly applicable to track maintenance. These include a rail anchor applicator
machine, radio-controlled spot board, and multi-tool tamper. Three other units, two of
which are directly applicable to track maintenance, include a track surface wire indicator
system for use with a jack-tamper, a wire line indicator for use with a track lining
machine and set-off equipment which is appHcable to both track and bridge and
building maintenance. All of thesfe are basically new devices for use with existing
machines.
Two other units described are a bridge spray machine, and a rubber-tired crane.
The former, being mainly applicable to bridge and building work, is a new adaptation
of a pneumatic-tired air compressor for operation on track. The latter machine, which
could be used for either bridge and building or track maintenance, is actually a regular
rubber-tired crane to which flanged wheels have been added to permit operation on
rails as well as off track and make the unit more flexible in its application to various
types of work.
This is a final report submitted as information.
President Meyers: It will be so received. Thank you, Mr. Risk.
Assignment 4 — Improvements to Be Made to Existing Work Equipment.
Chairm.\n Munt: The next report is on Assignment 4 which covers a continuous
study of ways and means to improve existing work equipment. The report will be pre-
sented by Subcommittee Chairman G. L. Zipperian, supervisor of work equipment. Great
Northern.
G. L. Zipperlan: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Your committee submits a report of progress as information which is a continuation
of the reports submitted by this committee in previous years. It pertains to changes in
existing work equipment that the committee has found to be both deseirable and practical.
1134 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
This report covers the improvements which we suggest be made to 1 1 machines
and which originated with members and others directly connected with the operation
and maintenance of the machines.
These machines are:
Diesel pile hammer
Tie handler
Tie remover
Track broom
Ballast regulator
Combination tamper-jack
Track surfacing machine
Tie tampers, two types, production machines
Track liner
Multiple spike driver.
The improvements recommended in the report were submitted to the manufacturers
of the equipment for their consideration. They expressed gratitude for the suggestions
and advised that they would cooperate where possible in effecting the desired improve-
ments. Many of the suggestions are now being incorporated in production-model machines.
President Meyers: Thank you. Your report will be received as information.
Assignment 5 — Instructions for Preventive Maintenance of Trucks.
Chairman Munt: The next Assignment has to do with the proper maintenance
of trucks. Subcommittee Chairman E. H. Fisher, manager of work equipment, Canadian
National Railways, will present the report.
E. H. Fisher: Mr. Chairman, gentlemen: This is a final report submitted as
information.
There are many preventive maintenance programs in existence covering motor trucks,
and your committee is presenting information which should be helpful if you also desire
to set up such a program.
The most important aspect of preventive maintenance is to have a thoroughly trained
driver operating the vehicle. A suggested routine for the truck driver to follow is
presented as a guide and is listed in the report as Exhibit "A". Two different preventive
maintenance systems have been provided ; the first is shown by Exhibits "B," "C,"
and "D," which are 2,500- 5,000- and 10,000-mile inspection intervals, respectively, and
is a check-off type of report wherein the mechanic performing the inspection lists the
work to be done as the inspection progresses. The estimated time required to carry
out these inspections are 1 hr or less, 2 hr or less and 4 hr, in the same order.
The second system is shown by Exhibits "E," "F," and "G", Exhibit "E" being
an inspection guide to be followed when lubricating vehicles. Exhibit "F" is the guide
used when performing A & B preventive maintenance inspections, and E.xhibit "G" is
the report issued for defects found during the greasing or A & B inspections.
A suggested A & B inspection interval for high-mileage vehicles is 4000 miles, with
two A inspections between a B inspection. For low-mileage vehicles, under 6000 miles,
one B inspection per year. Estimated time required for inspection is 3 hr for an A
and 5 hr for a B inspection.
It is considered that lubrication should be carried out at the time of inspection,
if possible, and that the manufacturer's recommendations for the vehicle .should be
followed.
Discussion 1135
Many reputable tire dealers will gladl\' set up a preventive maintenance program
for your tire requirements, and it is suggested that they be contacted in this regard.
It is not always possible to inspect vehicles in a garage, therefore, a field inspection
procedure has been shown as Exhibit '"F."
For further information and as a matter of interest, see pages 11 to 20, Sec. 2 —
Internal Combustion Engines, and pages 95 to 99, Trucks — Automotive, of the AREA
Handbook, of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment.
Reference should also be made to pages 505 to 507, Vol. 55, and page 536, Vol. 56,
of the ARE.\ Proceedings.
President Meyers: Thank you. Your report will be received as information.
Assignment 6 — Equipment For Loading, Unloading, Transporting and
Installing Continuous Welded Rail.
Chairman Munt: The report on Assignment 6 covers a study of the most widely
used types of equipment and practices for handling continuous welded rail. J. H. Brown,
assistant chief engineer, construction, St. Louis-San Francisco Railway, who is the
subcommittee chairman, will present the report.
J. H. Brown; Mr. Chairman, gentlemen:
Subsequent to World War II there has been a definite trend toward the greater use
of continuous welded rail by America's railroads. Due to this experience, various methods
of loading, transporting, unloading, and installing continuous welded rail heretofore
deemed impractical have been proved successful. Your subcommittee's report defines
the most widely used and accepted practices of handling continuous welded rail.
At present from 17 to 37 standard-length rails are being welded and laid. The rail
sections range from new 115 to lS5-lb, with blank ends and without end heat treatment.
In some instances railroads have justified the welding of lighter weight relay rail. This
procedure requires transporting rails up to approximately 1500-ft lengths.
The continuous welded rails are usually loaded directly from the welding assembly
line longitudinally onto cars by the use of a stationary single-drum hoist.
The capacity per train load varies, depending on the distances to be transported,
the equipment available, and the extent of the season's program. Detailed explanations
as well as pictures of the most widely used procedures and arrangements for securing
the rails to fiat cars for movement are included in the complete report found in the
Bulletin.
Unloading welded rail is accomplished by track mounted hfting cranes placing the
rail outside the track on tie heads or on the shoulder, and also by anchoring the end
of the first rail to be loaded to existing track structure and laying the rail on the
ground by moving the train out from under it.
Your subcommittee has concluded that there are many and varied techniques and
appliances being used on the railroads of America today to accomplish virtually the same
results in loading, transporting, unloading and instalUng continuous welded rail. The
methods discussed in this report are the most generally accepted to date. This is a
final report, submitted as information.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Brown. The report will be so received.
Assignment 7 — Number of Units of Work Equipment to Be Repaired by
Field Repairmen.
Chairman Munt: The next report is on Assignment 7, which outlines an inter-
esting study made in an effort to determine how many machines a mechanic can main-
1136 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
tain in the JBield. Subcommittee Chairman S. E. Haines, Jr., port facilities engineer,
Reading Company, will present the report.
S. E. Haines: Mr. President, members, and guests:
The number of units of work equipment to be maintained by one field repairman
turned out to be a very controversial subject. Conditions varied greatly among the
railroads. However, the report was deemed necessary because so many railroads had
increased the number of their maintenance of way machines without making adequate
provision for maintaining them.
This might best be illustrated by one of us purchasing a new automobile. This
represents quite a sizeable amount of cash for most of us, and because it does we take
care of the machine. We can drive the first 10,000 miles without doing more than
changing oil and having it greased periodically. The car will still work if we don't renew
the spark plugs, distributor points, and condenser, but it will become more and more
difficult to start and eventually it won't start. In desperation we may run the battery
down. At that time we will be forced to hire a mechanic. This will cost at least twice
as much as if we had done some preventive maintenance and renewed the spark plugs,
condenser, and points beforehand.
So it is with work equipment. We can run the machines until they require a major
overhaul instead of routine maintenance, but in this case, instead of having only your
wife angry with you because your car won't start, you may have 20 men standing by
at more than $2 per hr, you may delay a few trains, and you may cause the division
superintendent to develop another ulcer — all of this because you did not set up a
preventive maintenance program.
There can be no hard and fast rules as to how many machines a field repairman
can maintain, but using the experience of many railroads we have set up a guide chart,
(see Bulletin 547, page 447) showing what others have done and the results which
were obtained. We outlined in the preliminary report last year some of the factors
involved and this year we came to our conclusions.
It is conceivable that a railroad with $1 million worth of work equipment,
through neglect and a desperate attempt to save cash, might be forced to spend $200,000
for repairs. Whereas another railroad with a few mechanics might keep the same amount
of equipment in repair for $50,000. This represents a saving of $150,000. Therefore, it is
hoped that our report will be food for thought.
This is a final report submitted as information.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Haines.
Assignment 8 — Fuel and Lubrication Trucks for Use With Mechanized
Gangs.
Chairman Munt: The next assignment deals with trucks specially equipped to
handle the fueling and lubrication of machines used with gangs in the field. Subcom-
mittee Chairman L. B. Cann, Jr., chief engineer, Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac
Railroad, is unable to be with us because of other business. His report will be presented
by M. D. Kerns, superintendent maintenance equipment — system. New York Central
System.
M. E. Kerns: Mr. President, members, guests:
This is a final report, presented as information.
In recent years on many of the American railroads mechanization of track mainte-
nance has made great progress. As more and more gangs became equipped with modern
machinery the problem of supplying fuel and lubricants for this equipment has steadily
increased.
I
Discussion 1137
The subject, "Fuel and Lubrication Trucks for Use with Mechanized Gangs," was
assigned for study in 1058. It was determined that most of the roads were handling their
fuel and lubrication needs with section trucks or pickup trucks to the point of work.
One manufacturer which had designed a fuel truck for fueling diesel engines along the
line of road and in heavy industrial areas has redesigned this truck in order to meet
the needs for maintenance of way mechanized forces. The report on Assignment 8
covers, in detail, what is provided in this unit. Two of our larger roads in the east
have designed and are building their own trucks to take care of this problem.
Our report covers, with pictures, the speciticatiors for cab, chassis, and general
equipment provided, and it is believed that with the , information contained in the
report any road would be able to design and build a truck to meet its particular needs.
It is felt that the same type of truck that is used in the mechanized timbering
and surfacing gangs, with a few minor changes, can be adapted for use with larger
grading forces employed in roadbed stabilization, bank widening and ditching work.
This committee sincerely hopes you will find the information both interesting and
informative.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Kerns. Your report will be received as
information.
Assignment 10 — Four-Cycle Versus Two-Cycle Gasoline Engines Used
on Small Equipment.
Chairman Munt: The report on Assignment 10 covers an interesting study of the
comparative merits of four-cycle and two-cycle engines. Subcommittee Chairman R. J.
Smith, supervisor of motorcars, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, is
unable to be with us today. The report will be presented by T. H. Taylor, supervisor
maintenance of way matcriU and equipment. Northwestern Region, Pennsylvania
Railroad.
T. H. Taylor: Mr. President, gentlemen:
With the large number of small gasoline engines in use for various applications on
railroads today, the question often arises as to whether a four-cycle or a two-cycle
engine should be used for a given application. The study of four-cycle versus two-cycle
gasoline engines by your committee attempts to outline the comparative merits of each
t\pe and includes both air-cooled and water-cooled engines.
From the study made it is indicated that the small, air-cooled, two-cycle engine
has its advantages for applications where light weight, simplicity of design, assurance
of lubrication and all-angle operation is desired. Such applications might include portable
chain saws, brush cutters, and similar machines. The water-cooled two-cycle engine is
generally used for specific applications, such as track motor cars, where maximum torque
at low speeds is desirable and the engine can be run in either direction without the use
of a reverse gear. One of the major advantages claimed for the two-cycle water-cooled
engine is that, due to its simple design, it can be maintained by anyone with a limited
amount of mechanical ability.
The study indicates that the four-cycle air-cooled engine may be used to advan-
tage where power requirements are constant for such applications as small track
machines, pumps, generators, hoists, as well as track motor cars. The major advantages
claimed for the four-cycle engine are: ease of starting, quiet operation, rated power
periods longer, separate oil system resulting in cleaner burning fuel and longer sparkplug
life.
1138 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Your committee hopes that the report on this assignment will be of some help
to you in deciding on the type of engine for a particular application.
This is a final report, presented as information.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Taylor.
Assignment 12 — Shop Machinery and Equipment Needed tor Work
Equipment Shops.
Chairman Munt: The last report of this committee will be presented by Sub-
committee Chairman J. W. Cummings, supervisor of work equipment, Delaware &
Hudson Railroad.
J. W. Cummings: Mr. President, 'Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
From experience gained since publication of the previous report on this subject and
the acquisition of many more complex and different types of machines, it is the opinion
of the committee that the amount of equipment needed in a maintenance of way shop
should be in direct proportion to the number of machines maintained by a particular
railroad. This also applies to the number of machine tools which could be used in a
medium or large shop.
Investigation develops that there is a wide range of opinion concerning this subject,
but it is the consensus that the maintenance of way equipment shops should not attempt
to manufacture repair parts or finished products in quantity where such items are
readily available from supphers at a nominal cost, unless special parts are required and
delivery uncertain.
The regional shop should be set up to perform heavy specialized repairs to all
classes of machines and should be equipped accordingly.
The district shop or small maintenance of way repair shop can perform other classes
of work, which consist largely of replacing small parts, etc., where special machines are
not required to make repairs.
With this arrangement, it is the opinion that machines can be maintained in the
best possible condition.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Cummings.
Chairman Munt: Mr. President, that completes the reports of this committee and
also my term as chairman. I would like to thank the members of this committee for
their wholehearted and enthusiastic support during the past three years. The records will
show that these men have produced a total of 24 reports during the past 3 years. I
mention this to you merely to indicate that the members of Committee 27 are real
hard workers and can handle any task assigned to them. Being chairman of this com-
mittee has been a pleasure and a most enjoyable experience.
In closing I would like to announce that the incoming chairman, F. L. Horn,
engineer of track of the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis, because of other
commitments, could not be with us today. R. S. Radspinner, supervisor roadway
machines and equipment, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway is our new vice chairman.
President Meyers: I found out this noon that Mr. Horn wasn't here. When we
had our little gavel ceremony I looked down for Mr. Horn. I saw Mr. Radspinner
standing there and Neal had a note in my papers that that was going to be the situation,
but I hadn't read that far ahead yet, so I was stymied for a minute.
'Mr. Munt, we want to thank you for the very informative reports that your com-
mittee has made this year and in the past. We are certainly indebted to you for keep-
Discussion 11. ^y
ing us currently up to date on the developments in power tools and machines so essen-
tial to economical maintenance of way and structures work. We appreciate the effective
leadership you have given for the past three years, and we are very happy to welcome
Mr. Horn and Mr. Radspinner, who we know will continue to give able direction to the
committee's work.
You are excused with the thanks of the Association. [Applause]
Gentlemen, I have an announcement to make. In case >ou are interested, the total
registration up to 4 pm today was 16.^0.
Discussion on Economics of Railway Labor
I For report .>iee pp. 385-416.1
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: Having just heard a series of reports dealing with power tools
and machines designed for maintenance of way and structures work, we will now hear
the report of our committee that deals largely with the economies to be attained through
the use of this equipment, both through the more efficient use of manpower and a higher
quality of work. I refer to our Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor, the chair-
man of which is L. A. Loggins, chief engineer, Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and
Louisiana.
Mr. Loggins, will you please proceed.
L. A. Loggins: Mr. President, members, and visitors:
The report of Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor, appears in Bulletin
547, pages 385 to 416 incl.
We will report to you on seven assignments, but first we want to pay tribute to
two Members Emeritus of our committee who have died. One of these is W. H. Vance
whose memoir appears with our report in Bulletin 547. The other is W. H. Brameld.
Briefly, the memoir for Mr. Vance states that he was born at Effingham, III.,
November 1876, and received a B.S. degree in civil engineering. University of Illinois,
1899. He had a colorful railroad career covering over 40 years with the Peoria & Eastern,
and the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the Lousiana & Arkansas, the Cotton Belt,
and finally with the Missouri Pacific, on which he was assistant engineer maintenance
of way at the time of his retirement in 1947.
He joined the AREA in 1911, was made a Life Member in 1946, and a Member
Emeritus of Committee 22 in 1953. During his service with AREA he served two years
on Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles, and two years on Committee 12 — Rules
and Organization. Most of his work was with Committee 22, on which he served for
21 years.
'Mr. Brameld was born in 1881 in England, and educated at Cooper Union, New
York. His entire railroad employment was on the Erie from rodman in 1899 to assistant
to chief engineer, maintenance of way, at the time of his retirement in 1946.
He joined the AREA in 1922, and became a Life Member in 1947. He served on
Committee 3— Ties, from 1937 to 1949, Committee 20— Contract Forms, 1921 to 1936,
was a member of Committee 22 from 1935 to 1950, and was made a Member Emeritus
in 1953.
Assignment 2 — Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have Substan-
tially Reduced the Cost of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work.
Ch.airm.an Loggins; The report on .Assignment 2 will be given b>' Subcommittee
1140 Economics of Railway Labor
Chairman J. S. Snyder, assistant regional engineer, Southwestern Region, Pennsylvania
Railroad, Indianapolis, Ind. Mr. Snyder.
J. S. Snyder: Your committee during the past year studied operations on the Mis-
souri Pacific Railroad that have substantially reduced the cost of labor required in its
maintenance of way work. We inspected its concrete products plant and its timber
fabricating plant at Little Rock, Ark., and observed the quality of the work accomplished
at these plants.
Some years ago the Missouri Pacific started to renew its timber trestles with precast-
pile and concrete-slab bridge construction. This work is being done by company forces
working directly under the Missouri Pacific bridge engineer and the concrete products
plant at Little Rock is an important part of his organization. The plant is operated by
a foreman and 2Q men and consists of a reinforcing steel storage yard where all the
steel mats for the concrete piles and bridge slabs are assembled and tied. Adjacent to
this area there is a reinforced concrete casting table for casting concrete piles. The table
is complete with access ramps to permit the delivery of ready-mi.x concrete to the pile
forms. Across the crane runway track and opposite the pile casting table, concrete bridge
slabs are produced on a table designed for assembly line production methods, and again
service roads and ramps are provided to permit pouring the slabs from ready-mix trucks.
The plant is also set up to produce backwall segments and signal foundations. In all
cases specially designed steel forms are used to simplify and expedite the manufacture
of these concrete products.
Seven 24-in concrete piles ranging from 20 to 55 ft in length are produced daily.
The forms are stripped the second day and the piles are moved to storage yard the
third day. The piles are produced and stored according to requirements for the antici-
pated program of bridges for renewal. Concrete bridge slab production works from
both ends of the table and when the center forms are filled the end slabs are S days
old and can be removed from the table and stored and the operation repeated. The
slabs vary in length from 15 to 24 ft, and two slabs are produced each day.
Signal foundations are cast utilizing surplus concrete left after the bridge slabs are
poured. The Missouri Pacific has found it is more economical to use ready-mix concrete
at the bridge site whenever possible ; however, in locations not accessible to trucks they
have equipped a flat car with a ^-yd capacity mixer, batch bins, water storage and
conveyor facilities designed to produce 25 cu yd of concrete without recharging the car.
We also observed the procedure for applying molten zinc to the top surfaces and
edges of steel bridge members that are subject to excessive brine damage. The committee
was then given an excellent opportunity to inspect a concrete trestle bridge, which is
the type of structure produced in the concrete products plant at Little Rock.
Little Rock Junction bridge, consisting of 11 panels and a total length of 208 ft,
was constructed in 1046 and replaced an 18 panel untreated pile trestle bridge, a total
length of 215 ft.
The actual cost of this bridge in 1046 was $21,756, or approximately $105 per lin
ft of bridge, and the estimated cost of a similar structure using 1058 wages and material
prices would be .$38,100 or approximately $183 per lin ft.
These attractive cost figures show the results of excellent planning and supervision
on the part of Missouri Pacific to reduce its cost of replacing wooden trestles with
concrete pile trestles. With this program in effect to replace timber trestles with concrete
pile trestles, the need for preframing bridge timber has been reduced considerably, and
in 1055 the timber preframing mill was enlarged to accommodate the manufacture of
full-depth plank highway crossing units. The plant is operated by a unit of the division
Discussion 1141
bridge and building gang and consists of an assistant foreman and 12 men. The gang
works under the supervision of the Arkansas Division bridge and building supervisor,
collaborating with the treating plant superintendent.
The committee inspected the timber preframing mill and observed the manufacture
of the solid timber plank crossings and then inspected a recent installation of a pre-
fabricated full-depth timber crossing at Forbing Road, Ensign, Ark. The two main-line
tracks at this crossing were completely rebuilt and ballasted with stone ballast, and
new 132 RE rail was installed with the joints laid tight. New creosoted ties were installed
on 10^-in centers, fully tie plated and further protected with tie pads.
The committee also observed the operation of a tie renewal gang while at Forbing
Road. The tie renewal gangs precede and work independently of the surfacing gangs
and. as a rule, ties are renewed only where renewals e.xceed ,?00 ties per mile.
The tie renewal gang is so organized that all machines can be removed from the
track and replaced by the gang easily and quickly ahead of a train, and very little time
is lost clearing for trains. The special track gangs work without flagmen, and train
crews are given a train order to reduce .speed to 30 mph, prepared to stop where gangs
are working. The foreman works closely with the tower operator and gives a hand .signal
to the train crew to proceed when the gang is in the clear.
The Missouri Pacific has programmed the replacement of its worn-out timber
trestles with permanent concrete pile and slab bridge construction in a most economical
and efficient manner. The permanency of this type of structure, requiring little or no
maintenance, has proved to be a sound investment as compared to the use oJ timber
construction requiring renewals in a continually rising material and labor market. It is
concluded that under conditions similar to those encountered on the Missouri Pacific,
substantial labor savings may be realized b_\' the replacement of wooden trestles with
those of reinforced concrete design.
This road has also made substantial savings in labor by prefabricating full-depth
timber highway crossings at a centralized framing plant. It also has progressed the design
of new equipment and machinery, such as a tie car and spiking machine, that have been
most effective in the economical use of maintenance of wa>" forces.
Assignment 3 — Labor Economies to be Derived from Cyclic
Maintenance.
Ch.airm.ak Loggins: Report on Assignment 3 will be given by H. W. Seeley, engineer
maintenance of way, Detroit, Toledo & fronton Railroad, Dearborn, Mich.
H. W. Seeley: Mr. Chairman, members and guests;
The cyclic method of maintenance has greatly increased the savings that were first
made possible by mechanization, but most railroad cost information is not detailed
enough to separate the savings that can be attributed directly to mechanization from the
savings reslulting from cyclic maintenance.
Based upon the opinions and e.xperiences of the 20 railroads that furnished infor-
mation for this report, the following conclusions as to the labor economies to be derived
from cyclic maintenance may be reached;
1. The resulting more uniform quality track and better general standard of main-
tenance will reduce the amount of labor required for spot surfacing and spot tie renewals.
2. The necessary long-range programming and budgeting will result in reduction
in inventory, savings in labor for material handling, more stable force and greater
utilization of available machinery.
3. Fewer gangs and working units will permit closer supervision and better organ-
izations, resulting in increased production ()er man.
1142 Economics of Railway Labor
4. Fewer gangs, on some railroads, will cause less traffic interference and may make
it possible for operating departments to permit more uninterrupted working time, resulting
in increased production per man.
It must be recognized that short term programming and budgeting may disrupt
this type of maintenance program, to the extent that much of the economy would be
lost.
The physical condition, the riding quality and the standard to which it is desirable
and economical to maintain these conditions will generally be dependent upon the ton-
nage, speed, and class of traffic that the track will carry, and will determine the length
of the maintenance cycles. Once the cyclic method of maintenance is established, the
greatest economy that can be directly attributed to it will result from correctly deter-
mining the most economic length of cycle necessary to maintain the railroad to the
standard required and, at the same time, to permit the work to be accomplished eco-
nomically with the organization and equipment that is available.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Seeley.
Assignment 4 — Relative Advantages of Renewing Ties in Advance of
Out-of-Face Surfacing with a Mechanized Tie Gang, Compared with Renew-
ing Ties with a Surfacing Gang.
Chairman Loggins: The report on Assignment 4 will be given by Claude Johnston,
assistant to vice president, Birmingham Southern Railroad, Fairfield, Ala.
[Claude Johnston read in full the report on Assignment 4 as printed on pages 404-
406, Bulletin 547, same pages these Proceedings.]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Johnston. I don't know of any item that is
more controversial or questionnable than this. I have been trying for two years on our
own road to decide which is the best method.
I have come to the conclusion that you have to take every operation into con-
sideration, even though one will show you that you should do it one way and another
will show you that you should do it the other.
Assignment 5 — Labor Economies to be Effected Through the Use of
Power Tools and Mechanized Equipment by Bridge and Building Gangs.
Chairman Loggins: The report on Assignment 5 will be given by W. E. Chapman,
chief engineer — maintenance. Central of Georgia Railway, Savannah, Ga.
W. E. Chapman: This prograss report on labor economies to be effected through
the use of power tools and mechanized equipment by bridge and building gangs, in view
of increased cost of materials and labor, and the need for keeping outgo of monies
within the limits of income, is of interest to all carriers. Of necessity, it covers only
those tools found by certain reporting carriers to be the most economical.
Equipment for various gangs is shown as follows:
For unloading bridge material at the site of use — A bridge hoist or crane, which
shows considerable economy.
For timber bridge gangs — One hydraulic hoist mounted on a heavy-duty truck
with a complement of hydraulic tools which increases production 3^ times.
All trucks mentioned herein have retractable rail wheels.
For steel and concrete bridge gangs — A bridge hoist mounted on a heavy-duty
truck, an air compressor with tools, portable platforms and scaffolding, with which
production has been doubled.
For bridge greasing gangs — One properly equipped production spraying machine
with spider staging which greases about si.x rimes as many tons of structural steel as
Discussion 114.i
was done with brush work due lo increased speed and the fact that preasinp is a
one-coat operation requiring a minimum of prccleaning and providing equal protection
for a comparable period of time.
P'or a bridge deck coating gang — One properly equipped production spraying machine
with a gravel distributing attachment which makes possible an increase in production
up to 2J/2 times over that of previous machines.
Spraying of structural steel and coating of decks is done during the warmer months
and bridge repairs made during the cold months; hence, all equipment except sprays
and pumps is used throughout the year.
For building paint gangs — A hydraulic serial boom mounted on a heavy-duty truck,
properh- equipped, with which 8 times as many yards of wall area can be painted as can
be done with scaffolds.
For carpenter gangs — One trailer, enclosed on all sides and arranged so that sides
may be raised to form a roof over the trailer floor which serves as a work bench,
a power plant and necessary tools which arc producing 2i/. times the amount of work
done previous to the use of such equipment.
All gangs are housed in highway trailers parked at or adjacent to the work.
All gangs are equipped with radio communication.
Summarizing, many combinations of the equipment and tools described can be made,
depending upon the size of the carrier, and its contractural and maintenance requirements.
One of the most important results of mechanization is the realization of the full
abilities of men throughout the entire working day, as machines have practically elimi-
nated all arduous labor.
The over-all reduction in bridge and building expenses due to the acquisition and
use of the above tools and equipment approaches 70 percent.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Chapman.
Assignment 6 — Labor Economies to be Derived from the Use of Radio
by Maintenance of Way Gangs.
Chairman Loggins: H. M. Williamson, engineer maintenance of way and structures.
Southern Pacific, and chairman of Subcommittee 6, was unable to attend the meeting,
so I will give his report.
The information developed at this time discloses that there was nothing new in this
field since the last AREA report on the subject, which appears in the Proceedings,
\'ol. 50. 1Q5S. pages 590 to 592 incl.
It is the recommendation of your committee, therefore, that this subject be discon-
tinued for a period of several years or until such time as it justifies resuming.
President Meyers: So received.
Assignment 7 — The Specific and Ultimate Improvements In Various
Types of Track Maintenance Equipment That Would Provide the Greatest
Economies in Maintenance Practices, and How These Potential Economies
Would Compare With Present Costs, Collaborating with Committee 27.
Ch.urman Loggins: The report on Assignment 7 will be given by P. A. Cosgrove,
division engineer, Illinois Central, Champaign, 111.
P. A. Cosgrove: Mr. President, members of the Association, and guests:
Our report on Assignment 7 lists the improvements recommended for track main-
tenance equipment compiled from replies received from 13 railroads to a questionnaire
we sent to 40 roads.
1 144 Economics of R a i 1 w a >■ Labor
It is our opinion this is an important subject at this time when ail railroads are
attempting to bring about all possible economies. In view of the fact that this is a
progress report, we sincerely request all railroads receiving our questionnaire during
1050, to furnish replies indicating the potential economies to be derived from any im-
provements they may recommend.
The continued development of ideas such as those presented in this report will give
us increased production with reduced cost of work accomplished.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Cosgrove.
Assignment 8 — Labor Economies to be Derived horn the Use of Various
Machines Available for Calculating and for Lining Curves.
Chairman Loggins: Report on Assignment 8 will be given by M. B. Allen, division
engineer. New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad, Frankfort, Ind.
'M. B. .^llen: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Information furnished by m.iintenance officers on 45 railroads indicates that few
comprehensive time studies have been made of the work of either staking curves or
actually lining them. Only one road furnished such a report.
Approximately 00 percent of all main-track curves are string lined, mechanical
full-throw computers being used on slightly more than half of these and mathematical
computing of several kinds being used on the remainder.
Mechanical or graphic computers reduce the computing time as compared to
mathematical computing by SO percent, and the better balanced, smaller throws which
are obtained by their use makes it possible to realize considerable labor economies in
actually shifting the track.
Stakes are net on approximately two-thirds of the curves, and throw meters or
"scratch-boards" are used on approximately one-third. Also, one-fourth of the roads use
a mechanical device for measuring ordinates.
One-half of actual shifting of track is done by power machines and the other half
is done solely by manpower. So-called on-track machines and portable machines are
used, generally in conjunction with other machines, in out-of-face surfacing and timber-
ing operations. The economies which result from use of power lining machines varies
considerably, depending upon how the machines are used. If used in conjunction with
other machines, no flagmen other than those used for the entire operation are required,
and lining may be done by 1, 2, 3 or 4 men, in place of the 10 or 15 usually required^
using manpower. If on-track machines are used singly, the expense of the machines,
the foremen, the flagmen and operator may closely approximate the cost of doing the
work by manpower. Portable lining machines are perhaps more adaptable to single use,
as no flagmen are generally required and such use results in approximate savings of
40 percent as compared with lining by manpower.
An attachment for an on-track lining machine which permits the lining of curves
without computing throws or shifts, has been introduced recently. Also, a new graphic
sj'stem for computing half throws without use of numbers or computations is in limited
use on several railroads. Either or both of these developments may in the future affect
or change present curve-lining practices, but there is riot sufficient iriiformation at this
time to determine the ultimate economies which might result from their use.
There is general agreement that the use of either mechanical or graphic computers
reduces the calculating time by 50 percent, and the use of power lining machines results
in 60 percent reduction in labor as compared to the use of manpower.
This is a final report, submitted as information.
President Meyers' Thank you, sir.
I
I
Address of H . J . Fast 1145
Assignment 9 — Relation Between the Nature of Traffic and tlic Interval
Between Out-of-Face Resurfacing of Tracks of Relatively Similar
Characteristics.
Chairman Loggins: The report on Assignment 0 will be given by R. W. Pember,
assistant division engineer, Louisville & Nashville, Birmingham, Ala.
[Mr. Pember read in full the report on Assignment 9 as presented on page 416
of Bulletin 547, same page these Proceedings.]
President Meyers: Thank you, very much.
Chairman Loggins: That concludes our subcommittee reports, but we have a special
feature, a talk to be made by a member of our own committee, H. J. Fast.
First 1 would like to say a few things about Mr. Fast, who has had a very colorful
career. He was born in Puchova, Russia, received his early education in the schools
in Europe, attended high school in Collonsay, Sask. He worked in the gold mines of the
Porcupine area in northern Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories. He entered
railway service in 1038 as a continental representative of the Canadian National Rail-
ways in Europe, the Baltic states and Scandinavian countries until 1939. He received
his B.S. degree in geology in 1940 from the University of Saskatachewan. In 1940-1041
he was resident engineer and geologist in the Negas gold mines. Yellow Knife, North-
western Territories.
His subsequent railroad career with the Canadian National Railways varied from
instrumentman to assistant chief engineer, which position he held until the first of this
month. He is now coordinator of work study. System, Montreal, Que. He has been a
member of AREA since 1946 and a member of Committee 22 since 1951.
Mr. Fast is going to give a report on work study — a too! for railway management
as practiced on British railways. Mr. Fast.
Report on Work Study — A Tool For Railway Management
As Practiced on British Railways
By H. J. Fast
Coordinator of Work Study, System, Canadian National Railways
Mr. President, Mr. Loggins, members and guests:
Because of the many reports and lectures given at a convention of this kind it is
necessary that we keep one eye on our watches so as not to run late. For this reason,
I will dispense with the usual introductory stories and get on with my remarks on the
subject assigned to me for presentation to this convention.
In April last year I had the opportunity to visit Southern Europe and England.
I obviou.sly looked around to set what the railways were doing whenever I crossed a
right-of-way or rode on a train. Since this convention has heard a number of excellent
reports on European Railways in recent years, I will confine my remarks to a specific
experiment carried out on British railways.
In England, as in Europe, there is considerable activity in up-grading and moderniz-
ing the railways. In fact, there is row a modernization program in progress estimated
to cost 1,200 million pounds. Whereas a great deal of planning went into this program
by way of modernizing the physical plant, much attention was also given to matters
of personnel. One pha.se deals with productivity.
1146 Economics of Railway Labor
One of the problems of British railways is availability of track, to carry out main-
tenance. There are many densely populated centers where traffic is fast and frequent.
I observed a gang working at one such location where there were four main lines and
a train every minute and a half. Theoretically one can assume that average lime avail-
able between trains on any one track is 6 min. Needless to say "on-track" power tools
are useless. Such traffic density coupled with other conditions make it necessary to do
much of the work with hand tools.
This situation led to an intensive study of work methods and resulted in the adop-
tion of what is now commonly known as "Work Study." This can be defined as a
critical and intensive examination of work operations (repetitive or otherwise) to im-
prove methods of operation. So frequently we grow up with work methods that we
believe as most effective. However, examining these with well known techniques, such as
time and motion studies, process charting, work measurement and others, we find that
we are in error. Or, stating this another way work. Work Study has proven that wherever
human activities have been organized, it has too often been the practice to accept opinion
in place of fact and decisions made on what was thought to be true instead of what
was known to be true.
It has been the popular belief that these techniques are applicable only to repetitive
work on assembly lines. However, in England they have been applied to routine main-
tenance such as surfacing, renewing ties, tightening bolts, etc., on the track; redriving
rivets, replacing corroded steel members, etc., on bridges; and effecting all manner of
routine repairs on shops and buildings.
This work was pioneered on the Southern Region. Today 75 percent of all track
work on this region is under Work Studied schemes. Progress is also being made on the
other regions. In fact 25 percent of the system mileage is under this scheme, comprising
some 12,000 employees. It takes some time to train personnel and become organized.
Once this is done progress is rapid. As an example, the progress, including all departments
from 1947 to 1958, was as follows:
No. of Schemes
No. of Schemes Under
Implemented Consideration
October 1957 38 59
October 1958 274 231
To outhne the procedure adopted on British railways from the grass roots up
through the various levels of administration to regional headquarters and the offices
of the British Railway Commission would be time consuming indeed. Suffice it to say
that each job starts with an examination by a supervisor or qualified inspector who
submits a very detailed report of what has to be done. This is turned over to the Work
Study group which makes an appraisal and designs the job in every detail, including
methods and schedule of work. It is then turned over to the supervisor for action.
When the foreman and his gang arrive, the material and tools are there and he is given
the flow sheet prepared by the Work Study group. There is no delay. Both he and
the supervisor know what has to be done. Each day he submits a progress report which
is summarized for review and appraisal by various levels of management.
All this seemed cumbersome and unwieldly to me, so I decided to take a personal
look at the whole scheme, and the best place to start was at the grass roots in the field
and follow through to at least district office level. I found that in practice the procedure
is simple. Each man does his bit and no one is unduly burdened. The total staff required
to administer the scheme is approximately 4 to 5 percent of the total payroll. It should
Address of H. J. Fast 1147
be mentioned here that the employees under this scheme are receiving incentive pay,
and those engaged in processing payrolls for this purpose are included in the 5 percent.
The additional payroll expense is offset through greater productivity, and the net
gain over former methods is estimated at 20 percent. It would, therefore, appear that
the company enjoys benefits through greater productivity. But what about the officers
and men? I proceeded to ask them. The foremen told me they liked it because the
work was now properly planned and scheduled. Each day they knew exactly what to do
and how it should be done. The schedules proved to be quite realistic, and they knew
on Monday where they would be on Saturday. It also gave the foreman a chance for
closer supervision of the men since they did not have to spend as much time in arranging
and planning the work.
The supervisors liked it because they now had staff to assist in planning and
executing work and, in addition, maintaining reliable records. The Work Study staff was
also of great assistance in arriving at the best possible solutions for each job.
The details prepared and used on the job and the reports of work done are
variously summarized for higher levels of supervision and administration. The data
shown on the reports seemed to be comprehensive and should be of considerable aid
to senior officers. As an example, one of the reports was in the form of a chart emplo\'-
ing colors and symbols. A brief glance was sufficient to know how work had been done,
the location, cost and frequency over a period of several years. Such a chart would be
of great assistance to any inspection part\'.
.\fter I had observed several Work Studied projects and examined the reports,
I asked to be shown an example of a facility which would indicate a "before" and
"after" situation. Since I was in the vicinity of Southampton I was taken to a yard
nearby. The Work Study group in its investigation came up with a solution for this
particular yard which they felt should improve the standard of maintenance and yet
employ less manpower, .^t the time of my visit the new method had been in effect for
several months. The same foreman with less men had already upgraded the standard
of maintenance for nearly half the yard and the difference was obvious. I should state
here that in this particular yard the only change made was in method of doing work.
The tools and materials used were the same.
Whereas I have made reference primarily to routine nonrepetitive work, I also had
an opportunity to observe work in shops which was repetitive. Most of us feel that it is
elementary to set up an efficient operation where work is repetitive. On the Southern
Region, I saw one such operation in a reclamation yard. Because of traffic density, track
is changed out by replacing complete panels. The released panels are shipped to a
reclamation yard for dismantling and salvage. In this operation, there was a gang whose
function it was to remove the rail chairs from the ties and then sort and stockpile the
various component parts. The job was laid out in a series of work stations at which
each man performed a specific task. The Work Study group appraised this job and
found that for this particular operation the assembly line principle was wasteful. They
found that by feeding the ties to the men (working in pairs) in bundles and have them
follow along performing a different task at each work station would improve productivity
about 40 percent.
From this it would appear that no matter what the job is there may be room for
improvement. All of us should take time off to sweep our minds clear of tradition and
prejudice, step outside the right-of-way, and from a distant vantage point appraise the
tasks for which we are respon.sible. I am sure we would find a waste of manpower here
and there.
1148 Ties
To sum up, it can be stated that the formalized application known as Work Study
to routine maintenance in way and structures, as adopted on British railways has in-
creased productivity and that it was not the result of working harder but working
smarter.
I have since had an opportunity to attend the Executive Conference on Work Sim-
plification at Sea Island, Ga., directed by Allan H. Mogensen of Lake Placid. There is
not time to present the philosophy of work simplification as developed by Mr. Mogensen
and associates. Suffice it to say that many and varied industries have had success with
work simplification as an aid to management.
Mr. President, Mr. Loggins and gentlemen, I thank you for your attention.
[Applause]
Chairman Loggins: Thank you, Mr. Fast, for a very interesting report.
This completes the report of Committee 22.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Loggins. Your committee continues to be
one of the so-called "more popular" committees of our Association, the reason for
which is pretty evident from the character of the reports which you present from year
to year, some of which are based upon interesting inspection trips to observe operations
in the field. The Association is indebted to your committee for its many reports in the
past, and for the interesting and informative reports which it has again presented this
year. Under your leadership, Mr. Loggins, I am sure Committee 22 will continue to be
one of the "more popular" committees of the Association.
And, thank you, Mr. Fast, for your interesting report on how the British railways
analyze work operations as a tool for railway management. This was most interesting.
Mr. Loggins, your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Ties
[For report see pp. 497-500.]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: In our last report for today, we will hear from one of our
committees which specializes in one of the more important elements of the track
structure. This is our Committee 3 — Ties, the chairman of which is F. J. Fudge, timber
engineer, New York Central System, New York. I will be pleased if Mr. Fudge and
members of his committee will now present their report.
Chairman F. J. Fudge: Mr. President, members, and guests of the AREA:
The report of Committee 3 is printed in the December Bulletin, No. 547, beginning
on page 497, and in the June-July Bulletin, No. 544, beginning on page 129. The com-
mittee is reporting on four of its eight assignments.
Assignment 4 — Tie Renewals and Costs Per Mile of Maintained Track.
Chairman Fudge: The report on Assignment 4 will be presented by Subcommittee
Chairman L. W. Kistler, tie and timber agent, Frisco.
L. W. Kistler: Mr. President, members, and guests:
The AAR anual cross tie statistics as compiled by the Bureau of Railway Econom-
ics show only 21,525,233 new wooden cross ties inserted in track by the Class I Rail-
roads of the United States. This was a reduction of 1,724,216 from the previous year, or
7.42 percent, and is the smallest annual quantity inserted during the approximately 60
vears of AREA existence.
Discussion
114Q
Equated gross ton miles per mile of track was off 3.54 percent, or 241,000 tons. Thu.^,
while the downward trend in cross tic renewals is due primarily to the benefits of effi-
cient wood preservation and a higher quality of track maintenance, yet the reduced
traffic (earnings) in 1057 undoubtedly was a dominant factor in the reduction men-
tioned.
Perhaps the following table of comparisons showing the "Low" region, the "High"
region and the United States averages will be of interest.
"Loir" Rcuion
' Hii/li" Rci/ion
Un iUd
States
A verayeti
Inserted in 19.")7
Tics per Mile
Change 19.57 from lit.^ti
Tie Insertions per Mile
.Vvcraife .\niiuai Insertion.s Per Mile
o Year Average
10 Year Average
Average Cost Per Tie
Increase 1957 over 1950
Tie Cost per Mile of Track
Equated Gross ton-miles per Track Mile
(thousands)
Estimated Average Life Ba.sed on —
5 Year Average Renewals
10 Year Average Renewals
Number Ties per Mile used in above
calculations . _
4(i Xcw iMiglaiii
lli be.ss — Southern
50.8 New England
(il.l New England
$3.04 Southwestern
0.04 Great Lakes
11)7. New England
4.1.'.3r) Northwestern
}'(ar.s
29.83 Southwestern
25. 8() Southern
3,049 Southwestern
3,021 Southern
88 Southwestern
t More Pocahontas
102.2 Southern
1 1(1.8 Southwestcr
$3.9(i Central-Ea.stern
0.34 Central-Eastern
$302. Southern
11.818 Pocahonta,s
Ycar.s
.59.13 New England
49.1(1 New England
3,004 New England
07
5-Le.ss
74.2
84.3
53.(12
.18
$243.
Yearn
40.07
35.80
3,018
One of the more interestinii points in the above tabulation is that the average
computed service life, based on the 10-year average for the "high" New England
region is 4Q plus years, almost double that of 25 years for the "low" Southern region.
Unquestionably, the longer warm humid seasons of our southern areas are more con-
ducive to decay and tie deterioration than in other sections and continues to present
a challenge to our wood preservation efforts.
There are some "tie experts" who are firmly convinced that a number of railways
are in their low cycle of renewals and under normal circumstances will have increases
in the near future. Thus the many variable and other factors involved affecting cro.ss
tie insertions make interpret.'.tion and evaluation of these statistics most difficult and
hardly permit one to draw mathematical conclusions, or to make effective comparisons
between individual railroads.
Nevertheless, the statistics aro quite \alid in determining trends, and the long term
trend is definitely down, although it appears we may be approaching a "floor," or even
a low point in the renewal curve.
I have computed the 10-year average renewals per mile of track (which is perhaps
a truer index than the 5-year average) for the years 1945 thru 1957 and find that each
year it has been lower than the previous year. This 10-year average for 1945 was 135
ties per mile; 5 years later it was 121.6 in 1950; still further, reduced in 1955 — 10 years
later — to 92.9, and in 1957 was 84.3. This was a reduction in 12 years of 50.7 ties per
1150 Ties
mile, or 35 percent, and one which must be encouraging to maintenance officers trying
to stretch allowances
This is presented as information.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Kistler.
Assignment 5 — Methods of Retarding the Splitting and Mechanical
Wear of Ties, Including Stabilization of Wood, Collaborating with Com-
mittee 5.
Chairman Fudge: G. M. Magee, director of engineering research, AAR, will sum-
marize the work completed by the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, col-
laborating with Committee 5, on the methods of retarding tie splitting and the
mechanical wear of ties, including stabilization of wood.
G. M. Magee: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Last year the Timber Engineering Company staff prepared a final report on the
10-year investigation for prolonging the service life of cross ties, which was completed
in 1Q57. This research was sponsored and financed jointly by the NLMA and the AAR.
It is proposed to publish this report as an advance report of the Tie committee in one
of the summer bulletins.
One of the more important results of the investigation was the combined seasoning
and treating process for treating green ties. Two-thousand ties have been treated by this
process by the Pennsylvania and Illinois Central Railroads and installed in main-line
track for service test. The patent on this process has been dedicated to the public.
Another result was the study and exposure tests of tie coating materials and devel-
opment of a specification therefor. A design of laminated tie was developed and 120 ties
were produced and installed in heavy-duty track on the Pennsylvania Railroad for
observation of service performance. Another significant finding was the deteriorating
effect of corrosion products from tie plates and spikes on the wood fibers. All of these
results and others are fully described in the report.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Magee.
Chairman Fudge: H. M. Sutcliffe, research technician, research staff, AAR, col-
laborating with Subcommittee 8, will address the Association on the subject, "Studies
of Anti-Splitting Devices for Ties at the AAR Research Center."
Studies of Anti-Splitting Devices for Ties at the AAR
Research Center
By H. M. Sutcliffe
Research Technician, Research Staff, AAR
This project on evaluating the effectiveness of anti-splitting devices was started
because of the varied opinions as to their effectiveness in retarding end splitting in ties.
Most railroads today apply some sort of anti-splitting device to their ties. Some
roads which had been using anti-splitting devices in the past have quit using them,
except on a selective basis to salvage ties which would otherwise be rejected. Others
have changed from the use of C- or S-irons to doweling, which costs almost twice as
much as applying end irons.
It would be difficult to get anyone to place a specific monetary value on the bene-
fits derived from the use of anti-splitting devices. Most people will agree that anti-
splitting devices provide some protection, especially to the ties which are the more
prone to splitting. They would also agree that some ties would never split enough to
derive any benefit from any device.
Address of H. M. Sutcliffe
1151
Slide 1 — Strain gages mounted on C-irons to measure the stresses
transmitted to the iron.
The question facing us is whether anti-splitting devices should be used out-of-face,
selectively, or not at all, and if they are to be used, which device is best.
The Forst Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., has established that splitting is
a function of shrinkage and that shrinkage occurs only when the moisture content
of the wood drops below 30 to 35 percent, depending on the species.^ Too, the tangential
shrinkage along the growth rings is greater than the radial shrinkage perpendicular to
the growth rings. It is uneven shrinkage which sets up stresses in the wood greater
than its bonding strength to cause a spHt.
All anti-splitting devices have been designed to resist the splitting forces which
develop when the wood shrinks. Until the wood spHts enough to offset the shrink
which caused the spHt, the device cannot be effective in preventing a split. The best
that can be expected is that the device will limit the size of the split.
In the laboratory, accelerated seasoning tests were conducted (1) to compare the
effectiveness of the various anti-splitting devices, (2) to study the kind and amount
of forces which come into play on the anti-splitting devices as the tie shrinks during
seasoning and (3) to measure the holding power of the devices. Red oak ties were used
in most of these tests.
In the accelerated seasoning tests, full ties were cut in half. The device was applied
to one half and the other half was left as a control. The extreme variation in the
1 Shrinking and Swelling of Wood in Use, Report No. R736 (Revi.sed) USDA, Forest Service,
Forest Products Laboratory, Madison. Wis,
1152
Ties
Slide 2 — Stress development on C-irons during accelerated seasoning.
Slide 3 — Pull test specimen in Baldwin testing machine.
Address of H . M . S u t c 1 i I t c 1153
splittability of individual ties made any comparison very difficult. While it could he
seen that some of the devices provided some protection, no comparison between them
could be made directly.
An attempt was made to relieve the stresses which build up in the wood as it
dries, rather than to try to restrain the stresses with mechanical devices. This was done
by kerfing the ends of the ties with saw cuts. In all, five designs were tried. Nu design
was completely effective, but some protection was afforded by most of them.
In order to measure the stress which the wood transmits to the anti-splitting device,
strain gages were mounted on S-irons, C-irons and dowels. Gages were mounted on both
sides of each device near the center. Flat sections had to be milled on the dowels to
provide a suitable surface for mounting the strain gages, and the electrical leads from
the strain gages were fed through an axial hole in the dowel to bring them outside
of the tie.
Slide 1 shows how the wood was routed out at the gage position for the C and
S-irons so that the gage would not be damaged when the iron was driven.
The manner in which wood shrinks to cause splitting can readily be seen. Notice
how the wood inside the curve of the iron has shrunk away, yet the wood on the outside
of the curve is tight against the iron. This shows that the wood on the outside of the
curve is relatively in the same position as when the iron was driven. However, in rela-
tion to the iron, the wood at the split has moved. Even with a split of this .size, this
iron is in compression, not tension.
Slide 2 shows the stress development on the C-irons, which was typical of the
group. The shrinkage of the wood put the device into compression for the first few-
days. After that splitting occurred to put the device into tension, which shows that
the device was resisting the splitting action. As the wood continued to shrink, the tension
rose to a peak then declined into compression again. Some did not quite reach com-
pression the second time. And others remained in compression from the start. Con-
siderable bending was experienced in all of the ties.
The maximum load developed in the C and S-irons was only a little more than
200 lb. In the dowels driven 6 in from the end an 8C0-lb load was recorded on the
strain gage. For the dowel driven 3 in from the end the maximum was l400 lb.
To measure the holding power of the various devices, two types of pull tests were
made. In one test 22-in sections of green red oak ties were ripped along the O-in face.
Four countersunk bolts were placed in each half of the tie section to attach T-shaped
bars for making the pull tests. The halves of the tie section were then banded firmly
together. The anti-splitting devices were applied and the bonds were removed. Slide .<
shows a test specimen after it had been pulled to failure in the Baldwin Testing
Machine.
One group of ties was tested green and another seasoned in two months to 2.^
to .^0 percent moisture content 6 in from the end before being tested. In all, three and
fcur-flute dowels, flat C and S-irons, crinkled C and S-irons, 6-in Stronghold nails
having annular grooves about two-thirds the length — driven from both sides of the lie —
8-in Stronghold nails driven from one side, and gang nails (galvanized steel plates
punched to form numerous prongs) were tested.
The four 6-in Stronghold nails had less holding power than two 8-in Stronghold
nails. The gang nail was difficult to apply on a rough surface. These were tested green
only.
.\s can be seen in Slide 4, all of the devices had enough holding power to with-
stand the splitting stres.ses that we found in our str.iin gage tests. The holding |)()vver
11S4
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GREEN
SEASONED
Slide 4 — Holding power of anti-splitting devices.
Address of H
Su tclif f e
Slide 5 — The effect of anti-splitting devices on splitting of ties
during seasoning.
in green and seasoned ties was relatively the same for all except flat C and S-irons.
Crinkled C and S-irons had a little less and dowels had a little more holding power
when seasoned. Flat C and S-irons both lost a great deal of their holding power on
seasoning. This is attributed to the shrinkage of the wood away from the iron to sub-
stantially reduce the friction of the wood on the iron. Crinkled irons still had point
bearing at each crinkle even after the wood had shrunk. The three-flute dowels held
a little better than the four-flute dowels in both green and seasoned wood.
Another pull test was conducted to determine the holding power per inch of imbed-
ment of the device in the wood. In these tests the device was driven to various depths
into the wood. The maximum depth was one-half the length of the device, since any
split not crossing the center of the device will have less than half its length to do the
holding on the short side. To make the pull test, the device was clamped directly in
the test machine.
There was very close correlation between the results of the two methods and with
similar work done by the Erie Railroad in 1938 and the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1947.
The relationship of the holding power at several steps in the production and service life
of the tie was studied using red oak, white oak and TC* ties.
The kind of device and species of wood had more bearing than whether the device
was applied green or seasoned. White oak and some of the TC species had more holding
power than that of red oak. Dowels had greater holding power than did end irons, but
as was shown earlier, require more holding power. Corrosion weakened C and S-irons,
- Mixed hardwoods, but not including gum.
1156
Ties
Slide 6 — Flat C-irons working out of tie after five years of service.
}
often corroding them in two in 10 to 15 years where there was heavy brine. Corrosion
also reduced the holding power of dowels somewhat, but none tested had less than
1000 lb pull per in, nor was any corroded sufficiently to cause the metal to fail. As long
as there was sufficient metal to withstand the pull, l^S in imbedment of any of the
devices was sufficient to withstand the stresses as measured by the strain gages.
Shde 5. To study the amount of splitting which occurs during seasoning and to
compare the effectiveness of various anti-splitting devices, seasoning tests were con-
ducted in cooperation with collaborating railroads using oak ties grown in Kentucky,
Tennessee and Mississippi. These tests demonstrated that all of the anti-splitting devices
in general use today retard splitting during seasoning to some degree, and that no device
is completely effective. In Test No. 1 it can readily be seen that the control group had
the most ties rejected for spUtting and dowels the least.
Test No. 2 demonstrates that, in addition to doing its job of aiding the penetration
of creosote into the tie during treatment, incising also helps control splitting. Alone it was
about as effective as C-irons, but it was most effective when used in conjunction with
C-irons.
The greater tendency of some wood to split more than others has been known for
a long time and is further exemplified here. The Mississippi ties in Test No. 1 were fully
as good as the Kentucky or Tennessee ties, but those in Test No. 2 were greatly inferior.
Since the control ties, with 14 percent split rejects, had only 8 percent more rejects
than the 6 percent rejects for doweled ties, on might question the advisability of apply-
ing any anti-splitting device. If the benefit were hmited to that obtained during season-
ing, out-of-face application would seem highly questionable. However, anyone walking
any stretch of track which has been in service many years will see a great number
1
Discussion 1157
of ties split beyond the acceptable limits for a new tie. These ties must have split in
track.
This will be true whether the ties have anti-splitting devices applied or not. The
severity of this in-track splitting and its effect on the life of the tie can only be sur-
mised. As yet. no reliable information on this is available. Service tests are in progress
from which we eventually hope to find an answer. Too, a service test is underway to
determine the effectiveness of selective application of dowels compared with out-of-facc
application. This, of course, required application of the anti-splitting devices after
seasoning rather than when the ties were green. In all, we are cooperating with four
railroads in conducting service tests. C-irons, S-irons, doweling and banding are being
studied, for these appear at the present to be the most promising. Control ties having
no device of any kind are also included.
Slide 6 shows what many of you here have seen time after time as you walked
track. Flat end irons begin to work out of the tie in 3 to 5 years, start falling out in 5
to 8 years, and in 10 to 15 years a great many have fallen out. Crinkled irons with a
mid-rib stay in place much better. The rib presses a groove in the wood which helps
secure the iron in the end of the tie. In a test on crinkled S-irons with a mid-rib,
very few had started to work out of the tie in more than 10 years of service.
In evaluating the use of anti-splitting devices, one must know the annual cost
of a tie in track in order to be able to calculate the number of years that the life of the
tie must be extended to make its application profitable.
Using the .■\RE.\ formula for calculating the annual cost of a .50-year tie based
on 4 percent compound interest on the initial in-track cost of the tie, a .$7.00 tie would
cost 40 cents per year. Doweling costs, which run about 35 to 40 cents per tie for 100
percent application, would be covered by increasing the average life of a .$7.00 tie by
one year. Two years' increase would show a saving. C or S-irons, which cost about
20 cents per tie, would show a saving with a one year increase in tic life. However,
if doweling gives one or more additional \ears over that for C or S-irons, it makes the
greater saving.
.\ny of you who have attempted to accurately determine the average life of a grouj)
of ties knows how difficult that is. It is almost impossible to determine the average life
to greater accuracy than one year increments, and extremely difficult to determine within
one year. This makes the job of differentiating between one device and other equally
difficult if there is not a marked difference between their performance.
In view of the fact that an increase in tie life of only one year will pay for the
most expensive device commonly used today, it would appear to be a good gamble to
use anti-splitting devices. Time alone will tell. It will take several years to get a clear
indication from the tests now underway as to which device and which type of application
would be most profitable. [.Applause]
Assignment 9 — Means for Effecting Greater Utilization of Timberland
Growth Available for Cross-Tie Production.
Chairman Fudge: The report on .Assignment o will be presented by subcommittee
chairman \V. R. Jacobson, engineer timber inspection and treatment, Soo Line. This is
the final report on this assignment.
W. R. Jacobsox: Mr President, members, and guests:
The report on Assignment 9 is presented as a final report. This has been quite a
provocative subject and has elicited considerable, and I might say, at times, heated
discussion. In fact, I believe views were as varied and as far apart as the species of
1158 Continuous Welded Rail
woods under discussion.
To prepare a report that had approval of the entire committee has been somewhat
difficult. However, in connection with this report, the following should be borne in mind:
1. All railroads should have a complete knowledge of species native to their right-
of-way and their procurement territory.
2. The technical and economic aspects of each species should be determined.
3. Use to the fullest extent all species to assist in maintaining the proper balance
of the growing stock in the forests.
4. Investigate the newest methods for seasoning and treating.
This report is submitted as information.
President Meyers: Thank you. Mr. Jacobson. It will be so received.
Chairman Fudge: Mr. President, this concludes the report of Committee .<.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Fudge. It is very apparent that you people
are still making progress in your studies on the very important subject of ties. It is im-
portant because it is one oi the biggest costs to the railroads. Thank you, Mr. Magee.
and Mr. Sutcliffe, for your contributions.
We know that the AAR research staff has been invaluable to you in your studies.
I certainly hope that you can continue to work together as you have in the past.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. The meeting
is now adjourned until tomorrow morning.
[The meeting recessed at 5:30 o'clock.]
Morning Session — March 11, 1959
[The meeting convened at 9 am. President Meyers presiding.]
Pj(esident Meyers: Will the meeting please come to order.
This is the last of the technical sessions of our 1959 Annual Meeting, and with
four of our committees yet to be heard from, at least three of which have lengthy
presentations, it is important that we get started promptly and keep moving.
Discussion on Continuous Welded Rail
[For report see pp. 633-653.]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: Our first committee to report this morning is our Special Com-
mittee on Continuous Welded Rail, the acting chairman of which is C. E. Weller,
assistant engineer maintenance of way, Illinois Central Railroad. Mr. Weller, I ask now
that you proceed with your committee report.
Acting Chairman C. E. Weller: Mr. President, members and guests of the
Association:
Our committee report is found in the February 1959 issue of the Bulletin, Vol. 60,
No. 549.
I shall deliberately refrain from any remarks so that we can have more time for
discussion at the end.
Assignment 2 — Laying.
E. J. Brown, chief engineer, Burlington Lines, will present the report of the
Subcommittee on Laying. Mr. Brown.
E. J. Brown: Mr. President, members and guests: This report contains two signifi-
cant facts. A review of the tabulation by years of continuous welded rail from 1933
to 1958, incl., reveals that, starting in 1955, there has been a definite increase in the
Discussion 1159
mileage of continuous welded rail. Of the total of 2101.80 miles, 1,738.29 miles were
laid in the last four years.
In the early years of continuous welded rail, there was some apprehension about
handling long strings of rail which were released through relay or were distributed and
for one reason or another needed to be loaded and transported to another location.
This report describes a specific instance on the Great Northern Railway wherein this
problem was economically solved.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Brown.
Assignment 5 — Economics.
Acting Chairm.an Weiler; W. J. Cruse, engineer maintenance of way, Great
Northern, will present the report of the Subcommittee on Economics. Mr. Cruse.
W. J. Cruse: Mr. President, members and guests:
In 1958 a questionnaire was sent to various railroads requesting cost data com-
paring welded with jointed track. Replies are tabulated in Table 1 and Table 2, pages
638 and 639, Bulletin 549.
Of the 11 roads reporting complete cost data for rail in place, 4 roads show welded
rail more expensive than jointed rail, 4 show no significant difference and 3 show
welded rail, less expensive than jointed rail. The average cost for welded rail in place
was $40,090 per track mile and for jointed rail in place $30,824 per track mile. Thus
the difference in average cost per mile was .'5275, or less than 1 percent. This is slightly
more than $1 per weld, assuming about 260 welds per mile of track.
In 1957 a similar economic study was made which showed the average cost per
weld to be $14.80 for work done in the years 1948 to 1955; this may be compared to
.S12.51 which is the average cost per weld shown in Table 1 of this report for work
done in the years 1053 through 1058.
It is evident that economies are being found in both welding and laying of welded
rail as the roads gain experience.
Also of interest is the low figure on cost per weld submitted by the Santa Fe based
on welding done in a new company owned plant acquired in 1058. This figure includes
amortization of investment, plant upkeep and expense and all welding costs.
Of particular interest in Table 2 is the estimated average annual savings on main-
tenance with welded rail of $568 per mile. Also, estimated average life of welded rail
in track is 32.3 years as compared to 24.4 years estimated average life of rail in jointed
track.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Cruse.
.Acting Chairman Weller: In addition the Subcommittee on Economics presents
as information a special report on welding rails at or in the vicinity of rail mills. This
is a joint report with Committee 4 — Rail.
We also have a special report on field tests on continuous welded rail on the Great
Northern Railway. The report will be presented by G. M. Magee.
1 ] 60 C () n t i n u o 11 s W e 1 (i c d R a i 1
Field Tests on Continuous Welded Rail on
Great Northern Railway
By G. M. Magee
Director of Engineering Research, AAR
These tests were conducted in cooperation with the Great Northern Railway during
the summer of 1958 with three objectives. One was to determine whether accumulative
stresses are developed in continuous welded rail in service due to creepage forces. Another
was to determine whether high buckling forces are produced in continuous welded rail
ahead of a heavily braked train. The third was to determine whether jackknifing action
of diesel units might produce buckling in continuous welded rail in hot weather.
Two locations were selected on the Great Northern not far from Fargo, N. Dak.,
for the tests. One was near Casselton on gravel ballast and the other near Nolan on
crushed-rock ballast. A section of continuous welded rail, accessible to the test truck,
was selected at both of these locations. At both ends of each iSOO-ft length of welded rail,
a short rail with two joints had been provided when the rail was laid in accordance with
current Great Northern practice. To determine whether or not accumulated forces were
developed in the rail due to creepage, reference points for a Berry strain gage were
established to measure the longitudinal stress in the rail web at intervals throughout
the length of each test section. A complete series of readings was taken both at Nolan
and at Casselton on a hot, clear day. Following this the short rails were removed at
each end of each welded section, the rail anchors were removed, the track spikes were
lifted and the rail was supported on short rollers placed between the rail base and the tie
plate seats on two ties per rail length. This permitted the rail to expand to its natural
length at that temperature with little restraint from rail anchors and tie plates. A set of
Berry gage readings taken with this condition gave the zero stress or base level of
measurement from which the temperature stress could be determined for any other rail
temperature. These two series of readings did not indicate any build up of stress in the
welded rail from creepage forces, but only what would be expected from the temperature
effects.
In February two other series of readings were taken at these locations at night at
low rail temperatures, once when it was approximately 0 deg and again when it was
IS to 20 deg below zero. These readings have given additional data on the amount of
joint restraint that is transmitted at each end from the rail joints and on the amount
that rail anchors contribute to restraining end movement and joint gap openings at
the ends of the continuous welded rail stretches.
For determining the buckling forces in the rail due to braking action, electrical
strain gages were placed longitudinally on each side of the rail web at three locations
spaced approximately 120 ft apart at Casselton and 80 ft apart at Nolan. A special test
train was provided, consisting of diesel units and hopper cars loaded with ballast to
give a total weight of 5000 gross tons. At both locations the train was heavily braked
from speeds up to 60 mph as it approached the strain gages and the longitudinal or
buckling force measured in the rail ahead of the train with the Association's electronic
strain gage equipment. The maximum compressive force found at Casselton was 12,800
lb, equivalent to a stress of about 1000 psi and at Nolan 16,200 lb, equivalent to a stress
of about 1500 psi. These buckling forces due to braking are quite low and would not be
expected to cause buckling of track with continuous welded rail.
In making the jackknifing tests, the Association's special roller bearing tie plates
were used to measure the lateral forces, and tests were made with diesel units pushing
Discussion 1161
against the loaded cars and other diesel units at the head end with dynamic braking.
With regular type couplers having no alinement control, quite high lateral forces were
developed due to jackknifing but no sun kink occurred even though the tests were
conducted on a very hot day. In addition, the bending stresses were measured in the
rail base and combining these stresses with the maximum stresses developed during
jackknifing action and what might be anticipated from a temperature of 40 below zero
gave a m.iximum combined tensile stress of 50,400 psi, which is well within the yield
strength of 70.000 psi for rail steel.
A translation is now being obtained of tests conducted on the Japanese National Rail-
ways in which the rail was artificially heated until buckling occurred. Consideration is
being given to conducting similar tests this summer in order to derive more information
on just what buckling forces can be tolerated in continuous welded rail without the
likelihood of the track buckling.
President Meyers. Thank \ou, Mr. Magee.
Acting Chairman Weeeer: C. J. Geycr, retired vice president, construction and
maintenance. Chesapeake & Ohio, and past president of the Association, has requested
an opportunity to present some comments. I would like to invite Mr. Geyer to come
to the speaker's table. Mr. Geyer.
C J. Geyer: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, gentlemen of the Special Committee.
members:
I appreciate the invitation of Mr. Weller to come up here on the platform and
advance a criticism against the reports of his committee. It shows the courtesy of this
committee and the Association and good fellowship.
For the past 2.^ years, this .Association has received reports on continuous welded
rail. In the past few years the committee has presented estimates of savings by the u.h"
of welded rail over jointed rail. In my opinion these estimates are not supported by
enough factual data to justify their acceptance by the Association even as information.
In order to support my opinion on this subject, I have reviewed the reports and dis-
cussions in our Proceedings. I would like to give j'ou a brief review on the high spots
of these reports.
In 1936 the Committee on "Rail Longer Than iQ Ft" reported that the Delaware &
Hudson Railroad was a pioneer in the use of continuous welded rail.
In 1Q37 the subject was assigned to the Rail committee.
Between 1937 and 1050 incl., a subcommittee of the Rail committee studied and
reported on this subject.
It is unnecessary here to refer to those reports for the reasons I will show later.
In 1951 this assignment was withdrawn from the Rail committee and given to a
Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail.
The new committee reported that it contemplated a "cradle to grave study"
and had divided the subject into five parts, i.e., Fabrication, Laying, Fastenings, Main-
tenance and Economics. Note there is no provision for study of "Disposal of Released
Welded Rail." This is the "grave" part of the subject and very important in the economy.
I would like to add right here that the new rail laid by the railroads in the United
States comprises approximately lyi percent of the total rail mileage. The rail released
by that lyi percent is used to maintain the other 98^ percent. The No. 1 relay rail is
used to patch our high-speed main line. Our No. 2 relay rail is used for secondary lines
and the No. 3 for sidings, yards and industrial tracks.
1162 Continuous Welded Rail
It is important that we know the method and cost of getting this relay rail if it is
all welded when released. I think that is the real economics in this whole problem.
In 1952 ail of the subcommittees gave a report as information. I quote from the
subcommittee's report on economics as follows:
"Most of the information carried over from the old committee cannot be used.
Most of it is based on installations on the Delaware & Hudson Railroad. The Com-
mittee does not consider the Delaware & Hudson is a typical railroad and the informa-
tion gathered on it is not applicable to other railroads. The Delaware & Hudson is a
short railroad with very heavy traffic, grades and curves — the kind of railroad that wears
its rail out quickly. It may be the Committee will recommend that welded rail is not
economical for that kind of railroad."
So the new committee believed the information gathered on earlier installations
could not be used in the new studies and that it must get new and better information.
So the new committee started its "cradle to grave" study by throwing 14 years
work "out the window" and welded rail installations going back to 1933. It kicked the
baby out of the cradle by reading the Delaware & Hudson "out of the partj'" and by
inference, those railroads with similar characteristics through the Appalachian mountains
like the Pennsylvania, Baltimore & Ohio, Norfolk & Western, Chesapeake & Ohio and
others.
In 1953 the Committee reported savings for 131-lb and heavier welded rail as $671
per mile per year over the jointed rail. This was two years after they had thrown
their own information away and said they would get new and better information.
This estimated saving was the average estimate of six chief engineers. Very
little welded rail or the jointed rail with which it was compared had reached the end
of its service life. The life of welded rail was assumed to average 26 years and jointed
rail 19 years.
In 1953 the first welded rail ever laid was only 20 years old, if still in track. That
was on the Delaware & Hudson.
Therefore, the only factual data for these estimates was the first cost of rail in
place. This cost was reported to be $3,872 per mile more for welded rail than jointed
rail. All other costs were assumed or at least based on cost of welded rail maintenance
in its first few years of service life.
There was little information on the disposal of released welded rail ; however, the
committee reported it would cost $1,200 per mile more to relay welded rail than for
jointed rail.
The estimated savings for 112 and 115-lb rail was arrived at by the same method
except only three chief engineers made the estimates.
Since the report of 1953, there has been nothing of consequence in the general
picture except the chief engineers reporting in 1953 revised their saving estimates. So in
1957, the Committee reported the saving by use of welded rail was $981 per mile per
year. I note in this year's report it's now over $1000 savings per year for welded rail
over jointed rail.
In my opinion the method employed to arrive at these estimates is too far fetched
to justify a business risk, particularly in view of the heavy additional investment required
in first costs.
I suggest the following method of approach to get the facts on this assignment:
Dig up all the information possible on every installation of welded rail that has
been laid. Put this information in tabulation form. I suggest the following columns.
1 — Name of railroad. 2 — Location and length of welded section. 3 — Type of weld. 4 —
Discussion 116.^
Weight of rail. 5— Degrees of central angle and rise and fall in feet within the limits
of the welded section. 6 — Accumulated tonnage carried. 7 — Accumulated maintenance
hours track labor. 8 — Date Laid. 0 — Date removed. 10 — Weld failures. 11 — Rail failures.
Add footnote showing disposal by feet of welded rail released. And I think we should
also have a column for the ma.ximum allowable speed.
For each item of welded rail, list on another table similar information on jointed
rail with conditions as nearly alike as possible to its counterpart in welded rail.
I believe that such tables prepared right now will show enough years of service life
to indicate a fairly reliable comparative trend, and the information will grow more
accurate and valuable with each year.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Geyer.
Acting Chairman Weller: Thank you, Mr. Geyer for your comments. I assure
you that the committee at its next business meeting will discuss \our remarks. Several
items are of interest and will be of help to us.
I would like to make a few comments. First of all, the reports as presented by
your committee have been presented as information. They were based on the best infor-
mation and facts available to us at the time. Now, as Mr. Geyer pointed out, the report
in 1953 was based on information received from a few railroads. The report on eco-
nomics as presented this morning, however, was based on information that we received
from 20 railroads. I think the recommendations Mr. Geyer made on the information
that should be shown in table form is very good. I think that most of these items are
shown in the two tables, Tables 1 and 2 on pages 638 and 639. They are shown,
of course, only for welded rail. We have not shown this information for comparable
jointed track.
We all must agree that the assignment is not completed. There is progress being
made. There are changes being made almost every day in welded rail. Your committee
has a lot of work ahead of it, and certainly many new subjects to study. The brief
report made this morning on picking up welded rail on the Great Northern is just the
first of many interesting reports that we can and will make.
The Delaware & Hudson information is a part of our records. I do not feel that
the method of welding nor the costs incurred by the D&H back in 1933 is applicable
and should be taken into our averages for welded rail today, and the averages that are
given in our reports do not include the costs of welding on the D&H.
We realize that some of the methods that we use for estimating were not based on
case history. However, they were based on the estimates furnished by those roads which
have had experience with continuous welded rail.
Now, one of our future assignments must be that we will revise these estimates as
the roads gain more experience with their welded rail, and finally, we must change these
estimates to actual cost figures when they are available. Personally, I am proud of the
reports and the work that your committee has done. I am happy to have been as.sociated
with it. Do we have any comments from the floor?
Mr. Blair, would you care to come up here please?
T. A. Blair: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman and gentlemen:
Sometimes I think Charlie Geyer just tries to agitate me. [Laughter] I am appear-
ing here this moment as a retired chief engineer of the Santa Fe Railway, but during
the time that I was on the job, I did furnish the figures for the Santa Fe that Charlie
criticises and says may be a trap for management. So I want to go back to this year's
report and explain the details of the Santa Fe figures.
It's going to take a little time. I hope this doesn't start a reaction where every
1164 Continuous Welded Rail
chief engineer will do the same thing. Maybe I can cover it in my extended remarks
here so that it might not be necessary for other chief engineers to defend themselves.
I point to that one statement in which he infers that these figures are not even
estimates, that they are just something we took out of our heads. That's not true.
Turning to the Santa Fe figures in Table 1, we show data for a 10-mile test, installed
in 1958. We show a comparison of the cost of the welded rail in place for that 10 miles
as compared with jointed rail. We come up with a saving of $1193 per mile in favor
of welded rail.
I am not going into all the history of that.
The first welded rail that we laid cost us materially more than did jointed track,
but because our railroad lays enough rail so that it could justify the purchase and opera-
tion by company forces of a welding machine, we show a saving in the over-all invest-
ment of $1193 for this 10-mile test section.
That isn't the end. The cost of welds on the Santa Fe is going down every month,
and the saving in investment is going to increase over the years rather than decrease.
Now for Table 2, which is the table covering the oldest stretch of welded rail
reported on by these companies, the Santa Fe reports on a 5-mile test section installed in
1947. That 5-miIe test was placed in a double-track main line where the tonnages
eastbound and westbound are even for all practical purposes. One track was laid with
1.^2-ib jointed rail, the other track laid with continuous welded rail.
To gather statistics we checked the section foreman's time book which shows the
details of his work and whether he worked on the eastbound or the west bound track.
So, the section foreman, the roadmaster, the practical people on the ground, determined
these statistics.
Additionally, we had welded rail on an adjoining section of five miles for which
we kept the information, and it checks very closely with the other. That isn't an estimate.
It's the best that a human being can do to get facts.
Now the actual fact is that over a 10-year period we averaged a saving of $354
per mile per year in section maintenance.
Now, we have to do some estimating. An engineer wouldn't be worth a damn
if he didn't estimate.
We gave these figures to our management, and I want to say that our manage-
ment, after going over all of them, accepted them. They have installed over a thousand
miles of welded rail. They have gotten the benefits of cheaper investment, of a better
railroad, and better riding track. About that one statement of Charlie's: I want to be
sure that nobody goes home with that and says there are not figures available that
justify management looking into this matter to get some of the benefits.
Now I do get in a realm where Charlie has me dead to rights. We have 10 years'
history with these comparative sections of jointed and welded rail. By observing the
condition of that rail, we estimate — and I don't think that is a guess — we estimate how
long the welded rail will be in place and how long the jointed will be in place, and
for the Santa Fe our estimate is superconservative. The welded rail is going to be in
there, I know, much longer than the figures that we used.
During my lifetime on the Santa Fe, I would say that 5 percent of the rail we
relaid came out for rail wear. I know it's no more than 5 percent. The remaining 95
percent came out due to the fact that we had joints in that rail. It was rail and joint
wear that in the end caused us to change that rail out, and with that in mind when
we say that the welded rail will be in service 30 years and the jointed 25 years, we are
being superconservative. I know that the welded rail will be in there much longer.
Discussion 1165
Now as for surfacing: They are now ready to surface the track with jointed rail
but not the track with welded rail, so we know the welded-rail track is going to have
a longer time cycle. We predict that the welded will go 12 years where the jointed goes
10 without resurfacing. There again we are on the conservative side.
In stating to our management what I thought the prospects of welded rail would
be, I always used the savings in section maintenance. That's definite. We saved that
money, and it isn't chicken feed. Take a railroad with 8000 miles, when we get the rail
all in welded — and now there is over 1000 miles on our railroad — we have a saving
of $3 million, and to a western railroad .$.^ million is a lot of money, and we are
after it.
Now on the investment side — and we will save more money in investment over the
years — but assuming that we do just what was done in 1QS8, with this 8000 miles we
will save $10 million dollars in investment over the >ears. That isn't chicken feed to our
type of railro.id.
In connection with estimating, what does management ask about our tests? The
first thing, where is that test? Well, ours is at a location where we have maximum
temperature extremes on our railroad. It's in a track that for our railroad would be
considered average. Tonnage is about 20 million a year, which is light, probably, for
most of you folks. Our ma.ximum will run up around 45, and we get down as low
as 15 in our rail relay territory, but this appeared to be an average.
.All right, our folks say that's line. Now you say we can .save money. You want to
lay 200 miles of welded rail this year. The first thing we want to know, where are you
going to make those savings and how much are they going to be in actual manpower?
The actual savings have been more than the predicted savings on our railroad
because there has been more manpower cut off than this $.^54 would indicate, and the
reason for that is because in recent years the relays have been in our heavier tonnage
territory and by estimating again from the comparisons in tonnage we have been able
to cut off more manpower.
Further on estimating: 10 years ago we had a certain method of surfacing. That's
no longer in existence. We have a better method, a cheaper method. We have to doctor
these figures every year because we are not static, so again we have to estimate. I think
that prudent management will take those figures from an engineer — that's all I know
what we are around here for, is to give them those figures.
However, my concern is really this: I am out, and I would hate to have somebody
succeeding me quote something I said last year because already it is out-of-date. You
are just moving so fast. Even if you are going to have to estimate, don't pass up the
opportunity to really study the benefits of continuous welded rail because you are going
to hurt your management if you don't. That's my conviction, and I leave it with you
young folks. There are some problems, but >(iii are troing to solve them, and you are
going to make the railroads some mone.w
Thank you. [Applause]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Blair. We have run over a half hour already.
It's not fair to the other committees to spend any more time on this. There have been
two sides, and if there are any other thoughts on the matter, please write them and
send them to the secretary, and he will refer them to the Continuous Welded rail
committee.
We have to finish this report and get on with the rest.
Charlie, we just can't take an\- more time.
Mk. Gkvkr: Thank vou, Mr. President, for shutting me off. (LaiiL'titer |
1166 Rail
President Meyers: We appreciate your remarivs, Mr. Geyer and Mr. Blair, very
much.
Acting Chairman Welter: Your new chairman, F. L. Rees unfortunately is on
leave of absence, and couldn't be here today. However, I would like to introduce the
new vice chairman, assistant engineer maintenance of way and structures for the Southern
Pacific, W. J. Jones. [Applause]
Mr. President, this concludes our report.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Weller.
These differences of opinion are really the life-blood of our Association. Most of it
is threshed out in the committees. It is healthy to have a Httle of it on the floor. We
can only permit so much, however, or we would have to add two or three days to our
convention.
Mr. Weller, we appreciate your stepping back into harness as acting chairman and
bringing these committee reports to this convention. We look forward to the return
of Mr. Rees to the Santa Fe in May, when he can take over his responsibiUties as
chairman of your committee. In the meantime, we know that Mr. Jones, as your new
vice chairman, will see that the committee gets reorganized and the work for the
current year put under way.
Your committee is dismissed with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Rail
[For report see pp. 873-976.]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: The next committee to make a report is our important Com-
mittee 4 — Rail, of which I am a member. The chairman is L. S. Crane, mechanical
research engineer, Southern Railway System, Washington. I could say quite a little
bit about the work of this committee, but I do not want to take the time, so Mr. Crane,
you will please proceed.
Chairman L. S. Crane: Mr. President, members and guests: The report of Com-
mittee 4 begins on page 873 of Bulletin 549.
Because of the shortness of time, I want to make only a couple of remarks. We
lost a large number of our committee last year through resignations and retirements.
There are two of them I wish to pay tribute to. One of them is Tom Blair who has
just been up here. I think what he said to you indicates the type of man he is. He is a
clear thinker. He is a fighter. He has ably chairmanned several of our subcommittees
during many years, and in his resignation we will lose a valuable member. We hope
that he will come to our meetings and give us his valuable advice and counsel.
We also are losing Walter Leaf, research physicist, Denver & Rio Grande Western,
who is transferring his membership from Committee 4 — Rail to Committee 5 — Track.
I cannot let this opportunity pass without paying a special tribute to Mr. Leaf whose
original research work in the field of joint bars and rails has contributed much to the
work of our committee.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Crane: W. J. Cruse, engineer of maintenance of way, Great Northern,
will present the report on Assignment 1. Mr. Cruse.
W. J. Cruse: Mr. President, members and guests: This is a report on Assignment
1 — Revision of Manual.
[Mr. Cruse read the Manual changes pertaining to Rail Record Forms 402-A —
Address of Dr. Frocht 1167
Reports of Rail Failures in Main Track, and 402-L — Annual Report of Profrressive Type
Head Failures in Rail of All Ages Made by All Processes, printed on pages 875-877 of
Bulletin 549, same pages these Proceedings. |
Mr. Cruse: I move that these recommendations be adopted.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote and carried.!
Mr. Cruse: On page 4-1-13, delete Fig. 8 — Recommended Head Easement for
Joint Bars, substituting therefor the new drawing presented on page 875 of Bulletin
549. (Same page these Proceedmgs). I so move.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Cruse.
Chairmax Crane: It is now my pleasure to introduce to you the feature speaker
on our program. He is research professor of mechanics and director of experimental
stress analysis, Illinois Institute of Technology. He is an acknowledged authority in his
field. It was my pleasure at a meeting of our Association several years ago to introduce
this man to you, and at this time I know of no better way of introducing him than to
paraphrase the remarks I made then.
It has been said of the man that is well versed in the subject that he is handling,
that he knows the book. Gentlemen, Dr. Frocht wrote the book. Dr. Frocht.
Further Three-Dimensional Photoelastic Studies of Stresses in
Rail Head Due to Wheel Contact Pressure
By Dr. M. M. Frocht
Research Professor of Mechanics, Director of Experimental Stress Analysis,
Illinois Institute of Technology
Mr. President, Mr. Crane, gentlemen:
May I first of all thank you for your very kind introduction. I am not quite sure
just what I should do in the few minutes that I have at my disposal, for several
reasons — at least two. First, because a report on this study has already been prepared
and distributed. It would be nice to assume that a good many of you have at least
seen it and looked through the figures and the results. The second point is that I under-
stand you are running overtime, so it behooves me to be brief. Therefore, I am going
to omit a good many details of the method of procedure and make just a few general
remarks about the nature of the problem and then show you some slides.
What is the problem, the general problem that we are dealing with ? We are all
familiar, both from our school studies and practical applications, with the problem of
stress analysis in two dimensions. Until quite recently, that was about the only kind
of stress analysis that was made. Quite recently, however, around 1951, we were able
to perfect, or develop, — I shouldn't use perhaps the words '"perfect" because it's still not
perfect — a method which enables us to make complete three-dimensional stress studies,
bj' the use of plastic models and the general method known as photoelasticity. So in a
sense we are dealing here with something unprecedented in the history of stress analysis.
I hope it can be some measure of consolation to members of the .Association to feel
that they have sponsored some pioneering work in this tield.
Now. in what way does the three-dimensional stress analysis problem differ from
the two-dimensional problem ? In two-dimensional problems we know we have two
principal stresses. We either calculate them, or measure them by use of strain gages,
but in three-dimensional cases we have three principal stresses in the interior, and there
are no reliable methods available to actually determine these three principal stresses
1168 Rail
except in very simple cases. In very simple cases, or cases where the geometry is relatively
simple, it can be done mathematically, but when the geometry, because of shapes and
holes, becomes complicated, the mathematics become not only unwieldly for engineers,
but also for mathematicians.
The photoelastic method we used m the study of the problem at hand actually deter-
mines the principal stresses in the interior, but here we have a difficulty that we do
not have in two dimensions. In two dimensions the transition from the model to the
prototype is not as difficult. The properties of materials, such as Poisson's ratio, do not
enter the transition problem. However, in three-dimensional problems the transition
is more difficult because the stresses in some way depend on Poisson's ratio even though
it may not be a precise fact.
Now the main difficulties that arise in connection with the study really arise, not
from the difficulties that we have in studying the stresses in the model of the rail head
or the rail, but rather from the difficulties in the transition and difficulties of inter-
preting the meaning of the stresses in relation to shelly rail failures, or failures in
general. There hasn't been enough work done on this subject. We don't know enough
about the problems of the relation of stress to failure to be able to say: This means
just exactly that. And so, first of all, I would like to present a few results, typical
results, from the photoelastic study.
In the photoelastic study we made a transparent model of a rail head, a smaller
model, two-thirds scale. In a previous study which I had the pleasure and the honor
to present to you in 195-^ we studied only the stresses in the transverse section of
symmetry immediately under the center of the wheel.
This time our study was much more comprehensive ; we not only studied the
stresses in the same transverse plane as before, but what is more significant, we studied
the ,stresses lengthwise along the rails, along three lines below the area of contact. May
I now ask for the first slide ; we will skip most of the others.
The first slide (see Fig. 4, page 960) shows the location of the lines that we inves-
tigated— the lines through points F, G, and H. The left corner is the gage corner of
the rail, and the region G-H is the region where the maximum shear is generally
developed in the rail.
Now I would like to skip all the slides and take the last two.
In this slide (See Fig. 10, page 967) we see the rectangular stress components along
the line F-F. You see the three normal stresses — Sigma x, Sigma y, Sigma z, and three
shears. In order to identify these stresses in relation to the rail, I would like to say that
the X axis is the longitudinal axis of rail. The y axis is the vertical line, that is, the
direction of the vertical load coming in the rail. The z axis is the axis which lies in
the transverse plane. The three shears, Tau x, Tau y, and Tau z are associated with the
normal stresses to give us the complete state of stress. This has never been done before
so far as I know. We have never been able to determine experimentally the complete
state of stress in the interior of a model.
These curves are quite typical for the other lines, G-G, H-H, and also for another
load. This was done for a load of 78 lb, but we have also used a smaller load of 51 lb.
The distribution is quite similar.
Slide (See Fig. 11, page 967). From the three rectangular stress components it is
possible to find, and we have found, the three principal stresses Sigma 1, Sigma 2, and
Sigma 3. For purposes of comparison I showed also the normal stress components,
Sigma x, Sigma y, Sigma z. The .shears are omitted here.
Address of Dr. Froch t 116Q
Now it is of interest to examine these curves and to see some rather striking things
that one could not very well have anticipated without such a study.
First of all, you will notice that the three principal stresses are compressive imme-
diately under the wheel, but as we go away from the wheel both to the right and
to the left, all these compressive stresses become tensile. Even though the tensions are
not very great, yet we develop a measure of tri-axiality. That, as you know, is a rather
dangerous state of affairs in connection with causes of failure, especially when one keeps
an eye on the conditions of fatigue, because as the wheel moves along the rail, each point
changes from a state of tri-axial tension to a state of tri-axial compression. This is the
first striking thing we noticed when we made the study with the 51 -lb load. That is
the reason why we went to a higher load in order to bring out a little bit more clearly
the tri-axiality.
The next, and perhaps the most significant result which becomes apparent from a
study of these curves, is indicated by point M on Sigma 1. It is the topmost point in
the positive branch of the curve. Sigma 1 is a principal stress. That means it acts on a
plane on which there is no shear.
Now we notice that whereas all three principal stresses Sigma 1, Sigma 2, Sigma 3,
are in general compressive except far away from the wheel, Sigma 1 becomes a tensile
stress at a point roughly 0.2 X over L. You can see how large that point is, by com-
paring the value at M, which is 10, with the — 25 for Sigma y. It's roughly 40 to
50 percent of the maximum value of Sigma y.
Now what does this mean? This principal plane on which we have the stress,
Sigma 1, with this rather large value of tension, becomes extremely significant because
planes parallel to it but in different locations are subjected to compressive stresses as
well as shears. That means then that in the interior of the rail we have planes which
are not only subjected to the fluctuations of small tri-axial tensions to large compres-
sions, but we have this extremely significant state of stress: we have planes with
fluctuating stresses — stresses fluctuating from a value of 40 to SO percent of Sigma y
to the rather large compressive value, plus the effect of the associated shear.
Just what that will do to the life of the rail is at present difficult to say. The fluctua-
tions in the normal stresses, plus the variations of the horizontal shears and in the
maximum shears for a 30,000-lb load is shown in the last slide (see Table 1, page 955).
This is a summary for three lines — line F-F, line G-G, line H-H. I would like to call
your attention to the three bottom rows, range of Tau xy, range of Sigma p, and range
of Tau max. For line F-F the range of Tau xy is ± 35,000 psi, G-G, ± 30,000 psi,
and H-H ± 37,500. Range of Sigma p — what is Sigma p? It is the stress on the plane
on which we have the maximum Sigma y. It's an oblique plane, and the range on this
plane is from 33,000 psi to — 39,000 psi for line F-F; 36,000 psi to — 44,000 on line
G-G and 23,400 psi to —32,400 psi on line H-H.
Similarly, we have the range of the maximum shear, Tau ma.x — from zero to 42,000
psi for line F-F; to 51,000 psi for line G-G and to 54,000 psi for line H-H.
May I call your attention to the following: When you look at these figures you
should also keep in mind the endurance limits which have been established- — which
I believe are at present accepted for these conditions. For e.xample, the endurance limit
for completely fluctuating limits is only 33,000 psi. That should be compared with
Sigma p. The endurance limit for completely fluctuating shears is ± 37,000 psi. That
should be compared with Tau yz, and the endurance limit for the maximum shears is
around 59,000 psi which is very close to the 54,000 shown for line H-H.
1170 Track
We have found these are typical results, and I wish I could say the problem is
completely solved. However, that would be overstating the case considerably. While we
solved one problem, its solution revealed the need for solving a half-dozen new ones
that we didn't think of before, such as problems arising from the question of transition,
questions of scale and questions of material of the model. Then the most important
question, which will probably take a good many years to answer and which isn't a
question strictly of stress analysis, has to do with the meaning of stresses in relation
to failure. Here we must consider properties of materials established by a long series
of fatigue tests, and that is a rather formidable task. Thank you very much. [Applause]
Chairman Crane: Thank you very much Dr. Frocht.
Mr. President, that concludes the report of the committee.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Crane.
The Association is greatly indebted to you and to your committee for the large
amount of work which it has carried forward during the post year. I hope members
of the AREA will read and study all the rest of the reports in the Bulletin that the
committee is not discussing this morning because of time limitations.
We appreciate also the cooperative efforts of Mr. Magee and his staff in the work
of this committee. I want to give our thanks to Dr. Frocht for appearing before us
this morning.
Your committee is now excused with the thanks of the Association. Keep up the
good work. [Applause]
Discussion on Track
[For report see pp. 785-871.]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: We will now hear from our Committee S — Track, the chair-
man of which is W. E. Cornell, engineer of track. Nickel Plate Road. Mr. Cornell, please
proceed with your report.
Chairman W. E. Cornell: Mr. President, members, and guests:
The report of Committee S— Track, will be found in Bulletin 549, pages 785 to 871
incl.
Your committee's report today will cover 8 of our 11 assignments. Discussion and
suggestions from the floor to guide our committee will be greatly appreciated.
Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
Chairman Cornell: Our first report today will be on Assignment 1 — Revision of
the Manual. Subcommittee Chairman G. R. Sproles, assistant chief engineer, Louisville &
Nashville, has been detained on his own railroad, and the report today will be given by
L. H. Jentoft, assistant chief engineer maintenance of way, Erie Railroad.
L. H. Jentoft: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests of the Asso-
ciation:
Under Assignment 1, Revision of Manual, your committee submits the following
recommendation, which is shown on pages 786 and 787 of Bulletin No 540:
[Mr. Jentoft then read in full the report as printed on the aforementioned pages,
moving that the recommendations be adopted and published in the Manual.]
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, -and carried.]
Discussion 1171
Assignment 3 — Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip-
Switches. Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR.
Chairm.\n Cornell: The report on Assignment 3 will be given by M. J. Zeeman,
engineer of track design, Santa Fe.
M. J. Zeeman: Your committee submits for your approval as recommended prac-
tice and publication in the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans (a part of the Manual) three
plans, Nos. 791-59, 792A-50, and 792B-59, all relating to track gage and flangeway
widths for operation of diesel and steam power on curved track. The portfolio now
has this data for steam operation only, and the proposed three plans cover both steam
and diesel power, for which reason the two plans for steam operation should be with-
drawn.
Therefore, Mr. President, I move the adoption of Plans 791-59 — Tables of Practical
Gages and Flangeways for Curved Track, 792A-59 — Graph Showing Minimum Gages
and Flangeways for Curved Track (Diesel Locomotives), and 792B-59 — Graph Showing
Minimum Gages and Flangeways for Curved Track (Steam Locomotives), as recom-
mended practice and publication in the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) and
the withdrawal of previous Plans 791-34, and 792-34.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Zeeman: Your committee also recommends for your approval some revisions
of Paragraph 33 of the Specifications for Special Trackwork, Appendix A, page 1. These
proposed revisions result in slightly closer tolerances in frog and crossing gages and
flangeways, which are thought to be desirable for diesel operation.
Therefore, Mr. President, I move the adoption as recommended practice and for
publication in the Manual (portfolio of Trackwork Plans) the revisions of Paragraphs
33 (b), 33 (c), 33 (d), and 33 (h) of the Specifications for Special Trackwork, Appen-
dix A, page 1, as described at bottom of page 787, and top of page 788, Bulletin 549.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Zeem.an: The next item we wish to submit for your approval is a revision
of Art. IS — Spring Washers, Appendix A, of the portfolio. The proposed revision is to
limit Art. 15 to cover spring washers for railroad crossings only, since this double-coil
type of washer is not needed for turnout frogs or guard rails requiring li4-in and 1^-in
diameter bolts.
Therefore, Mr. President, I move the adoption as recommended practice and for
publication in the Manual (Portfolio of Trackwork plans) the proposed new Art. 15 —
Spring Washers, shown on pages 788 and 789 of the Bulletin, to supersede present
Art. 15 shown on page 8, Appendix A, of the Portfolio. Also, to save time, I am includ-
ing in this motion, approval to make four minor revisions, detailed on page 789, on
pages 3, 4, 6, and 7 of Appendix A.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Zeeman: We are glad to report that a way has been found to take care of
minor inconsistencies or errors on the plans in the portfolio. The method of handling
this matter is considered to be editorial, and as such does not require convention
approval. We took this subject up with Mr. Howard, executive secretary, who suggested
that the procedure for handling these minor revisions be described as part of the "Fore-
ward" on page 1 of the Table of Contents. Not only did Mr. Howard make the
suggestion, but he also wrote the new "Foreward," which describes how these minor
revisions will be handled in a new "Errata Section" at the end of the Table of Contents,
We wish to express our appreciation to Mr. Howard for his valuable assistance.
1172 Track.
Your committee finds that minor revisions are required on 32 plans, and it is pro-
posed to show these revisions in the new errata section of the portfolio.
Therefore, Mr. President, I move the adoption of the revisions on the 32 plans
beginning with plan 190-55 E-59 on page 791 and ending with Plan 783-55 E-59 on
page 792, to be shown in the Errata Section of the Portfolio.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Zeeman: The collaboration of our associate members, the manufacturers, in
all of our work is gratefully acknowledged.
Your committee also submits a report prepared by the research staff of the Engineer-
ing division, AAR, being Appendix 3-a, Service Tests of Designs of Manganese Steel
Castings in Crossings at McCook, 111. Mr. President, this report is presented as
information.
President Meyers: It will be so received.
Mr. Zeeman: This concludes the report on Assignment 3.
Assignment 4 — Prevention of Damage Resulting From Brine Drippings
on Track and Structures, Collaborating with Committee 15 and Mechanical
Division, AAR.
Chairman Cornell: Subcommittee Chairman W. E. Griffiths, chief engineer, Cen-
tral Region, Canadian National Railways, had to return to Canada, and his report will
be given by C. E. Peterson, assistant engineer, Santa Fe.
C. E. Peterson: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
As indicated in the report published in Bulletin 549, which was prepared in col-
laboration with Committee IS and the Mechanical Division of the AAR, the most im-
portant phase of this study is to develop a non-toxic brine inhibitor for use in
refrigerator cars.
In this we have been helped by the Canadian National Railways, Department of
Research, who have had a considerable measure of success in solving the problem and
who have made all information developed by them available to us. It is true that
there has been some lessening of the problem by reason of the increase in the number
of refrigerator cars equipped with mechanical refrigeration, but the over-all problem
is still serious and warrants the attention and help of all who are responsible for main-
taining track and structures. It is therefore hoped that as many of you as possible will
review this report.
Assignment 6 — Hold-Down Fastenings for Tie Plates, Including Pads
Under Plates; Their Effect on Tie Wear, Collaborating with Committee 3.
Chairman Cornell: The report on Assignment 6 will be given by Subcommittee
Chairman J. S. Parsons, chief engineer, Erie Railroad.
J. S. Parsons: Assignment 6 concerns tests which are being conducted primarily
for the purpose of determining the effectiveness and economy of various types of hold-
down fastenings, tie pads, etc., as related to tie life and the frequency of regaging and
readzing of curves. In other words, we are trying to determine the most economical and
effective methods for extending the service life of ties by reducing plate cutting and the
frequency of regaging and readzing curves by the use of special hold-down fastenings,
tie coatings, tie pads, etc.
Our report this year is still in the nature of a progress report presented as informa-
tion, covering service test installations on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad near
London and East Bernstadt, Ky. The report covers the 11th annual inspection of the
Discussion 1173
service tests on this road which is cooperating with this committee and the AAR
research staff under the direction of H. E. Durham, research engineer track.
During 1058 new test sections were installed as follows: (1) Bird 5-ply coated tie
pads and Bernuth. Lembcke Company, Inc., gage lock spikes and tie plate lock spikes
were applied to three 3 9- ft rail lengths on the 5-deg 36-min curve in the northward
main track 0.5 mile north of East Bernstadt. The existing creosoted oak ties and 13-in
double-shoulder tie plates were used. (2) Bird S-ply coated pads were installed on 48
new ties in the S-deg curve at East Bernstadt on August 26, 1958, in replacement of
the Achuff sisal fiber pads. (3) Railroad Rubber Products, Inc., 7- by 934 in double-
shoulder canted rubber tie plates were installed during August on 24 new creosoted oak
ties. (4) Tire-carcass double-coated pads manufactured by the Konvex Tie Pad Co.
of East St. Louis, 111., were installed during .August in replacement of Western Felt
Works wool felt pads. (5) In Section 35 of the test, the north 30 alternate ties installed
in July 1950 were recoated during August, using Koppers' No. 16 tie sealing compound
spread over the top surface and covered with J4-in stone chips. The subcommittee felt
that recoating J^ the section should develop some data on the value of recoating part
of the section for comparison with the ties not recoated.
Generally speaking, your committee has determined that expenditures for future
savings, such as for extending the service hfe of ties, etc., without increasing the cost
of a tie year, or preferably at a reduction in the cost of a tie year, should be made
on a conservative basis.
Tests and information received from other railroads indicate that the greatest
economies to be derived in the use of tie pads are in their installation on bridge decks
and under insulated joints. As to hold-down fastenings, greater economy can be derived
through their use on curves only.
In conclusion our service tests have developed that pads having a long-lasting seal
are essential for obtaining maximum softwood tie life; that some of the hold-down
fastenings are less effective in softwood ties than in hardwood, and that tie pads with
special hold-down fastenings should have a longer service life than with cut spike
construction.
The test is being continued in order to develop more definite conclusions, and a
further detailed inspection will be made during May or June of this year and the
findings published as our 1959 report.
President Meyers: Thank you. Your report will be received as information.
Assignment 7 — Effect of Lubrication in Preventing Frozen Rail Joints
and Retarding Corrosion of Rail and Fastenings.
Ch.airman Cornell: The report on Assignment 7 will be given by R. G. Garland,
roadmaster, Santa Fe.
R. G. G.arland: Mr. President, gentlemen:
The final report of our eight-year service test of metal preservatives and methods
of application in preventing frozen joints has been printed in the Bulletin as information.
We found that jomts packed with Texaco 905 graphite grease and plastic H end
plugs would give good protection, requiring no maintenance for more than seven years.
The spray method of lubricating joints at a cost of about 10 cents per joint was
found to be effective in preserving and unfreezing joints. No-Ox-Id 100 shows good
protection after three years of service.
During the last service period there were no stripped joints. This indicates that
proper lubrication, together with proper anchorage, will solve the costly problem of
stripped joints.
1174 Track
It is anticipated that we will be able to present to the next convention revisions
in the Manual in the form of recommended practices for preventing frozen joints and
stripped joints.
We are developing information as to preservatives and methods recommended when
both jointed and welded rail are sprayed out-of-face to prevent or retard corrosion.
Should any of you have available in heavy brine territory a location where we can
spray 78-ft rail or newly jointed and welded rail, we would appreciate hearing from
you. We need about two miles of track for our proposed tests.
President Meyers: Mr. Garland, I would suggest you get in touch with our Mr.
Reid. We have miles and miles of 78-ft rails.
Mr. Garland: Thank you.
Assignment 8 — Laying Rail Tight With Frozen Joints.
Chairman Cornell: The report on Assignment 8 will be given by J. B. Wilson,
chief engineer, Georgia Railroad.
J. B. Wilson: Mr. President, members and guests. This year we are reporting on
three test sections, all of which have different rail sections, joint bars and other
characteristics.
The test section on the Louisville & Nashville near Chapel Hill, Tenn., has been
under observation since October 1955 and the AAR staff has obtained three periodic
sets of data. Over the last 0.94 year period, the middle bolts of the 132-lb, 6-hole
headfree joints lost 40 percent of the applied tension. Intermediate and end bolt losses
were 21 and 19 percent, respectively. This compares with 40, 24 and 31 percent losses
on the middle intermediate and end bolts in 1957. On bolts tested for a two-year span,
the losses increased to 60 percent on the middle bolts and 41 percent on the remaining
bolts, making the average loss for the bolts in the two-year span 47 percent, or 23,500
lb remaining tension.
From an analysis of the joint gap pattern during the two year period of bolt main-
tenance, no adverse effect on the general maintenance was noted. It was found necessary
during the second year of the test cycle to gas-weld 65 of the 211 joints on the plain-
end rail. Inspection of the welds this past year revealed that the majority of them were
performing well. Some of the joints which had not been built up continue to chip.
Had the plain rail ends been carefully squared up and end milled with not too much
undercut, chipping might have been greatly reduced if not eliminated.
The Erie Railroad test section near Crown Point, Ind., is laid with 115 RE rail
with 6-hole long-toe bars and 1-in track bolts tightened to 35,000 lb tension. The south
rail of the tight rail section was laid with rail temperature varying between 68 and
90 deg, or an average temperature of 79 deg. The north rail temperature, when laid,
varied between 70 and 117 deg. On account of the high temperature of rails when
laid, 167 of the 266 joints were open when track was checked December 11, 1957,
when the rail temperature was 4 deg. When checked on September 22, 1958, with a
rail temperature of 114 deg, 63 of the 266 joints were open, the average joint opening
being 0.07 in for the 63 joints. This clearly shows that in order to have uniform tight
rail in track, the rails must be laid at a medium temperature approximately half way
between the coldest and hottest temperature of the section. This of course is practically
impossible to accomplish.
The Bessemer & Lake Erie test section near Grove City, Pa., is laid with 140 RE
rail. At the suggestion of the AAR staff, AREA 6-hole head-contact joints and 11/64 in
carburized Washers were used. Tension of 45,000 lb was applied to the Ij^-in bolts.
Discussion 1 175
Over a 0.72 year period, the middle bolts lost 4-^ percent of their tension and the
intermediate and end bolts 2Q and 33 percent, respectively. At the time rail was laid,
joints were tight, but loss of bolt tension in the first month after laying was sufficient
to permit considerable opening of joints with the relatively low temperatures that
prevailed during the period. Winter gap readings obtained in February 1958 show a
pattern similar to initial readings with an increase of 18 percent in the number of
open gaps in the end hardened rail and 19 percent increase in the plain-end rail.
This coming year, your subcommittee together with the AAR staff will continue
to study the three test sections and will give you further reports next year.
Assignment 10 — Methods of Heat Treatment, Including Flame Harden-
ing, of Bolted Rail Frogs and Split Switches. Together with Methods of
Repair by Welding.
Chairman Cornell: The report on Assignment 10 will be given by Subcommittee
Chairman S. H. Poore, assistant engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio.
S. H. Poore: Gentlemen, this subject has been in progress for several years. It
was started in 1954 to explore the value of heat treatment and flame hardening of frogs
and switches and to also go into the matter of repair of these fixtures by welding.
The work has been progressed, using simulated crossing panels installed on the
Milwaukee Road at Mannheim, 111.
The reports to date seem to show that the panels fabricated of completely heat-
treated carbon-steel rails can go longer than the flame-hardened rails before repair is
necessary. It is worth noting that panels of used chrome-vanadium rail compare favor-
ably with heat-treated panels (Proceedings, Vol. 57, page 954 and Vol. 58, page i078).
When we come to repair by welding, it is practicable to deposit weld metal com-
parable to the original hardness by all methods of welding (page 868, Vol. 60, Pro-
ceedings) and in most cases the weld deposit is slightly harder than the original parent
metal. The metal joint beneath the new deposit does not seem to be materially affected
in the case of the flame-hardened items, although the original hardened volume of metal
seems to be reduced to something comparable to ordinary carbon steel (Proceedings,
Vol. 58, pages 914 through 924) immediately below the surface.
In the case of building up the completely heat-treated specimens: When weld
metal is deposited by gas methods, the hardness imparted by the original heat treatment
seems to be destroyed through substantially the entire rail head at the point of welding
(Vol. 58, pages 925, 929, and 933.) When weld metal is deposited by electric methods
on completely heat-treated specimens, their destruction of the heat treatment does not
seem to penetrate as completely through the rail head as in the case of gas welding
(Vol. 58, pages 927, 928, 930, 931, 932, 934, and 935.)
The used chrome-vanadium rail seems to hold its hardness very well without
respect to the method used in depositing the weld metal.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Poore. Your report will be received as
information.
Assignment 11 — Economies to be Gained by the Railroads from the
More Extensive Use of AREA Track Work Plans.
Chairman Cornell: The report on Assignment 11 will be presented by Subcom-
mittee Chairman W. R. Bjorklund, district engineer, Northern Pacific Railway.
W. R. Bjokklund: Members and guests of AREA:
In studying our assignment we noted the multifarious designs used by the railroads
for the construction of frogs, switches, and other track materials. Every number of frog,
1176 Track
and some fractions thereof, are being ordered from No. 5's to No. 16's and higher.
The railroads, however, are consistent in not ordering No. 13 frogs.
Our assignment indicated the desire for a cost analysis. This proved impossible.
Savings may be as low as 5 percent or higher than 30 percent.
The founders of AREA recognized the desirability of standardization. Old Proceed-
ings show the heated discussions which took place SO years ago. Those early reports
indicated that each railroad representative had his own pet length of frog and switch.
Invariably, the reports of the committee recommended a variety of lengths of switches
and all numbers of frogs. The general statement was made that AREA was not
attempting to standardize by issuing definite track-work plans; they were merely
issuing guides to be used for making designs. Those same arguments and principles
are present today.
Years ago, the railroads could afford to be individualistic. Under present highl\
competitive business conditions it behooves all of us to make our particular phase of
the railroad industry operate at greatest efficiency and economy. There would be a
tremendous saving had the standards of AREA been adopted many years ago and
the number of frogs and switches been reduced to the minimum requirements for safety,
speed, and riding comfort. Those three factors are the only arguments we can present
for a particular design of track material. If we can get safety, speed, and riding comfort
and be further blessed with greatest economy, then our mission as engineers for the
railroads should have been fulfilled.
I should like to quote Mr. Herbert Hoover, who in 1923, as chairman of the
National Committee on Standardization, stated: "The differences when they cccur are
frequently and perhaps generally of a minor character and altogether too often require
only slight modification in the product. This practice can, of course, in some instances
be defended, but in the writer's opinion in a very large number of cases, results in a
higher cost to the purchaser without any corresponding gain in the quahty of the
material."
It is recognized that standards are not frozen or unchangeable. It can remain a
standard only so long as it represents the best practice. In order to maintain the value
of standards, revisions should be made by the same agencies which created them. Other-
wise, there would be a return to the original chaotic conditions.
Your subcommittee has prepared a report generalizing the advantages by pointins
out that the railroads of this country should and must standardize on track materials
in the interest of over-all economy. In preparing our report we recommended that the
AREA Trackwork Plans be modified to designate specific designs, including the elimina-
tion of alternates. The assignment of Subcommittee 11 dealing with economics may be
considered final. The actual review of the Trackwork Plans and the recommendations
for nationwide standards will be carried on by Subcommittee 3 of your Track committee.
This report is submitted as information.
President Meyers: It will be so received.
Chairman Cornell: Mr. President, members of the AREA, and guests:
This completes the reports on our assignments.
It is now my pleasure to introduce as a special feature a talk by one of the
veteran members of our committee. Our speaker has been a member of our Association
since 1929, a member of Committee 5 since 1934. He has served as chairman of Sub-
committee 3 — Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip Switches, from 1951
to date.
Address of M. J. Zeeman 1177
His work as engineer of track design on the Santa Fe has kept him in such close
contact with the design and development of frogs and switches that he has been able
to carefully evaluate the trends and the urgent need for standardization. It is a pleasure
to me at this time to introduce one of the most tireless workers of our committee,
Martin J. Zeeman. Mr. Zeeman. [Applause]
Standardization of Turnouts — What Must be
Done to Achieve it?
By M. J. Zeeman
Engineer of Track Design, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway
Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members and guests: Thank you, Mr. Cornell, for
this nice introduction. I hope I don't disappoint you too much.
I consider it an honor and a privilege to address you on the subject of Standardiza-
tion of Turnouts. This problem has been discussed by the Track Committee for the
last few years without having reached a satisfactory solution, so I would like to present
for your consideration some of my views. This is a highly controversial subject, and
it is very difficult to reach agreement on any one plan, although I am certain that every
one here knows that the result of agreement would be a substantial saving to the rail-
roads in many ways, as pointed out in the report of Subcommittee 11. I do not believe
that this matter can be tied up at this time in a complete package by any one individual
to everyone's satisfaction, but if a few roads would take the lead, it is likely that
others would follow gradually.
Probably one of the main reasons why turnout units have not as yet been stand-
ardized is due to the fact that it is economical for each road to replace or renew the
parts or units in kind, there'oy not adding to storehouse stock or causing confusion in
the field. Since we are not compelled by any order from competent public authority to
use a prescribed standard, the lack of standardization, therefore, seems to be a penalty
of our system of free enterprise. It is also probable that company pride in their own
plans has kept some roads from admitting the possible savings through standardization.
The AREA Trackwork Portfolio contains a large number of recommended plans,
giving detailed information for 13 turnout numbers, with a multiplicity of plans for
frogs and switches, with alternate complete designs as well as alternates for details. A
"common" standard, which was, and is, the objective, could not be developed in com-
mittee work due solely to the differences of opinion of the engineers as to "which is
best." Therefore, the alternate designs are the result. Also, we should not lose sight of
the fact that there are a lot of railroads in this country, large and small, with greatly
varying operating conditions as well as kinds and densities of traffic. Each railroad, large
or small, can find in the present Portfolio a plan which suits its particular need.
Research, as well as individual ingenuity on the part of manufacturers and railroad
engineers are constantly improving certain parts of the railroad track structure. When
turnout material is standardized, adequate machinery should be set up to make improve-
ments available with a minimum of delay, otherwise we may lose more by not being
able to get the benefits of improvements than we gain by adhering to the standard.
Therefore, possibly a certain time limit should be placed on an adopted standard, say 3
or 4 years, during which time no changes would be made, but some committee should
investigate the suggested improvements so that the standard can be brought up to date
at stated intervals. However, in case a major improvement is found, self-evident as to
safety and economy, it should be made available sooner.
1178 Track
In the October 1958 issue of the AREA News, our President, Mr. Meyers, called
attention to the need of standardization, not only of turnouts, but of rail sections, rail
drilling and joint bars as well. The number of rail sections, different rail drillings and
joint bar sections certainly compHcates standardization of frogs and switches.
There is a strong feeling at the present time that the AREA should eliminate a lot
of the alternates and that, in order to obtain the advantages of standardization, a mini-
mum number of designs for frogs, switches and guard rails should be selected from the
Portfolio to meet the traffic density and speeds generally required in turnout operation.
There occasionally will be some special locations, which should be handled individually.
The job before us then is to select the particular turnouts to meet these require-
ments. To provide a basis on which to start work, I respectfully wish to submit the
following plan for your consideration:
Designate four turnouts as standards for general use. These to be:
No. 8 — for yard turnout
No. 12 — main track, slow speed
No. 16 — main track, intermediate speed
No. 20 — main track, high speed
My main reason for including the No. 16 is that this turnout will be the "high speed"
turnout for many roads not requiring No. 20 turnout speeds.
Now specifying the component parts of these four turnouts:
No. 8 — 13-ft 0-in curved switch with graduated risers. Two rigid frogs, one of
which is bolted and the other solid manganese steel self guarded. Tee rail
guard rails for the bolted frog. Permissible speed, based on 3-in unbalanced
elevation, 20 mph.
No. 12 — 19-ft 6-in curved switch with graduated risers. Two frogs, one of which
is rail-bound manganese and the other a spring rail frog, short spring rail
type. Tee rail guard rails. Permissible speed, 29 mph.
No. 16 — 26-ft 0-in curved switch with graduated risers. One frog, being rail
bound manganese. Tee rail guard rails. Permissible speed, 40 mph.
No. 20 — 39-ft 0-in curved switch with graduated risers. One frog, being rail
bound manganese. Tee rail guard rails. Permissible speed, SO mph.
It should be understood that the above applies to lateral turnouts only, since the
Portfolio does not include equilateral turnouts
I believe it desirable now to give you the reasons for selecting these four turnouts
and their parts.
Curved switches: It is obvious that movement through a turnout equipped with a
switch curved substantially the same as the lead curve provides better riding than could
possibly be obtained with a straight switch. The four turnouts recommended meet this
condition. For a turnout movement, the curved point per detail SlOO on Plan 221-55,
commonly known as Samson point, is definitely stronger than a straight point per detail
6100, although the latter is preferred for the straight point of the curved switch. All
lengths of switch points, 13 ft, 19 ft 6 in, 26 ft and 39 ft are made from 39-ft rails
without waste.
Besides providing practically uniform curvature from point of switch to toe of frog,
curved switches for No. 8, 12 and 16 turnouts reduce the lead length considerably, but
the lead of the No. 20 turnout with 39-ft curved points is about 4 ft greater than with
30-ft straight points. For the No. 8 turnout, the lead is 9 ft .shorter with 13-ft curved
AddrcssofM.J.Zeeman 1170
points than with Id-ft D-in straight |K)ints; for No. 12 turnout the lead is about o ft
shorter with 19-ft 6-in curved points than with 22-ft straight points and for the No. 16
turnout the lead is 13 ft shorter with 26-ft curved points than with 30-ft straight (joints.
All of these items make for economy, in first cost as well as in maintenance, and the
only additional cost, not incurred when straight switches are used, is for undercutting
of the stock rail for the curved point.
Graduated risers: My choice for switches with graduated instead of uniform risers
is largely determined by the distinct advantage and economy of being able to use hook
twin tie plates. For each rail section, all turnout plate requirements are filled by using
three lengths of twin plates, with two plates for each length, or a total of six different
plates, for the four lengths of switches. Furthermore, these same plates are also used
for all rigid frogs and at toe and heel ends of spring rail frogs. Another advantage is
the flexibility in spacing of switch ties, which is particularly valuable where switch ties
are already in place. Comparing this with the machined individual turnout plates re-
quired for switches with uniform risers, also for one rail section, the four lengths of
switches require a total of 49 different plates. All of these plates are machined from
lj4-iri thick stock, for a predetermined tie spacing, leaving J^-in thickness under the rail
base, which is the same thickness as the twin plates, hence the special machined plates
are not any stronger, but cost a lot more and are not as flexible. Of course, the actual
number of special turnout plates for each length of switch is determined by the size
of the standard tie plates used.
Concerning switch plates: The plans for the curved switches in the Portfolio show
that all gage plates and certain slide plates are equipped with adjustable rail braces.
Standardization of switch plates is complicated due to the fact that practically every
manufacturer has its own patented design of rail brace and the plates are made to fit
that design. There is a notation on Plan 224-55 that the rail brace and plate shown are
for illustration only, but the specifications on this plan may require revision because
there are efficient braces on the market which do not conform to these specifications in
that they are fastened with only one bolt. I think one important provision should be
that bolt or bolts securing the brace are placed in such a manner that they can be
replaced in track without having to remove the plate from the tie. It may be possible
for the manufacturers and ourselves to get together and agree on one type of rail
brace, which would permit us to standardize on the switch plates. If this cannot be
done, we may have to be satisfied for the present by standardizing on the switches,
switch rods and turnout plates and give further study to the switch plates.
Before leaving switches, I wish to mention that plans for the 13-ft and 19-ft 6-in
switches (122-55 and 124-55), show the center line of the first switch rod located
12 in from the point for hand throw and 17 in from the point for interlocked switches.
That means two different switch points. I think there should be one location for the
chp of the first rod, making the point suitable for hand throw as well as interlocked
switches, which can be done by spacing the switch ties to suit the method of operation.
So far I have not mentioned spring switches. This type of switch is certainly a
source of economy in many locations. I believe that they should be adopted as a supple-
mental standard switch by modifying the 19-ft 6-in, 26-ft and 39-ft curved split
switches in line with Plan 181-51.
Now referring to rail-bound manganese steel frogs: You may have noted that the
Nos. 16 and 20 standard frogs would be of this type, also the No. 12 frog of the rigid
type. The Portfolio contains two designs of rail-bound manganese frogs, one for 90 lb
and heavier (Plan 600-55) and one for 112 lb and heavier (Plan 621-55). The 90-lb
1180 Track
design covers all angles from No. 4 to No. 20, and the 112 lb and heavier all angles from
No. 6 to No. 20, so there are two designs for No. 6 to No. 20 for rails 112 lb and
heavier. Plan 600-55 shows light sections which are, in my opinion, suitable only for
lightweight rails, so I would confine this plan only to standard Nos. 12, 16 and 20
rigid frogs for rails less than 112 lb. Plan 621-55 calls for heavy sections; in fact, the
side walls are so thick that there are possibly only a few railroads in the country with
traffic heavy enough to justify this design. For this reason, in order to make this plan
suitable for general use, I recommend to revise Plan 621-55 to call for walls 1% in
thick instead of 2 in and 1% in as now shown, and then use this plan for standard
Nos. 12, 16 and 20 rigid frogs for rails 112 lb and over.
With reference to the No. 12 spring rail frog: The principal reason for selecting
the short spring rail type frog is the fact that a much stronger joint is obtained at the
toe end, which makes a better anchor against creeping of the loose spring wing rail.
There also is an advantage in reducing the length of the loose spring rail in the main
track.
Relative to guard rails: Considering all things, I believe the bolted tee-rail guard
rail, on canted plates, may be slightly more advantageous than the one piece manganese
steel guard rail. One characteristic of one-piece guard rails is that they are short, on
account of the high cost of manganese. Another characteristic is that they are good for
only one uniform predetermined switch tie spacing. This is somewhat of a handicap
when switch ties are already in place, whereas the tee-rail guard rail has some flexibility
in spacing of ties. Also, there is a greater tendency to spike kill switch ties with one
piece guard rails because any flangeway adjustment must be made by changing the spikes.
Also in favor of the tee-rail guard rail is that it provides an outlet for short pieces
of new rail, including No. 2, as well as second-hand rail. With the vast amount of short
length rails, this is important. Tee-rail guard rails can be made long enough to protect
the frog points and particularly in spring rail frogs where the loose spring rail should be
protected from the toe joint to a point where the running rail head is standard width,
to minimize wear due to lateral movement of the wheels. This last comment also applies
to rigid frogs. At present, the only design of tee-rail guard rails. Plans 504—55, calls for
fiat plates. There was a plan. No. 503-40, which called for canted plates but this plan
was suspended in 1942. In my opinion, guard rails should have plates with a canted rail
seat, and I hope that the Track committee will look into this and, if consistent, submit
a suitable plan for your consideration.
Times does not permit me to go into any more of the various details which would
be used in the suggested standards, as alternates would be eliminated. Suffice it to say
that, if you approve of the more important parts mentioned, I believe the details can
be agreed upon without too much trouble.
How can we handle the plans for the turnouts recommended as standard? I do not
believe that any plan should be removed from the Portfolio, but that one sheet can be
added, this sheet to show all information basic to the recommended standards, with
references to the detail plans. Then each of the plans of the various parts of the
standards can be marked with some symbol or letter, to be shown on the new sheet
of standards.
Of course, in case the Track committee should run out of work, it would be very
helpful to make up four standard turnout plans, one for each of the four standards.
We have heard considerable criticism about the great number of plans which have to
be consulted in order to get data for a complete turnout, and if the Portfolio should
contain a complete standard turnout plan, showing all of its component parts, including
ties and their spacing, typical rail layout, etc., I am certain it would be very useful.
Discussion 1181
Last, but not least, is the question, "when can a road adopt a new standard?"
Usually the answer is, when it adopts a new rail section. This, of course, is true, but
I believe that a road could also do this without having to wait for changing to another
rail section. No one at present knows just what the savings would be in case all roads
would adopt a common standard, in the meanwhile, going at it piecemeal, not much
benefit would accrue at first, but it would become greater as the use of the standard
increased. By making a change from the road's present standard to the new standard
for the same rail section would involve carrying in stock parts for two different types
of material during the transition period, and this is costly and sometimes confusing.
However, if we continue to make replacements of our present material in kind, we will
perpetuate its use and never get a common standard.
Standardization of Turnouts- — What Must Be Done to Achieve It? As stated
before, we must have a plan or basis on which to start work. It is earnestly hoped
that each of you who believes in standardization, will seriously analyze what has been
suggested. There is no doubt in my mind that with your help it can be improved upon
so that it may be more acceptable to the industry in general. Then, after the final plans
have been agreed upon, there is still one more job to be done and that is to work
towards the adoption of these plans by our own roads.
I thank you for your kind attention. [Applause]
Chairman Cornell: Mr. Zeeman, I am pleased that our committee has had the
privilege of hearing your report as a special feature, and I want to thank you for a job
well done.
Mr. President, this completes the report of your committee and also completes my
chairmanship. I have gotten much out of my work as chairman of Committee S. I want
to thank you and all the members of the Association who have given me the privilege
to thus serve you. I want to especially thank Mr. Howard, the subcommittee chairmen
and all members of Committee 5 for the expert help they have so generously devoted
and given to forwarding our work. It really has been a pleasure to have worked with
them.
It is my pleasure at this time to introduce your new committee chairman, Troy
West, engineer of track. Union Railroad. Stand up, Mr. West, please, and your new
vice chairman, S. H. Poore, assistant engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio. [Applause]
I wish Mr. West and Mr. Poore the greatest success possible in their new assign-
ment, and I am sure that they are capable of doing a fine job for you. I want to
thank all of you again.
President Meyers: Mr. Cornell, I want to thank you for the wonderful reports
you presented this morning, and the manufacturers and all of the others who have
worked with you in making it possible. I also want to thank Mr. Zeeman, not only
personally, but on behalf of the Association for doing some real thinking, which I am
sure in time will result in considerable benefit to the entire railroad industry.
I would like to make a few comments here that don't necessarily apply alone to
Committee 5. I have felt for some time that many of the recommended practices in our
Manual are not necessarily the best that we have or that wc know about. I think in
too many cases they are the result of compromise in committees. I think if this Asso-
ciation is going to avoid the brand of not being progressive that our committees in
many cases have to take a little bit difffferent attitude towards these things, then
should get all the facts, develop the best standard or practices po.ssible, and then not
1182 Roadway and Ballast
let a small minority compromise them because somebody's feelings might be hurt or
because some roads may have pride in something they are doing. That is not the way
progress is made in my opinion. I think we should all give that serious consideration.
I would like to talk quite a little bit here about what Mr. Zeeman said, but due to
time, Mr. Geyer, I must cut myself off, and proceed with the program. [Laughter].
So, without further ado, we will dismiss your committee with the thanks of the
Association, and welcome Troy West and Stewart Poore who I know will carry on the
fine work of Mr. Cornell and his committee. [Applause]
Discussion on Roadway and Ballast
[For report see pp. 655-783.]
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: The next and final report of our technical committees is that
of our Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast. The chairman of this committee, serving
for his first year, is G. B. Harris, assistant engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio, Richmond, Va.
Mr. Harris, you may now proceed.
Chairman G. B. Harris: Mr. President, members of the Association, ladies and
gentlemen:
The report of Committee 1 will be found in Bulletin 549, beginning on page 655.
You may have noticed it is a very voluminous one, in fact, the longest to be presented
this year, and which may account for the fact that we are again on this tail end of the
agenda here.
It may be the longest report, but I assure you it's not going to be as long as some
of them. We are going to try to cut the time down as much as possible.
During the past year we lost one member by death and five for other reasons.
Six guest members will become active members at the close of this convention.
Before proceeding with the presentation of our reports, I want to take this oppor-
tunity to express not only my personal sorrow, but also that of the whole committee
at the passing of one of its valued members through death last year. Lloyd Dewaine
Shelkey, assistant engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, was instantly killed in an
automobile accident at the south end of his railroad. Mr. Shelkey began his railroad
career with the engineering corps, Pennsylvania Railroad in 1934. In 1941 he entered
service of the Bessemer & Lake Erie as assistant supervisor track. He held various posi-
tions with this road and at the time of his death was assistant engineer in the office
of chief engineer. He had been a member of the Association and Committee 1 since
1949 and at the time of his death was chairman of Subcommittee 6 — Roadway. A
memoir in honor of Mr. Shelkey is included as part of our report.
This year your committee reports on 8 of its 11 assignments. We solicit your
comments, suggestions or criticism of any of our reports that you may care to offer.
We may not be able to answer all question you may have at this time, but in such a
case we shall certainly attempt to find the answer for you.
We have three Manual recommendations which will be presented by the subcom-
mittees involved instead of under Assignment 1 — Revision of Manual.
; Assignment 3 — Natural Waterways: Prevention of Erosion.
Chairman Harris: The first report to be presented this morning is on Assign-
ment 3. F. R. Naylor, assistant to chief engineer, Texas & Pacific Railway and chair-
man oi .Subcompiittee 3, was unable to be here today. In his absence I will ask G. W.
Becker, special engineer, drainage, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad to present
Discussion 1183
the report. Mr. Xaylor who is retiring from railroad service later this year is, as of
the close of this convention, retiring as chairman of Subcommittee 3.
Mr. Becker vvili succeed him as chairman of that subcommittee.
G. W. Becker: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
In 1955, your committee presented a report on the prevention of bank erosion in
natural waterways of the alluvial type by the use of steel jetties. In 1957 a supple-
mental report was submitted covering various other types of stream bed and bank-
protection installations.
Today we are presenting a report covering an additional method for preventing
erosion, the results obtained under flood conditions from previously described installations
and the effects of the floods on the various installations.
The report is submitted as information.
President Meyers: Thank you. It will be so received.
Assignment 4 — Conditions Requiring Headwalls, Wingwalls, Inverts,
and Aprons, and Requisites Therefor.
Ch.\irman Harris: The second report, that on .Assignment 4, will be presented by
G. D. Mayor, division engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, and subcommittee
chairman.
G. D. Mayor: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
Your committee has fulfilled its assignment by presenting a final report, which is in
effect a s\Tiiposium and condensation of replies received from 28 railroads.
The report, beginning on page 665 of Bulletin 549 is submitted as Manual Material.
Mr. President, I move that this report be adopted and published in the Manual at the
end of Part 4 — Culverts, Chapter 1.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Mr. Mayor: Mr. President, it is recommended that this subject be discontinued.
Presidext Meyers: It will be so ordered.
Assignment 5 — Specifications for Pipelines for Conveying Flammable
and Non-Flammable Substances.
Ch-airman Harris: K. W. Schoeneberg, chief engineer, Akron, Canton & Youngs-
town Railway, chairman. Subcommittee 5, will give us a brief progress report on the
activities of his subcommittee in connection with pipeHnes for conveying flammable and
non-flammable substances. Mr. Schoeneberg.
K. W. Schoeneberg: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
Your subcommittee on Assignment 5 has submitted a report as found on page
668 of Bulletin 549 with reference to the progress being made in collaborating with the
ASCE Committee on PipeHne Crossings of Highways and Railways, and also the progress
being made in studies of the present Manual material on pipeline crossings and longi-
tudinal occupancy with the view of revising same.
This report is submitted as information.
Assignment 6 — Roadway-Formation and Protection: (a) Roadbed Stabili-
zation; (b) Slope Protection by Use of Additives.
Chairman Harris: Due to the death of Mr. Shelkey, to which I referred earlier,
the next report will be presented by F. N. Beighley, roadway engineer, St. Louis-San
Francisco Railway. I might add that Mr. Beighley succeeded Mr. Shelkey as chairman
of Subcommittee 6.
F. N. Beighley: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests: •' i
1184 Roadway and Ballast
Your committee reports this year on Assignment (a) Roadbed Stabilization, only.
The report covers "Soil Engineering Problems on the Quebec North Shore & Labrador
Railway." It was prepared by Professor K. B. Woods, head, School of Civil Engineering,
Purdue University; R. W. J. Pryer, Soils Engineer, Quebec North Shore & Labrador
Railway; and W. J. Eden, Division of Building Research, National Research Council,
Canada. Later in our program one of the authors of the report will give us an illustrated
talk about these problems and how they were solved.
The report is submitted as information.
Assignment 8 — Fences.
Chairman Harris: The recommendations of Subcommittee 8 — Fences, will be pre-
sented by the subcommittee chairman, L. J. Deno, division engineer, Chicago & North-
western Railway. Mr. Deno. '^
L. J. Deno: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Your committee has considered and approved several revisions to the specifications
for right-of-way fences, and the addition of illustrations of the four classes of recom-
mended right-of-way fences.
Your committee recommends that the entire Specifications for Right-of-Way Fences,
pages 1-6-10 to 1-6-14, incl., in the Manual, be reapproved with the revisions printed
on pages 688 to 692, incl., of Bulletin 549.
Mr. President, I so move.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 9 — Roadway Signs: (a) ReHectorized and Luminous Road-
way Signs, Collaborating with Committees 5 and 9 and Signal Section AAR;
(b) Developing Standard Close Clearance Warning Sign, Collaborating with
Committee 28.
Chairman Harris: The chairman of Subcommittee 9, J. E. Chubb, freight traffic
manager, Pennsylvania Railroad, who is also our vice chairman, was unable to be here
today. In his absence I am going to ask L. H. Bond, assistant engineer, Illinois Central
Railroad to briefly summarize the studies completed by the Armour Research Foundation
on possible new nuclear light sources. Mr. Bond.
L. H. Bond: Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests:
Under Assignment 9 (a) the Research Department of the AAR, at committee
request, has sponsored a study on refiectorized and luminous signs through a research
project to determine the feasibility of nuclear light sources. The work was performed
at Armour Research Foundation and their final report appears in the Bulletin.
This report summarizes the work to date with recommendations for further inves-
tigations along the most promising lines developed in the present study.
For Assignment 9 (b), progress can be reported but no formal report should be
made at this time.
Assignment 10 — Ballast: (a) Tests; (c) Special Types of Ballast;
(d) Specifications for Sub-Ballast.
Chairman Harris: R. H. Beeder, chief engineer system, Atchison, Topeka & Santa
Fe Railway, and chairman of Subcommittee 10, will next advise us of the activities of
his subcommittee during the past year, together with recommendations for revision
of the Manual.
R. H. Beeder: Mr. President, members, and guests:
Your committee reports this year on two of its projects under Assignment 10 —
Ballast.
Discussion 1185
The report on Assignment 10 (a) — Ballast Tests, is submitted as information and
is the sixth report on the progress that started with the oscillator equipment and is
now being carried forward with improved equipment consisting of an Amsler pulsator
and hydraulic jacks. This equipment is being utilized for repeated-loading tests on
ballast, and we expect to make a comprehensive report on these tests next year.
The report on Assignment 10 (c) — Special Types of Ballast, is submitted as infor-
mation to cover the proposed program this year to treat approximately 30 track miles
of ballast section with asphaltic materials under the sponsorship of your committee, the
AAR Research Department and the Asphalt Institute. The special hopper car and
asphalt distributor car were not completed early enough to make the applications before
colder weather; therefore, the work will start the last of this month in California and
move progressively eastward with test locations in seven states.
Your committee recommends revision of our Specifications for Prepared Stone, Slag
and Gravel Ballast.
Gravel in many areas is produced from large oversize material in which substantially
all particles are crushed and which is, therefore, essentially a crushed stone. In order
to classify crushed gravel ballast as crushed stone and give it the same gradation require-
ments as recommended for crushed stone and crushed air-cooled blast furnace slag
ballast, your committee recommends certain changes in the Manual.
Mr. President, I move the change in Specifications for Prepared Stone, Slag and
Gravel Ballast as set forth on page 710 of Bulletin 549, be adopted and published in
the Manual.
[The motion was duly seconded, was put to a vote, and carried.]
Assignment 11 — Chemical Control of Vegetation, Collaborating with
Signal Section and Communications Section AAR.
Chairman Harris: The next and final report will be on Assignment 11 — Chemical
Control of Vegetation. The subcommittee chairman, C. E. Webb, engineer of tests,
Southern Railway System, will present the report. Mr. Webb.
C. E. Webb: Mr. President, members, and guests:
The progress report appearing in the Bulletin covers the research on and evaluation
of weed killer formulations at Iowa State College and North Carolina State College,
together with field investigations by the AAR Research staff.
Numerous chemicals and chemical combinations have been tested during the past
eight years, and much progress has been made; but as yet there is no chemical available
that will solve all vegetation control problems found on railroads throughout the United
States and Canada.
Relatively simple and inexpensive treatments can be effective if applied at the
proper time and followed up consistently. Re-infestation that occurs through lack of
continuous control may result in extreme difficulty in control in forthcoming years.
Observations this year substantiate the theory that a long-term system weed control
program is superior to one on a year-to-year basis. Although the initial expense involved
in such a program may be high, a reduction in cost may be realized over an extended
period.
Vegetation control on track can be divided into root kill to eradicate perennials
and top kill to eliminate annuals, or reduce interference of perennials.
Oils appear to have greatest merit for top kill. They are economical, non-hazardous
for livestock, and not as susceptible to adverse weather conditions.
1186 Roadway and Ballast
Root kill can be obtained by a herbicide translocated downward to the roots and
by one that penetrates the soil and acts directly on the roots. These treatments are in
general more expensive.
Low volatile ester formulations of 2,4-D and 2,4, 5-T continue to be used extensively
for controlling brush in all regions, with ammate being substituted for these compounds
in areas adjacent to crops or in states where the use of phenoxy compounds are pro-
hibited. Additional research is needed to determine optimum time and method of
application.
At the present time, there are more than SO materials available for the purpose of
controlling weeds or brush on railroads. Each of these materials applied at the proper
time at the recommended rate, has been used successfully, depending on type of vegeta-
tion, chmatic conditions, length of growing season, type of soil, and type of control
desired.
The report this year, and preceding years, particularly the tables showing specific
results obtained in different regions with various compounds, and the table showing
relative costs should be extremely valuable in providing unbiased and factual information
on the results that may be expected.
There is every hope that continued evaluation of new products may result in better,
and especially cheaper, weed killing products, and that oils may be improved possibly
by the use of additives to make them more effective.
Chairman Harris: Mr. President, this concludes the presentation of our subcom-
mittee reports.
Two years ago Committee 1 presented as its special feature an address by Rockwell
Smith, research engineer, roadway. Association of American Railroads on "Soil Engineer-
ing Problems During the Construction of the Atlantic Railroad, Colombia, South
America." Today we bring you a similar report, but from an entirely different part of
the world where the conditions and problems were altogether different from those
described by Mr. Smith. The gentleman who will speak to us this morning was born
in England but later moved to Canada. He is a graduate of McGill University and
has completed graduate work in Soils Engineering at Purdue University. After working
on location surveys, he later served as district engineer during the construction of the
Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway and upon completion of construction of that
railway, he was appointed soils engineer, which position he holds at the present time.
He has an intimate knowledge of his subject, and I am sure you will be very interested
in what he has to say. It is with a great deal of pleasure that I now introduce to you
Robert W. Pryer who will speak to you on "Soil Engineering Problems on the Quebec
North Shore and Labrador Railway." Mr. Pryer.
Soil Engineering Problems on the Quebec
North Shore & Labrador Railway
By Robert W. Pryer
Soils Engineer, Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway
Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, members, and guests;
In recent years the Labrador peninsula has become an important producer of iron
ore. Although this, probably, is quite well known, it may not be generally appreciated
that 10 years ago the interior of this large section of eastern Canada was relatively
unknown.
Address of Robert W . P r > o r 1187
It imbraces an area of nearly a half million square miles. It is entirely undeveloped,
incompletely mapped, supports no permanent settlements other than a few isolated
communities in coastal areas, particularly along the north shore of the Gulf of the
St. Lawrence. It was also practically inaccessible e.xcept by air or on foot.
After several years of geological exploration in an area about .360 miles north of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence and ground and atrial surveys of a proposed route between this
area and Seven Islands, a small port on the north shore of the Gulf, construction of
the Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway began late in 1950. A total of 21 million
cu yd of excavation was completed during the three years, and track laying was com-
pleted early in 1954.
In addition to construction of the roadbed a great deal of other work was also
completed during this three-year period. The construction of several hundred miles of
roadbed, two large tunnel sites, two substantial hydro-electric power developments, no
fewer than 11 airstrips or handling facilities, docks, and terminals, and so on.
Seven Islands, the southern terminus of this railway, is still even at the present
time somewhat of an isolated community which has no direct link with the national
highway or railroad systems in Canada. It is thus accessible only by sea or by air.
The closest railroad connection is some 140 miles away on the south shore of the Gulf.
It is hardly surprising, therefore, that construction was complicated by problems of
access and supply. It was also compHcated by the severity of the climate.
Furthermore, since no engineering activity had previously been undertaken in this
region, there was no background of information concerning the soils of this area. There
was also lack of adequate climatological data. The object of this paper is to report
upon the nature of the soils encountered during construction and also to note some
of the problems involved.
In this connection particular importance is attached to the environment with which
these soils occur. It is felt that much valuable information may be obtained from the
study of such factors as physiographic history, climate, and vegetation. This is par-
ticularly true in cases such as the Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway in which
circumstances did not permit a comprehensive soil survey to be undertaken prior to con-
struction. A physiographic approach is used because of the ease with which glacial land
forms may be recognized on the ground, from the air, and more particularly in the
aerial photographs. These land forms may, in turn, be correlated with definite soil
types, and it is possible thus to make generalizations which are valid over a fairly broad
area. Vegetation is important because it is found to be a sensitive indicator of moisture
and drainage conditions.
In some cases the type of vegetation depends upon the type of terrain conditions.
In other instances vegetation has itself helped to modify the terrain, as, for example, in
the 'development of parks. Like land forms, vegetative patterns are also readily identified
in aerial photographs.
Chmate is considered to be important foi several reasons. Severe temperature con-
ditions cause the northern half of the Labrador peninsula to have inadequate drainage,
with permanently frosted ground. Scattered islands of permanently frosted ground also
occur south of the boundary of this area. The depth of seasonal frost penetration and
the rate at which frost leaves the ground depends upon, among other things, precipita-
tion, particularly precipitation in the form of snow. It has an important effect, therefore,
upon drainage and moisture conditions.
Frost is also responsible for the weathering of rocks and sloughing of slopes in
frost-susceptible soils and thus contributes to the landscape.
1188 Roadway and Ballast
It is apparent, therefore, that with a limited amount of data one can make a
thoroughly reliable estimate of soil conditions in this particular region through the
careful interpretation of aerial photographs. This can be particularly helpful in planning
more detailed investigations.
The first slide [See Fig. 1, page 670] shows the location of the railway.
It should be borne in mind that the Labrador peninsula forms part of the Canadian
shield. It is thus a region of strong crystalline rocks. The bottom of that slide shows
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and to give you an idea of the scale, Schefferville, the north-
ern terminus, is 360 miles away. The peninsula generally may be described as a plateau
with an average elevation of between 1500 to 2000 ft. The southern edge of this plateau,
the edge that fronts on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the area shown in that slide below
the word "Quebec" covers a distance of approximately 100 miles and has been se-
verely dissected by south-flowing rivers and streams. These streams flow in broad glaci-
ated valleys. Close to the coast an escarpment rises quite abruptly to an elevation of
about 1000 ft. In many places local rehef may be as much as 2000 ft in this area, and
it is thus a particularly rugged region.
In the vicinity of Seven Islands, or Sept lies as it appears on this slide, the
southern terminus, the surface soils are beach deposits, loose, uniform, stratified sands.
This emerging coastline and elevated beach ridges are conspicuous in the aerial photo-
graphs. These, therefore, give some clue to the nature of the soils. Leaving the narrow
coastal plain, any transportation route to the interior must necessarily follow one of
these river valleys. In the case of Quebec North Shore & Labrador Railway, it follows
the valley of the Moisie River, then several of its major tributaries.
During the post-glacial marine invasion of this part of the world, massive deposits
of silts and silty clays were deposited in the low reaches of the Moisie River valley and
several of these other river valleys. These materials are particularly prone to landslides.
It is a fairly common occurrence throughout Eastern Canada. They are highly sensitive
to any kind of disturbance. Here again aerial photographs are a source of useful
information.
The larger landslides, the ones which develop into flowslides, tend to leave massive
scars in the river banks.
Still within the river valleys, but north of the area affected by these sensitive silty
clays, stratified sands and gravels, are the predominant surface materials. Generally
these soils are coarse textured and well drained and are excellent embankment soils.
Occasionally silt and frost-susceptible fine sands occur, but their presence can often be
correlated with, or inferred from the longitudinal profile of the adjacent river. Fine-
textured soils usually are found in sections where the river is sluggish or a meandering
stream rather than a swiftly flowing river. The principal soil formation is on the in-
terior plateau, the area north of the word "Quebec," the lake plateau is a sandy glacial
well-graded soil and an excellent embankment material when not excessively wet.
Unfortunately, much of the terrain is waterlogged, and it is often difficult to excavate
and place these soils unless adequate provision is made for drainage.
This situation is aggravated to some extent by climatic conditions. Although rain-
fall is not unduly heavy, it is an almost daily occurrence during the summer season.
Granular land forms, particularly eskers, are a valuable source of material for use
as borrowed or prepared gravel ballast and sub-ballast and have often served as the
foundations for airstrips, since they require a minimum amount of grade.
In the vicinity of the lakes which comprise a great part of the area of the interior
plateau, lacustrine silts and .sands are not uncommon. These .soils usually occur in
Address of Robert W . P r >- o r 1189
shallow strata which overlie the sandy glaci. 1 till. They are highly frost-susceptible and
can be particularly troublesome unless care is taken to exclude them from subgrades
and embankment.
The term "muskeg," is used to describe a variety of poorly drained wet surfaces
on the Labrador plateau. Two principal types of this organic cover are recognized— the
open and timbered bogs. Timbered bogs usually occupy shallow depressions within the
drainage basins of the larger lakes. Open or string bogs tend to develop on gentle slopes
with poor internal drainage, and even in areas where sandy soils predominate, the long
freezing season and late date at which the ground becomes free of frost cause the drain-
age of spring melt-water to be impeded, and provide ideal conditions for the spread of
mossy vegetation.
The water-retaining properties of this type of vegetation still further impede drain-
age, and thus aid in the development of bogs, particularly string bogs.
The next slide [See Fig. 6, page 679] is an example of the type of problem which
is likely to occur in the banded sediments of the lower Moisie River \'alley. This is a
simple rotational slip which was probably caused by a local instability of the toe of the
cut slope. Stability analyses are complicated by the lack of uniformity in these soils.
Presence of buried permeable strata and the inclination of the bedding planes are two
important considerations.
The next slide [See Fig. 7, page 681] also shows the banded sediments of the
lower river valley, and this is an example of the condition which can arise from the
thawing of ice. The interiors are particularly susceptible to the formation of ice lenses.
Although frost penetration is not very great, the soils are too wet. Ice lenses do form
and provide ideal sliding surfaces as far as slopes warm up in the spring. This type of
condition is easily remedied, of course. All these slopes have now been moved back a
respectable distance from the end of the ties and drainage provisions made both at the
shoulder slopes, the toe slopes, and in some cases lateral drainage has been resorted to
with some success. As these slopes weather, they tend to become more tolerant of vege-
tation, and it is hoped eventually they will be covered with a vegetative blanket. In
other cases they have been buried with some success in granular embankments.
The next slide [See Fig. 8, page 682] is an example of the stratified sands and
gravels which occur in the more northerly sections of the river valleys. These slopes
have heights from the shoulder down to the river of about 250 ft. The materials are in
no way troublesome in themselves, but unfortunately many of these slopes are under-
lain by rock terraces. Perched lakes and water tables also occur on the upper surfaces of
these terraces, and seepage can be a problem, particularly when these slopes are
underlayed at no great depth by smooth, glaciated rock surfaces. In many cases it has
been necessary to drain lakes and shoulders of these areas and also to excavate the
slopes. They have been the source of some difficulty.
The next slide [See Fig. 4, page 676] shows grain-size distribution curves for typi-
cal glacial till materials. It can be seen in general these soils are well graded and do not
contain much more than 20 percent silt. Less than 20 percent silt sizes has been found
to be not seriously frost susceptible. Soils such as that represented by the upper curve
in which there is perhaps 40 or 50 percent silt size particles are seriously frost sus-
ceptible, and are very troublesome soils in the few instances where they have been
incorporated in the embankments.
The next slide [See Fig. 5, page 677] is an example of conditions which can ari.se
in cuts in these materials. Although they are not particularly troublesome with normal
water contents, that is an example of the type of thing that can happen unle.ss drain-
1 lOQ Roadway and Ballast
age measures are resorted to early in construction. The object in the foreground is a
tractor buried almost to the wings.
This slide [See Fig. 10, page 684] represents two very similar soils — one placed with
the water content slightly below optimum, the other with water content somewhat
greater, about 4 percent, sufficient to make the soil represented by the upper curve
extremely unstable. That is the material you saw in the previous slide. Material repre-
sented by the lower curve was perfectly stable and able to carry traffic during the
construction.
The next slide is an example of muskeg conditions. That is an example of vegeta-
tive pattern. Note the string bogs. In general these organic materials are not unduly
deep, 3 or 4 ft of organic material, and are not too difficult to excavate. In general,
however, as long as there was at least 6 ft of fill, no attempt was made to excavate
them. We simply filled across these muskegs. They have settled, consolidated rapidly,
and have given little trouble. Howover, they are frequently underlain by the lacustrine
silts and sands which are perhaps not very deep, but when the fills are shallow enough,
frost penetration can reach these highly frost-susceptible soils. Then serious frost heav-
ing can occur. That again is relatively easy to remedy by raising grade and wide
embankments.
The next slide [See Fig. 9, page 683] is an example of a completed section of sub-
grade. That is to say it had been finished and left very shallow-cut. You see what
happened in wet weather. It was necessary to raise the grade and fill in this particular
situation.
The next slide, please. This is an example of ice lensing in these frost-susceptible
lacustrine silts and fine sands. The dark lines throughout the photograph are minute ice
lences which are there so fine that they can readily escape notice unless care is taken
to pick them out.
The next slide is simply one which shows the north trail and the only substantial
bridge crossing on this particular Une.
To summarize then, soil problems in construction and maintenance in this area are
related to two things, the excavating and placing of wet soils and frost-susceptible soils
also the stability of soils in the banded sediments. Thank you. [Applause]
Chairman Harris: Mr. Pryer, on behalf of the Association, and especially Commit-
tee 1, I wish to thank you for a very interesting and most constructive talk.
I think I might mention at this time that Mr. Pryer and Rock Smith and I up
until about an hour ago were in a cold sweat. Mr. Fryer's shdes were lost, and at the
last minute we had to have these slides made. We got them just before the committee
came to present its report.
This concludes the report of Committee 1.
President Meyers: Thank you, Mr. Harris. Your committee with the assistance
of Mr. Magee and his staff, a number of railroads, and several colleges and universities
has presented another group of very interesting and informative reports. We thank you
for this. I also want to thank Mr. Pryer for his very Interesting presentation here this
morning.
Mr. Harris, we appreciate the energetic leadership which you have given to Com-
mittee 1 during your first year as chairman. Your committee is now excused with the
thanks of the Association.
Closing Business 1191
Closing Business Session — March 11, 1959
[President Meyers presiding.]
President Meyers: I think you might be interested in the total registration —
14.^3 railroad members and guests and 828 other guests, a total of 2261.
We are a little bit behind schedule, but I think you will agree the reports and talk.s
this morning have been most interesting. With the presentation of the report of Com-
mittee 1, we have completed consideration of the committee reports to come before Ihb
Annual Meeting. Accordingly, we will now begin our Closing Business Se.ssion which
will include the installation of our new officers for the ensuing year.
However, before doing this I want to express my appreciation to everyone who has
participated in the program and to all of those who have contributed toward the work
of the Association during the past year. Measured by the wealth of information which
has been presented to us here at this convention, I think our 1959 Convention has been
quite successful.
Realizing the impossibility of absorbing all that has been said here during the past
two and a half days, I am sure many of you will want to review the transcript of the
convention when it appears in the 1959 Proceedings, and I would particularly recom-
mend this to those of our members who for one reason or another could not attend
our convention. Also before beginning the closing business, I would like to make a
couple of announcements. One is so that you will remember the inspection trip this
afternoon to the AAR Research Center on the campus of Illinois Tech, beginning at
1:30 pm. Mr. Magee and members of his staff will be pleased to show you their facili-
ties and answer questions about the work.
Secondly, I would like to remind all members of the Board of Direction, including
the newly elected and the retiring members, that they are invited to a luncheon after
the close of this meeting in the Louis XVI room with members of the Convention
Arrangements Committee. Following this luncheon there will be the usual post-convention
meeting of the Board of Direction.
I now call to order the closing business session of this convention. Is there any
business to come before us?
Past President H. S. LoErrLER [Great Northern]: Mr. President, may I have the
privilege of the floor?
Mr. President, during the past year you have handled the affairs of the American
Railway Engineering Association in an effective and able manner. The object of our
Association as stated in our Constitution is, briefly stated, as follows: "To advance the
knowledge pertaining to the scientific and economic location, construction, operation, and
maintenance of railways."
It is recognized that through your efforts substantial progress has been made in ad-
vancing the object of the Association. On behalf of the American Railway Engineering
Association it is my privilege at this time to present to you a plaque as an expression
of appreciation for your leadership and service to the Association.
This plaque reads as follows: "The American Railway Engineering Association records
its grateful appreciation to B. Robert Meyers for his able administration of the affairs
of the Association during his term as President, 1958-1959."
Congratulations, Bernie, for your great success.
President Meyers: Thank you, Stan. [Applause]
This is certainly a beautiful plaque and I know just the spot for it. The presenta-
tion of this plaque is certainly the final highlight of my term as President. Many tilings
1192 Closing Business
have happened here I am sure that I will always remember — more than just the "brick-
layer" subjects or the official subjects.
Thank you, Mr. Loeffler. It is a pleasure to get this plaque from the senior Past
President of the Association attending this convention, and one who has been a per-
sonal friend of mine for at least 20 years. This brings me back right where I started.
Thank you very much.
Each year the close of our Annual Meeting brings to an end the services of several
members of our Board of Direction. This year the Annual Meeting marks the end of
the service on the Board of Past President Wm. J. Hedley, chief engineer, Wabash
Railroad, under the clause of our Constitution which specifies that past presidents
remain on the Board for only two years following the completion of their term of
office as president.
The Association is greatly indebted to Mr. Hedley for his long and valued service
to the Association in an official capacity, and for his special service on a number of
Board Committees. In his retirement from the Board, we shall miss his always sound
counsel and advice. If Mr. Hedley is present, I would like him to stand and be recog-
nized. [Applause]
With the close of this Annual Meeting, the terms of office of four other members
of the Board of Direction terminate. These are G. H. Echols, chief engineer. Southern
Railway System. Mr. Echols. [Applause]
L. A. Loggins, chief engineer, Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and Louisiana.
[Applause]
R. R. Manion, assistant vice president — operation. New York Central System. I
don't think Mr. Manion could be here.
And, W. G. Powrie, chief engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad.
Is Mr. Powrie here? Apparently not.
All of these men have served your Association well, and any words, I might say
would be inadequate to express our appreciation to them.
Having observed since early last fall the tremendous amount of work which has
gone into the planning and arrangements for this convention, and during the past two
and one-half days in the execution of these plans, it is impossible for me to express
adequately my appreciation to all of those who have contributed in the development
of these plans and their execution, but I do want to express my most sincere apprecia-
tion to Chairman Barnes and the members of his Committee on Convention Arrange-
ments, to our secretary's office, and to all those ladies who assisted Mrs. Meyers in
planning and carrying out the social features of our convention for the ladies.
Having been chairman of the Convention Arrangements Committee in 1951, and
now having observed at close range the work of our present Arrangements Committee,
no one knows better than I the multitude of details to which they have given their
attention in order that our convention might be a success, with maximum convenience
and pleasure for all those in attendance. So to all the members of this committee, and
to all those who assisted in making the women's functions most enjoyable, Mrs. Meyers
and I want to say, "We thank you."
It is now my great pleasure and privilege as your retiring president to introduce
to you the Association's new officers for the ensuing year. Our senior vice president for
the year ahead is E. J. Brown, chief engineer, Burlington Lines, who under the Constitu-
tion automatically advances to this position from that of junior vice president. Mr.
Brown, will you please come to the platform.
Closing B u siness n9.<
As your new junior vice president, you have elected R. H. Beeder, chief engineer
of the Santa Fe System. Mr. Beeder, as you will recall, was a director of our Association
for three years prior to the end of our 1958 convention. I will appreciate it if Mr.
Beeder will come to the platform and take a place alongside Mr. Brown.
Mr. Brown and Mr. Beeder, I congratulate both of you upon your elevation lo
high office in our Association. This places on you further obligations, but, at the same
time, it gives you new opportunities to serve our Association. I know that you will
live up to these further obligations and opportunities for service.
As your president for the year ahead, you have elected F. R. Woolford, chief engi-
neer. Western Pacific Railroad. I have asked Past Presidents Blair and O'Rourke to
escort Mr. Woolford to the platform, and I would appreciate their doing so at this time.
[Past Presidents Blair and O'Rourke escorted Mr. Woolford to the platform and
the assembly applauded.]
President Meyers: It is a great honor and privilege for me to proclaim you the
newly-elected president of the American Railway Engineering Association. You arc
highly deserving of this honor, and are well qualified for this high office. Accordingly,
it is with pleasure and confidence that I turn over my responsibilities as president to you.
In doing so, I want to present you with this solid gold emblem of the Association,
which bears the engraved words on the back — "F. R. Woolford, President, 1959-1960."
I know you will wear it with distinction to yourself and the Association.
[President Meyers presented the gold emblem of the Association to the newly-
elected president, F. R. Woolford. Mr. Woolford assumed the chair as the newly-elected
president.]
President-Elect Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Meyers, and fellow members of this
great Association. Words cannot express my appreciation for your having bestowed
upon me today this great honey of being president of America's foremost engineering
association. Little did I think when I joined that field party on the Missouri Pacific in
the early 1920's, that this day I would be so honored by you men. Thanks for the
confidence you, have placed in me.
Bernie, your administration has been a most successful and inspiring one. May I
have the great fortune to hold the same interest of our membership that you had for
the continuation of the worth-while accomplishments of our Association.
Friends, no one individual can ever hope to successfully pilot such an outstanding
group as ours. I ask your continuing help, and with it I am certain nothing can hinder
our attainments. The better half of my team, that willing helper who is always watching
over me, is at this moment looking down from the balcony — my regards, Kathleen.
As a goal for our oncoming year, may I place before our membership, "Further
Attainments of Standardization of Track Materials." With your help we can make
standardization a reality, first through area acceptance, that is, acceptance by Northern,
Southern, Eastern, and Western rail groups, followed by a unification of these four areas
into one, or in other words, full standardization.
All of you gentlemen heard the wonderful report that our Committee on Track
gave this morning, especially the special address by Mr. Zeeman. To accomplish what
he proposed, I think we will have to forget about personalities and individuals and
work toward standardization as a group. This we can do, and I am asking you to at
least put it on the road in that direction this year.
Will all of you please direct your efforts in that direction for the betterment of our
American railroads. Thank you. [Applause]
A. W. Carlson [Western Pacific Railroad] : President Woolford, on behalf of the
Engineering Department of Western Pacific, I would like to present you with this gavel.
1194 Closing Business
It is a very fine one, and all the members of the engineering and maintenance of way
personnel under your direction have contributed to it.
As you are the first Western Pacific — in fact, the first Far-West AREA president —
we are very proud, and with this gavel we give our best wishes.
President-Elect Woolford: Thank you, Mr. Carlson. [Applause]
Thank you for such a thoughtful remembrance, exemplified by this beautiful and
useful instrument. I doubly appreciate it as coming from the boys under, as you say,
my direction, although they direct themselves out on the West Coast, on the Western
Pacific. With such an energetic and capable Board of Direction the membership has
provided me, I doubt if I will find any real need for a gavel.
W. M. Jaekle [Southern Pacific Company] : President Woolford, I also have a
gavel for you. It comes with the best wishes of Vice President Harry Munson. He asked
me to present it to you on behalf of your good friends and associates in all parts of the
West and Pacific Coast. My best wishes from there.
President-Elect Woolford: Thank you. [Applause]
Gentlemen, I don't know what I will do with two gavels, maybe I will use one in
each hand, but as I said before, with the energetic and capable Board of Direction the
membership has provided me, I doubt if I will find any need for even one gavel, let
alone two. Nevertheless, thanks for the thoughts.
It is now my pleasure to present to you the four men you have elected as new
members of the Board of Direction. As I call their names, I would appreciate their
coming forward and standing in front of the speaker's table.
W. E. Cornell, engineer of track. New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad, Cleveland,
Ohio.
F. L. Etchison, chief engineer, Western Maryland Railway, Baltimore, Md.
W. J. Cruse, engineer maintenance of way, Great Northern Railway, St. Paul,
Minn.
C. R. Riley, chief engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Baltimore, Md.
As you may or may not know, in view of his official retirement from railroad
service as chief engineer of the Norfolk & Western Railroad, effective July 1, A. B.
Stone has resigned as a director of our Association, effective with the close of this con-
vention. In view of this, at a special meeting of the Board last evening, C. J. Henry,
chief engineer system, Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia, Pa., was elected to fill Mr.
Stone's unexpired term of office extending to March 1960.
I would be pleased if Mr. Henry would come forward and stand with our other
four new directors.
Gentlemen, I congratulate you upon your election as directors of this Association
and welcome you to the Board of Direction. It is an office of high honor and responsi-
bility which you assume, but I know you will meet its responsibilities; that you will
enjoy your association on the Board for the next three years; and that you will bring
much of value to its deliberations.
Before we adjourn, I should like to announce again a meeting of the Board of
Direction this afternoon at 2 pm in the Orchid Room, following a joint luncheon of the
Board and the Committee on Convention Arrangements in the Louis XVI Room imme-
diately after the close of this meeting.
Is there any further business to come before us? If not, I now declare the S8th
Annual Meeting of the American Railway Engineering Association adjourned.
[The meeting adjourned at 12:25 pm.]
MEMOIR
MEMOIR
^rmfitrong Cfjinn
Died August 28, 1958
Armstrong Chinn, president of the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis,
and past president of the American Railway Engineering Association, passed away in
his sixty-fourth year at Barnes Hospital, St. Louis, Mo., following surgery. With pro-
found regret the Association expresses its sorrow for the loss of an honored, capable
and devoted member.
In addition to Mrs. Chinn, he is survived by a daughter, Mrs. D. S. Sears, Rich-
mond, Va.; a son, Armstrong Chinn, Jr., Miami, Fla.; a sister. Miss Elnear Chinn,
and a brother, B. S. Chinn, both residing at Miami, Fla.; and another brother, Carter
Chinn, St. Paul, Minn. To this family the membership of the American Railway
Engineering Association expresses sincere and deeply-felt sympathy.
Mr. Chinn was born at Dallas, Tex., on' September 26, 1894, the son of William
Armstrong Chinn
Yates and Katherine (Armstrong) Chinn, but considered himself a Virginian. He spent
his youth in Virginia, the state where his ancestors settled in 1650 and where he
secured his education.
He attended the public schools of Norfolk, Va., and after graduating from high
school secured his technical education at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg,
Va., where he earned a B.S. degree in C.E. in 1915, and a C.E. degree in 1916.
Mr. Chinn began his railroad career during the summer vacations of 1912 and
1913 as a rodman on the old Wheeling & Lake Erie Railroad. In the summer of 1914
he worked as an instrumentman for the county surveyor of Norfolk County, Va.
Subsequent to his graduation from V.P.I., in June 1916, he was employed by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad as an instrumentman, first at Aurora, 111., and
later at St. Louis, where he was working when he entered military service. From
January 1918 to June 1919, he served with the Armed Forces in France as a second
lieutenant, field artillery.
1197
1198 Memoir
Following the close of hostilities Mr. Chinn returned to the Chicago, Burlington
& Quincy as instrumentman in July 1919, and on April 6, 1920, he and Edith Elizabeth
Shumadine were married.
In the same year Mr. Chinn joined the American Railway Engineering Association,
He was sincerely interested in the projects of the Association and was active in com-
mittee work, giving generously of his time to Committees 4, 5, 11, 13, 22 and 24 over
the years. He served with distinction on these committees and his recognized ability
and judgment were rewarded with his election to the Board of Direction, 1940-1943, and
as president of the Association, 1947-1948. He became a Life Member in 1955. As
president he also was chairman of the Construction and Maintenance Section, Engi-
neering Division, Association of American Railroads, and of the Engineering Division
as a whole. In his Association activities he set an enviable record of years of loyal and
efficient service, applying rare tact and an extraordinary administrative capacity. The
American Railway Engineering Association has lost a valuable member with recognized
qualities of inspiring leadership.
In addition to being a member of the AREA, Mr. Chinn was affiliated with the
following technical and professional organizations: member, American Society of Civil
Engineers; past president, Roadmasters' and Maintenance of Way Association; past
president, American Railway Bridge and Building Association; past president. Mainte-
nance of Way Club of Chicago ; member, Mississippi Valley Maintenance of Way Club ;
member, Western Railway Club; member, Engineers Club of St. Louis; and member.
Locomotive Maintenance Association — truly a record of achievement extending over
many years. His personal dedication and unstinting energy, far beyond the call of duty,
given towards the advancement of railroad engineering, is a model for all to emulate.
He was a man of vigor and drive and evinced those qualities of character in his progress
to the top of his chosen professional organizations as he did in the railroad industry.
He rose progressively through various positions in the engineering and maintenance
of way departments of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy to that of district engineer
maintenance of way in 1927. Two years later he became chief engineer of the Alton
Railroad (now part of the Gulf, Mobile & Ohio), advancing to general manager in
1943, and to chief executive officer in 1945, the position he held at the time of his
election in 1946 to the presidency of the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis.
During that period he served with selfless zeal and devotion to the advancement of
the industry. The following quotation is from the memoir of the board of directors of
the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis:
"Mr. Chinn achieved outstanding success as a railroad executive and as a civic
leader, and the period of his presidency of the Terminal Railroad Association of St.
Louis was marked by significant progress in the affairs of the company. Forthright and
vigorous, sound in judgment, he possessed to an unusual degree the capacity of making
friends and winning the loyalty and respect of all who served under him. His keen
intellect, integrity, and splendid character and personality commanded the confidence
and affection of all who knew him, and his death is a personal sorrow to his many
friends and associates, as well as a distinct loss to the railroad industry."
In addition to his professional activities, Armstrong Chinn lived an active and
rewarding Ufe in his community. Despite the demands of his occupation he devoted
much time to his civic duties. He took a profound interest in the affairs of the City
of St. Louis and the community served by his railroad, and his participation in numer-
ous civic activities gave his city the benefit of wise counsel and vigorous leadership.
He was a member of several committees which assisted the mayor in recommending
solutions of financial and civic problems. When he was a member of the board of direc-
Memoir 1199
tors and executive committee of the St. Louis Chamber of Commerce, he took an active
interest in that organization. An outstanding achievement in which he participated was
a satisfactory solution of the long-standing riverfront problem which had plagued the
Terminal Railroad .■Xs.sociation of St. Louis and the riverfront commis.sion for many
years.
Armstrong Chinn found time to become an active and valued participant in the
affairs of many organizations. He was a member, American Legion; member. Friends
of Land; chairman, Rail Transportation Civil Defense, Greater St. Louis^E. St. Louis
Area; operating officer, Region IL Ilhnois Railroad Civil Defense; chairman. Board
of Managers, St. Louis Railroad YMCA; member of board, St. Louis Council, Boy
Scouts of America; member of board, St. Louis Governmental Research Institute; mem-
ber of board, St. Louis Crime Commission; member. Traffic Club of St. Louis; direc-
tor, USO; member of board, Missouri Public Expenditure Survey; member of board,
St. John's Methodist Church ; member, American Society of Traffic and Transportation ;
member, National Defense Transportation Association ; member, Masonic Order, Scot-
tish Rite Bodies and Moolah Temple; member, Bellerive Country Club; member, Mis-
souri Athletic Club; member, Noonday Club; and member, Union League Club, Chicago.
Armstrong Chinn was a religious man and was active as a member of the board
of stewards of St. John's Methodist Church, and as a member of the board of the St.
Louis Council of the Boy Scouts of America. As chairman of the board of the local
Railroad YMCA, he was instrumental in bringing about many improvements in facilities
and service. In all of these organizations he will be remembered with gratitude and
esteem.
By those who had a casual business acquaintance with Mr. Chinn, he will be
remembered for his gentlemanly courteousness. By those who had the privilege of know-
ing his intimately, he will always be revered for his sterling character, friendliness and
interest in the ambitions and hopes of others, his desire to give wise counsel when
requested, and his generous nature and loyalty to his friends and associates. His smile,
his handshake, his friendly words of greeting will long be remembered.
The American Railway Engineering Association, the entire railroad industry, and
society in general have suffered a grievous loss in his passing.
G. M. O'RouRKE, Chairman,
T. A. Blair
E. J. Brown
Wm. J. Hedley
W. H. HOBBS
Committee on Memoir.
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY
March 1, 1959
To THE Members:
One year ago at this time, with the railroads, along with the country as a whole,
in the throes of an economic recession, the welfare of your Association for the year
ahead, compared with the year just closed and immediately preceding years, was a
matter of concern to your officers and your secretary. Could the Association count
on the continuing high level of interest and effort of its members and the support
of the American railroads? Would it be able to continue unabated its productive work?
And could it maintain its favorable financial condition?
Now, 365 days later, the record happily shows all of these questions answered
in the affirmative. The Association did retain the interest and effort of its members,
and the backing of the railroads. It did continue its work unabated; and it did close
the year in a favorable financial condition. In fact, in all of theSe respects, the adverse
economic conditions to the contrary, the Association moved into higher ground — a sig-
nificant achievement. Only in the matter of total membership did the Association take
a backward step — due largely to the inability of the railroads to augment their technical
staffs with the usual number of new men, on the one hand, and an increased number
of resignations from membership resulting from the retirement of older members, on the
other hand — total membership falling from 3362 as of February 1, 1958, to 3310 on
February 1, 1959, a reduction of 52. But, unfortunate as this loss was, the fact that it
was not larger under the conditions which prevailed, was also a favorable aspect of the
Association year.
That this generally favorable report can be made was not the result of a "business
as usual" attitude on the part of either the officers and directors of the Association or
its members generally — although, assuredly, the inherent vitality of the Association
purposewise, interestwise, and financially, would have seen it through on a high plane.
Committees Asked to Tighten Up Operations — Step Up Effort
Aware of the conditions confronting the Association, your officers and directors
early set in motion measures to bring about a belt-tightening all along the line. These
affected to some extent a number of aspects of Association activity, but were directed
primarily to minimizing the travel and off-the-job time of the more than 1100 members
of the Association involved in committee work, and the attendant expenses of these
members and their railroads, while precluding at the same time any let-down in the
effectiveness and productivity of committees.
To this end, the Board, immediately at the beginning of the Association year —
both directly and through the Association's monthly News — asked all AREA committees
to adhere closely to the Association's rule calling for the holding of committee and
subcommittee meetings at points most convenient to the majority of members and
the holding of subcommittee meetings in conjunction with committee meetings to the
fullest possible extent. It also asked committees to shorten their meetings to one day
wherever possible — avoiding three-day meetings completely; and to eliminate all inspec-
tion trips in connection with their work, unless they did not have the effect of extend-
ing meetings an extra day. Further, it asked committee chairmen, working through
the secretary's office, to preclude to the fullest extent possible, meetings concurrent
with those of other committees, in order to minimize the number of members on any
1200
Report of Executive Secretarj- 1201
Committees of The Board of Direction
1958-1959
Executive Committee
B. R. Meyers (chairman), Ray McBrian, F. R. Woolford, E. J. Brown, G. H. Echols
Assignments
G. H. Echols (chairman), Wm. J. Hedley, A. V. Johnston, J. C. Jacobs, T. Fred Burris
Personnel
W. H. Hobbs (chairman), A. B. Stone, F. R. Woolford, L. A. Loggins, W. M. Jaekle
Publications
A. B. Stone (chairman), E. J. Brown, R. R. Manion, W. H. Hobbs, T. M. von Sprecken
Manual
L. A. Loggins (chairman), W. W. Hay, Ray McBrian, T. M. von Sprecken
Membership
R. R. Manion (chairman), G. H. Echols, W. G. Powrie, A. V. Johnston, W. M. Jaekle
Finance
J. C. Jacobs (chairman). E. J. Brown, W. G. Powrie
Special AREA Services
F. R. Woolford (chairman), Wm. J. Hedley, W. W. Hay, T. Fred Burris
Research
E. J. Brown (chairman), C. J. Code, Ray McBrian
railroad being away from their headquarters at the same time — especially if in the
same department.
Supplementing this action on the part of the Board, the president of the Associa-
tion, in a Message to Members in the May issue of the News, called upon committees
to keep up the standard of their work while holding to the minimum expenses in con-
nection with their meetings. In this latter regard, he suggested they do more of their
work by correspondence. At the same time, he urged them to maintain an open and
inquisitive mind and to dig into all aspects of their assignment. Later in the year,
"to help keep the ball rolling," the secretary of the Association, in a message to com-
mittee members in the November issue of the News, urged them to close the year with
a strong finish and to emulate as a whole the high quality of the first committee reports
1202 Report of Executive Secretary
being received for publication, which, for the most part, he said, were more compre-
hensive in extent and treatment than similar reports of some previous years.
That these requests and admonitions did not fall on deaf ears was testified to in
every aspect of committee activity throughout the year, referred to later in this report
under Activities of Committees.
In a further effort to minimize the away-from-the-job time of committee members
and to reduce their expenses, the Board also cancelled a contemplated meeting of all
committee chairmen in April, intended as an indoctrination course for new committee
chairmen and a refresher course for the other chairmen on the manifold rules and
practices of the Association pertaining to their responsibilities and committee work.
This meeting was cancelled reluctantly, because it is generally agreed that the increased
effectiveness of committee work possible through the greater knowledge and efficiency
of committee chairmen themselves, gained through attendance at such meetings, more
than compensates for the time and expense involved on the part of committee chairmen.
At the same time, to increase its own efficiency, the Board of Direction sponsored
successfully through amendments to the Constitution of the Association the creation
of a five-man Executive Committee of the Board to function in its behalf during inter-
vals between meetings of the Board on matters which cannot or should not be delayed;
the simplification of the names of its various committees and, in some cases, clarifica-
tion of their duties; and the giving of permanent status to the Board Committee on
Research, which had been set up as a special committee in January 19S8.
On the more positive side, the Board of Direction made a number of other impor-
tant decisions and contributions during the year. Among these, it continued to encourage
and support the research activities of committees; continued its practice of being repre-
sented, through one of its members, insofar as possible, at least one meeting of each
committee during the year — to maintain closer liaison with the committees; authorized
further revisions in and additions to the Information and Rules for the Guidance of
Committees to set forth new or improved practices, or to clarify existing rules and
procedures; saw through to completion, in July, the publication of the new General
Subjects Index for the Manual, authorized in 1957; and took the first steps toward
increased attention on the part of the Association to the matter of standardization.
In one of the more pleasing actions of the Board during the year, it authorized,
on behalf of the Association, jointly with the American Iron & Steel Institute, the
presentation of a bronze plaque to the University of Illinois, honoring Dr. Herbert
F. Moore, Emeritus Research Professor of Engineering Materials, University of Illinois,
in recognition of his pioneering and pre-eminence in the study of the fatigue properties
of metal, and especially his successful direction, from 1931 to 1944, of the joint AREA-
AISI Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rail. To give added significance to this action,
the Board then participated in the plaque presentation ceremony at the University, on
November 7, which it did in conjunction with its regular November meeting, which
was scheduled on the University campus to conserve the time and expense of Board
members.
In August 1958, the Board also authorized the reprinting in 1959 of 20,000 to
28,000 copies of the Association's recruiting brochure "The Railroad Field — A Challenge
and Opportunity for Young Engineers" (then being revised by the Committee on
Cooperative Relations with Universities), for distribution to the engineering colleges
of the United States and Canada over a three-year period. More detailed reference to
this brochure is included later in this report, under Publications.
Report of Executive Secretary 120.^
1958 Convention and Accompanying Exhibit
The springboard for the successful activities of the Association during the past year
was, unquestionably, the highly successful and unusually well attended annual conven-
tion of the Association, March 11-13, at the Sherman Hotel, Chicago, with the accom-
panying large exhibit of equipment and materials at the Coliseum, sponsored by the
National Railway Appliances Association.
The 1958 convention had a. registration of 1433 railroad men and 828 other-than-
railroad men — a total of 2261, not including the registration of 353 women. This was
the second highest convention registration in the history of the Association, being
exceeded only by that of the exhibit year 1955, when the total registration was 2378.
The program for the 1958 convention included reports on 122 of the 178 assign-
ments of committees, and 17 special features in the form of addresses, illustrated papers,
panel discussions, and motion picture presentations, and was noteworthy in several other
respects. One of these was the convention keynote address of WilUam T. Faricy, who,
at the time, was completing his service as chairman of the board and chief executive
officr of the Association of American Railroads. Another was a special luncheon tendered
Mr. Faricy in his honor at the close of the Opening Session. Still others were the recog-
nition given to the top officers of all AAR divisions, sections and bureaus in Chicago,
at the speaker's table during Mr. Fancy's address, and the presentation at the Opening
Session of framed Certificates of Honorary Membership in the Association to Mr. Faricy,
and to Past Presidents C. H. Mottier, T. A. Blair, C. J. Geyer, and, posthumously,
to Past President C. G. Grove. Included among the highlights of the convention also,
of course was the Association Annual Luncheon, addressed by G. B. Aydelott, president
of the Denver & Rio Grande Western, which was participated in by 1124 members and
guests who filled to near capacity the Grand Ballroom of the hotel.
Speaking of the hotel, it should be stated that, both as to adequacy of convention
facihties and room accommodations, and in the service of its personnel to the Asso-
ciation and convention guests generally, it met all expectations — a fact which led to
the decision of the Board of Direction to return to the Sherman Hotel in 1959.
MEMBERSHIP
Continued growth in membership was the one major factor in Association activity
that did not obtain in 1958. In spite of the fact that 155 new members were taken in
during the year, February 1, 1958, to February 1, 1959, membership fell off from a total
of 3361 at the earlier date to 3310 at the latter — a reduction of 52. This drop resulted
in a break in the unbroken record of increase in membership of the Association yearly
since 1944, even though that increase in recent years has been relatively small in any
one year.
Disappointing as is this drop in membership, the fact that it was not greater under
the depressed business conditions which prevailed throughout most of the year — especially
on the railroads — is cause for satisfaction, indicating that the Association is not con-
sidered a fair-weather organization by its members.
Once more the membership record with regard to Junior Members was unfavorable,
as the year ended February 1, 1959, saw the number of Junior Members in the Associa-
tion decline still further to 86, from a total of 101 as of the same date in 1958 —
continuing a decline which took place in each preceding year back to that ended
February 1, 1953, when Junior Membership was at the peak figure of 261. This fur-
ther decline in the number of Juniors came about through the transfer of 21 to the
1204 Report of Executive Secretary
grade of Member and the dropping of 21 for non-payment of dues or failure to transfer
to the grade of Member upon reaching the age of 30, while only 27 new Junior Members
were taken into the Association.
If there has been any valid explanation for this continued decline in the number
of Junior Members in past years, it was certainly valid during the past recession year.
In view of this, it is not without significance that during the year ended February 1,
1959, compared with the preceding year, 18 fewer Juniors were dropped for failure
to pay dues or to transfer to the grade of Member upon reaching the age of 30,
and 4 more Juniors were taken into the Association — 27 compared with 23.
With an eye constantly on the developing membership record throughout the year,
neither your secretary nor the Board of Direction was unaware of the membership
deficit in prospect for the year as a whole, and both were much concerned. However,
in the hght of economic conditions, it appeared impracticable to attempt to bolster
the membership by any means other than personally encouraging membership among
those clearly eligible and in a position to consider such, while at the same time adopting
measures which would retain present members by making the Association of even greater
value to them.
Unquestionably, the latter procedure must always be high in the order of business
of the officers and directors of the Association, and, no doubt, under the adverse con-
ditions which prevailed during 1958, giving emphasis to measures to retain the interest
of present members was the most effective and practical course. However, in the light
of the generally improved economic conditions presently prevailing on the railroads
and in prospect for the year ahead, and especially as the railroads increasingly stabiUze
their engineering and maintenance forces, and augment them with new technical grad-
uates to carry out enlarged construction and maintenance programs, those directing
the policies of the Association will undoubtedly want to encourage all those measures
which will further expand Association membership in order to make the benefits of
membership of value to the greatest number. Among these measures is certain to be an
effort on the part of the officers and directors themselves to encourage membership in
the Association among eligible non-members in their respective organizations, and a
request from them that members generally do likewise — keeping in mind that many of
those who aspire to membership, or would be receptive thereto, often hesitate to take
the necessary steps to gain such without an invitation or suggestion to do so from
their associates — especially of a higher rank. This effort, to be effective, must be a
concerted one, and should cover every eligible candidate for membership on the rail-
roads, including the newest technical employees, those older technical employees in
both office and field forces who may have thought they could get along just as well
without membership. Made fully aware of the storehouse of practical information
available to them through the publications of the Association and at least some part
in its activities, it should not be too difficult to convince many in this latter group
that they have been mistaken.
During the year ended February 1, 1959, the Association suffered the loss through
death of 46 members, as set forth in the roster of deceased members at the end of this
report. Among these were 2 past presidents, one of whom was also a past committee
chairman ; 1 committee chairman ; 2 other past committee chairmen ; and many others
who had actively participated in committee work.
The two past presidents were W. P. Wiltsee (1933-1934), retired chief engineer
of the Norfolk & Western, and chairman of Committee 5 — Track, 1919-1925, who died
on February 3, 1958, and Armstrong Chinn (1947-1948), president of the Terminal
Report of Executive Secretary 1205
Membership
(February 1, 1958, to February 1, 1959)
Members on the rolls February 1, 1958 3362
New members 155
Reinstatements 27
3544
Deceased 46
Resigned 68
Dropped 105
Net Loss Juniors (transferred 21 ; dropped 21 ; additions 27) IS
234
Net loss ._ 52
Membership February 1 . 1050 ." ^310
Membership Classification as oe February 1
1953 1954 1955 1956 J 057 195S 1959
Life 375 401 436 465 470 460 482
Member 2312 2366 2381 2414 2478 2524 2491
Associate 289 270 274 261 258 268 251
Junior 261 220 187 163 144 101 86
Totals 3237 3257 3278 3303 3350 3362 3310
Railroad Association of St. Louis, who died on August 28, 1958. A memoir on Mr.
Wiltsee appears in Vol. 59 of the Proceedings for 1958, and one on Mr. Chinn appeared
in Bulletin 546, for November 1958, and will be carried over into the 1950 Proceedings.
The committee chairman who died during the year was Dwight E. Perrine, chair-
man of Committee 6 — Buildings, who passed away in the second year of his term
as chairman, on September 21, 1958.
The former chairmen who died during the year other than Past President Wiltsee
were W. J. Eck, retired assistant to vice president. Southern Railway, who was chair-
man of Committee 10 — Signals and Interlocking, 1921-1923; and L. H. Laffoley, engineer
of hotels, Canadian Pacific, who was chairman of Committee 6 — Buildings, 1939-1942.
Among the others who died during the year was W. M. Wilson, emeritus professor
of structural engineering. University of Illinois, who, as a member of Committee 15 —
Iron and Steel Structures, from 1924 through 1954, and as a member of Committee 30 —
Impact and Bridge Stresses, from 1930 through 1954 (a Member Emeritus of both
committees at the time of his death), made many significant contributions to the work
of the Association regarding structures. Some of the more important of these had to do
with bridge rollers, high-strength bolts for structural joints, and welded joints for
bridges.
ACTIVITIES OF COMMITTEES
Membership on Committees
Reflecting the continued interest of members in serving on committees — and of the
railroads in being represented on committees — is the record of committee membership
during 1958, which shows that, in spite of a considerable turnover in the rosters of
the various committees, a few more members served on committees than in the imme-
diately preceding year.
1206 Report of Executive Secretary
Specifically, on February 1, 1958, 1125 members (including 57 Members Emeritus)
were serving on the Association's 23 standing and special committees, occupying a total
of 1246 places on these committees. This compares with the 1114 members who occupied
1247 places on these same committees as of February 1, 1957. That interest in mem-
bership on committees continues to be sustained, is seen further in the fact that as of
February 1, 1959, 1125 members were serving in 1246 places on committees — exactly
the same as on February 1, 1958.
In addition to their regular members, practically all committees carried "guest"
members on their rosters — members awaiting definite assignment to the committees
with the official roster change to become effective at the time of the 1959 convention,
but who were permitted to participate unofficially in committee work. Also, many
committee meetings were attended by "visitors", with the permission of the chairmen.
These visitors included retired members, interested outsiders, and members of the Asso-
ciation generally, who, for one reason or another wished to participate in specific
meetings or in inspections made in connection therewith.
The turnover of memberships on committees as a whole as of the end of 1958
amounted to approximately 10 percent, compared with slightly in excess of 13 percent
in the previous year. The turnover as of the end of 1958 was brought about by the
addition of 130 new members on committees and the deletion of 130 members from
committees. The large number of new members involved in this turnover reflects, as
indicated earlier, the continuing desire of members and their roads to be represented
on committees, while the equally large number of deletions from committee rosters
reflects not only the retirement of members from active railroad service and adjustments
in personnel on the railroads, as well as changes in the interests of members, but also
the result of the Board rule in effect that committee members who cannot or do not
participate actively in committee work by attendance, correspondence, and the regular
execution of letter ballots, must be dropped from committee rosters. However, that this
latter was not an important factor during the past year, in spite of the augmented
regular responsibilities of nearly all members, is seen in the fact that only 21 members
were dropped from committees for this cause.
Work of Committees
Working through subcommittees, the work of committees during 1958 again fol-
lowed much the same pattern as in previous years, the different subcommittees carrying
out their own studies and investigations independently, or working with or through
the research staff of the Association of American Railroads, to the end of preparing
progress or final reports for information; of revising material appearing in the Associa-
tion's Manual of Recommended Practice and Portfolio of Trackwork Plans to improve
or bring it up to date; of developing new Manual and PortfoHo material; and of carry-
ing out special projects related to their assignments. That there was no let-up in the
work of committees during the year, in spite of handicaps encountered, is seen in the
fact that they produced one or more reports on 142 of their 190 assignments, 24 of
which were final reports.
The interest of committees in keeping their Manual material up to date is reflected
in the fact that 13 of the Association's 21 committees which have chapters in the Manual
included Manual recommendations in their reports for the year, to be acted upon at the
1959 convention.
Report of Executive Secretai\- 1207
Classification of Material Produced by Committees
Following is a general categorical classification of the work produced by the com-
mittees during the year, as published in the Bulletins of the Association, to be presented
to the 1959 convention:
Recommendations pertaining to the development, revision, or reapproval without
change, of SO specifications and uniform practices for inclusion in the Manual; 80 reports
on current developments in engineering practice and design; 15 reports dealing with
economy in the use of labor and the recruiting and training of employees; 7 reports
on new and improved power tools, machines, materials and equipment; 3 reports involv-
ing statistics; 8 economic and analytical studies; S reports on relations with public
authorities; and 4 bibliographies.
The work of the committees affecting the Manual included the presentation of
2 specifications for adoption; the revision of 10 specifications (with or without reap-
proval); the reapproval of 6 specifications without change; the presentation of 1 tenta-
tive specification ; tentative revisions in 1 specification ; the presentation of 4 recom-
mended practices for adoption; the deletion of 1 recommended practice; the revision
of 9 recommended practices, with or without reapproval; the reapproval of 8 recom-
mended practices without change ; the presentation of 2 tentative recommended prac-
tices; the presentation of 1 agreement form for adoption, the revision of 1 agreement
form; and the presentation of 1 tentative agreement form. In addition, instructions
with regard to three machines were presented for inclusion in the Handbook of Instruc-
tions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment.
Work on new or revised Trackwork Plans during the year resulted in the presenta-
tion of 1 new plan for adoption, 2 revised plans, 6 appendix sheets, and 3 contents
sheets. However, it also called for minor revisions in 33 plans to bring them into har-
mony, employing an ingenious method developed by the committee to record these
changes in the Portfoho for the benefit of users, without the necessity of reissuing these
plans. Briefly, this method involves a new Errata Section in the Table of Contents
of the Portfolio, with a direct tie-in to the specific plans affected through the medium
of asking the holders of the Portfoho to add a hand-lettered suffix to the numbers on
these plans until such time as they are reissued in revised form. A description of this
expedient appears in the report of Committee 5 — Track, as published in Bulletin 549
for February 1959.
Careful Screening of Committee Assignments
Long before committees had completed their year's work on their current assign-
ments, they were again giving thoughtful consideration to recommendations for new
assignments for the coming year, along with assignments to be continued or dropped.
This consideration was spearheaded within the different committees under their Assign-
ment A. Recommendations for Further Study and Research, by subcommittees which
included in their personnel, in most instances, the vice chairman of the committee and
all of the other subcommittee chairmen. Through the stimulus given to the matter of
assignments by these subcommittees, nearly every committee developed more suggestions
for new subjects than it was feasible for them to undertake, making it necessary for
them to sift their suggestions down to a practical number to recommend to the Board
for approval. Following this procedure, a total of 36 new subjects were assigned to the
23 standing and special committees of the Association for investigation in 1959, including
2 assignments, encouraged by the Board, to give emphasis to the matter of simplifica-
tion and standardization — ^especially in the matter of special trackwork and rail sections.
1208 Report of Executive Secretary
At the same time, 32 of the 190 assignments of committees in 19S8 were dropped, and
158 were continued, with the net result that, for the 1959-1960 Association year, the
committees as a whole have a total of 194 assignments (not including Assignments A).
Continued Close Liaison Between Board and Committees
While economic conditions made it inadvisable for the Board to arrange a meeting
of all committee chairmen early in the year with the officers of the Association and
the chairmen of the different Board committees, to review committee procedures, iron
out inter-committee problems, and answer any questions in the minds of chairmen,
the Board did keep in close touch with the work of committees throughout the year,
continuing practices established in the immediately preceding two years. One of these
is that of having one of the officers or directors of the Association sit in, as a guest,
at at least one meeting of each committee during the year, with a prearranged oppor-
tunity for them to present the thinking of the Board on current Association matters
and to receive suggestions from the committees. Another was careful scrutiny of the
activity record of committee members through the Committee Member Activity Charts
maintained by all chairmen, which were turned in for review by the Board early in
October, in connection with the reassignment of members to committees for 1959.
Committee Meetings
Reflecting the request of the Board of Direction, some fewer meetings of com-
mittees were held during the year tnded March 1, 1959, a larger number were held
centrally in the country — especially Chicago — and many of them were confined to a
single day. However, with the distinctly improved -economic conditions at the turn of
the new year, 10 committees held meetings in January and February 1959 in order
to get reorganized and an early start on their new year's work. A considerable number
of committee meetings throughout the year were supplemented by inspection trips to
see facilities, structures, or practices directly related to the work of committees, but,
again, reflecting the admonition of the Board of Direction, practically none of these
trips had the effect of extending the committee meetings an extra day.
Specifically, 66 full meetings were held during the year ended March 1, 1959. This
compares with 73 meetings held during the year ended March 1, 1958, and with 70
during the year ended March 1, 1957. Of the 66 meetings held during the 1958-1959
Association year, 48 were held in Chicago, 2 were held at New Orleans, and 16 were
held in as many different cities, for the most part centrally in the country or else-
where most convenient to the members of the committees. The 48 meetings held in
Chicago during the year, which included 15 meetings and luncheons held during the
1958 convention, compares with 30 held in Chicago the previous year.
RESEARCH WORK
In 1958, due to recession conditions, with resulting restricted railroad earnings, the
extent of the research activities of the Association, sponsored by its committees and
carried out by or through the Engineering Division research staff of the AAR, was a
matter of uncertainty almost from the beginning of the year. However, despite condi-
tions, a large amount of research work was carried forward, which, expenditurewSse,
exceeded that in any previous year.
Late in 1957, viewing the prospects for 1958 optimistically, the AAR Board of
Directors approved an Engineering Division Research Budget in 1958 in the arnount
Report of Executive Secretary 120Q
of $570,609, and still later in that year authorized work on two additional new proj-
ects, to the extent of $45,000, to be paid for from unexpended research funds in 1957.
One of these was to investigate the possibility and practicability of the brazing, or
diffusion bonding, of rails together to produce multiple lengths, or to provide closure
welds between stretches of continuous welded rail in track. The other involved feasibility
studies on nuclear light sources, especially for illuminating certain types of roadway
signs. In addition, in January 1958, authorization was received to carry over $160,000
of unexpended funds to pay for equipment for the new Engineering Laboratory at the
.\.\R Research Center, ordered in 1956 and 1957, but not delivered.
But, in the light of continuing unfavorable economic conditions, by February 19S8
the AAR found it necessary to reappraise its entire operations as contemplated for 1958,
including its research program, which resulted in a delayed start on some of the engi-
neering research projects contemplated, and deferring work on some other projects. How-
ever, the record for the year shows that, in addition to the expenditures for equipment
for the Engineering Laboratory, $563,709 were expended on engineering research
sponsored by ARE.A. committees and the .\.\R Joint Committee on Relation Between
Track and Equipment.
For 1959, .'\RE.\ committees and the A.^R Joint Committee proposed research
work which would have called for a total expenditure of $684,000. However, in its
careful review of the various projects proposed, the AREA Board of Direction, recog-
nizing the probable inability of the AAR to finance an engineering research program
of this size in 1959, submitted to the AAR a budget calling for a total expenditure of
$586,550. This proposed budget presented the various research projects in two groups
as to priority — Group A, which included projects which the Board felt must be under-
taken or continued in 1959, and Group B, which included projects which it felt should
be undertaken or continued, but the appropriation for which might be reduced if
necessarj'.
In addition, the budget presentation listed a number of other committee-proposed
projects, previously started or new, which the Board stated it would like to see under-
taken in 1959 if funds could be made available. The amount of money involved in these
additional projects amounted to $54,250.
On November 21, 1958, the Member Roads of the AAR tentatively approved a
1959 engineering research budget in the amount of $559,550, $27,000 less than the
amount requested, with the understanding that final approval would await the results
of a review of the activities of the Research Department, A.\R, and its related budget
allotment, by a committee of the .^AR Board of Directors.
As this report is being written, the "review" by the appointed committee is still
under way and no final action has been taken with respect to the 1959 budget. However,
pending such action, the research work on engineering projects continues apace, subject
to any adjustment or modification which may subsequently be called for.
The accompanying tabular material shows the total allotmer»ts for research under
the direction of the Engineering Division, AAR, 1942-1958, incl. It also presents a
summary of projects included in the 1959 Engineering Division Research Budget, show-
ing expenditures for each project as authorized tentatively by the AAR, compared with
amounts requested, and with e.stimated expenditures on these projects in 1958.
1210 Report of Executive Secretary
Total Allotments for Research Work, Engineering Division. AAR,
1942-1QS9
1942 $87,932 1951 354,770
1943 98,445 1952 381,400
1944 109,050 1953 364,100
1945 138,110 1954 (as modified) 351,307
1946 159,510 1955 351,653
1947 234,428 1956 365,050
1048 291,840 1957 476,845
1949 372,457 1958 563,709
1950 294,045 1959 (tentative) 559,550
Summary of Projects Included in 1959 Engineering Division Research Budget,
Approved Tentatively by the AAR, Showing Expenditures Authorized
FOR Each Project, Compared with Amounts Requested, and
Estimated Expenditures on these Projects in 1958
1958 1959
Estimated Budget 1959
Administration Expenses Request Budget
Research Office $ 62,759 $ 59,400 $ 59,400
Total $ 62,759 $ 59,400 $ 59,400
Committee 1— Roadway and Ballast
Roadbed Stabilization $ 29,300 $ 29,900 $ 29,900
Ballast Tests 19,300 16,700 16,700
Chemical Vegetation Control 16,300 17,200 17,200
Nuclear Light Sources 15,000 0 0
Performance of Filter Materials in Subdrains 3,000 0 0
Erosion Control for Outlet Structures 3,100 0 0
Total $ 86,000 $ 63,800 $ 63,800
Committee 3 — Ties
Anti-Splitting Devices for Ties $ 10,000 $ 12,000 $ 12,000
Tie Coatings 2,500 2,500 2,500
Service Tests of Laminated Ties and Combined Seasoned
and Treated Ties 1,000 1,000 1,000
Total $ 13,500 $ 15,500 $ 15,500
Committee 4 — Rail
Transverse Fissure Investigation $ 6,350 $ 6,350 $ 6,350
Shelly Spots and Head Checks 15,650 15,650 15,650
Rail Failure Statistics 10,550 10,550 10,550
Rail Design Investigation 4,300 4,300 4,300
Rolling Load Tests of Joint Bars 15,000 16,300 16,300
Welding Battered Rail Ends 14,700 15,400 15,400
Tests with 78-ft Rail 2,000 4,500 4,500
Service Tests of Joint Bars 3,550 0 0
Total $ 72,100 $ 73,050 $ 73,050
Committee 5— Track
Tie Plate Design $ 0 $ 3,800 $ 3,800
Bolt Tension and Rail Joint Lubrication 4,300 4,500 4,500
Corrosion from Brine Drippings 15,500 20,000 16,000
Manganese Frog Design 11,650 13,400 13,400
Laying Rail Tight with Frozen Joints 4,800 5,900 5,900
Report of Executive Secretary 1211
1958 1959
Estimated Budget 1959
Expenses Request Budget
Welding Frogs and Switches 7,100 6.Q00 6,900
Tie Plate Fastenings 19,300 20,500 20,500
Total .f 62,650 $ 75,000 $ 71,000
Committee 6 — Buildings
Wind Loads $ 4,000 $ 4,000 $ 4,000
Total $ 4,000 $ 4,000 $ 4,000
Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles
Timber Stringer Tests $ 5,200 $ 6,200 $ 6,200
Timber Bearing Tests , 5,700 5,700 5,700
Fire Retardant Coatings 13,000 15,000 13,000
Preparation of Standard Bridge Plans 1,000 2,000 2,000
Laminated Girders 0 5,200 5,200
Total ,'p 24,900 $34,100 $32,100
Committee 8 — Masonry
Concrete Deterioration $ 12,400 $ 12,400 $ 12,400
Reinforced Concrete Rejearch Council 4,000 6,000 5,000
Bearings for Concrete Bridges 3,000 3,000 3,000
Scour Around Foundations 2,500 5,000 5,000
Total $21,900 $26,400 $25,400
Committee 9 — Highways
Grade Crossing Protection Study $ 0 $10,000 $10,000
Total $ 0 $ 10,000 $ 10,000
Committee 15 — Iron and Steel Structures
Model Bridge Tests $ 10,500 $ 10,500 $ 10,500
Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints 8,000 10,000 8,000
Steel Structures Painting Council 8,000 10,000 8,000
Welding Research — Structures 0 10,000 8,000
Corrosion of Deck Plates 3,000 3,000 3,000
Total $29,500 $43,500 $37,500
Committee 17 — Wood Preservation
Termite Control Investigation $ 1,000 $ 5,000 $ 5,000
Total $ 1,000 $ 5,000 $ 5,000
Committee 29 — Waterproofing
Bituminous Waterproofing and Dampprooiing Materials .$ 5,200 $ 7,200 $ 7,200
Membrane Waterproofing Materials 8,100 8,100 8,100
Total $ 13,300 $ 15,300 $ 15,300
Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses
Bridge Impact Studies $ 84,700 $ 80,000 $ 80,000
Prestressed Concrete Beams 0 11,000 11,000
Distribution of Axle Loads 6,200 0 0
Deflection and Depth Ratios of Bridges 8,200 15,500 10,500
Electronic Calculation of Bridge Stresses 12,000 12,000 12,000
Total $111,100 $118,500 $113,500
1212 Report of Executive Secretary
1958 1959
Estimated Budget 1959
Expenses Request Budget
Joint Committee Relation Between Track and Equipment
Relation of Wheel Load to Wheel Diameter $ 7,000 $ 25,000 $ 20,000
Clearance Requirements 9,000 10,000 10,000
Ride Comfort — New Type Passenger Train Versus Con-
ventional Equipment 4,500 0 0
Wheel Slippage on Axle from Lateral Thrust 2,500 3,000 3,000
Signal Shunting by Motor Cars and Lightweight Equip-
ment 2,000 0 0
Tracking Tests of Trainmaster Locomotives 3,000 0 0
Rolling Resistance of Freight Cars 3,000 0 0
Total $31,000 $38,000 $33,000
Board Committee on Research
Long-Range Weather Forecasting $ 0 $ 5,000 $ 1,000
Total $ 0 $ 5,000 $ 1,000
Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail
Brazing of Rails $ 30,000 0 0
Total $30,000 0 0
Grand Totals $563,709 $586,550 $559,550
PUBLICATIONS
The seven monthly Bulletins of the Association ending with the February 1959
issue contain 1222 pages of text matter and illustrations, exclusive of advertising, and
16 inserts of one kind or another. Reflecting primarily more concise report writing,
prompted by the desirability of holding down publication costs, this is a fewer number
of Bulletin pages than during the previous two years — 1324 pages and 1349 pages,
respectively. The committee reports published for presentation at the 1959 Annual
Meeting occupied 768 pages in Bulletins 546 to 549, incl. This is 70 pages more than
were devoted to committee reports in comparable Bulletins the previous year, an increase
which was occasioned in large part by the larger number of reports made on committee
assignments during the past year.
To the number of Bulletin pages devoted to committee reports during the past
year should be added the 208 pages of reports on research projects sponsored by AREA
committees, or groups in which AREA committees are interested, which appeared in
Bulletins 544 and 545, for June-July and September-October 1958. These 208 pages
in the two "summer" Bulletins of 1958 compare with 388 pages devoted to the same
type of reports in the "summer" Bulletins of the previous year.
The Annual Supplement to the Manual issued in 1958, incorporating all of the
recommendations of committees affecting Manual material adopted at the 1958 Annual
Meeting, included a total of 104 sheets. At the same time, it called for the removal
of 85 existing Manual sheets, leaving a net gain of 19 sheets in the Manual as revised.
The 104-page Manual Supplement in 1958 compares with the 147-page Manual Supple-
ments in 1957, and with the 102-page Supplement issued in 1956.
The Annual Supplement to the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans issued in 1958 was
again very limited in size, including only 6 sheets. This small Supplement, and the
fact that there were only 4 sheets in the 1957 Supplement, and no Supplement to the
Report of Executive Secretary 121.^
Portfolio was issued in 1956, resulted from the practically complete revision of the entire
Portfolio in 1955. The 6 sheets in the 1958 Supplement included 2 plans, 2 appendix
sheets covering revisions in the AREA Specifications for Special Trackwork, and 2 Table
of Contents sheets.
In July 1958, the secretary's office completed and started mailing to holders of the
Manual a 12-page General Subjects Index of the Manual, completely up to date as of
the 1958 Supplement.
Essentially, the new General Subjects Index is a summation of the present Chapter
Tables of Contents, but with subjects arranged in alphabetical order, and including ref-
erence also to the basic items in the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
No revisions will be made in the new General Subjects Index between reprintings
of the Manual (approximately every five years). However, it is planned to print and
distribute with each Annual Supplement to the Manual a cumulative addendum (one or
two sheets) containing required changes in the Index, with items arranged in alphabetical
order.
With each reprinting of the Manual (to replenish the supply for sale), the General
Subjects Index will be recast to absorb all addendum items since the previous reprinting,
and enough copies will be run off for distribution free to all then holders of the Manual,
and for the reprinted copies of the Manual which will be held in stock for future sale.
Engineer Recruiting Brochure
One of the outstanding publication efforts of the Association during the year,
although not completed for distribution, was the revision by Committee 24 — Cooperative
Relations with Universities, of its Engineer Recruiting Brochure entitled "The Railroad
Field — A Challenge and Opportunity for Young Engineers". It will be recalled that the
first edition of this brochure was published in 1955 with a press run of 25,000 copies,
and was distributed free throughout 1955, 1956 and 1957 to the engineering colleges of
the United States and Canada, and to a large number of high school counselors, as well
as in sizable number, at cost, to a large number of railroads for use in their recruiting
efforts.
The revision of the text of the earlier edition, which was intended to make the new
edition even more attractive, definitive, informative, and convincing, was completed late
in the fall, with the hope that copies of the new edition would be available for distribu-
tion early in 1959. In fact, the Board of Direction, at its August meeting, in anticipation
of early completion of the text and early publication, authorized the printing of 28,000
copies — 18,000 for distribution by the Association during 1959, 1960, and 1961, and
10,000 copies to cover an order from the School and College Service of the Public Rela-
tions Department of the Association of American Railroads for its distribution over a
similar period.
But practical considerations, including the collection of a large number of photo-
graphs from which to select new illustrations for the brochure, the taking of bids for
printing, and the unusually heav>' load on the secretary's office throughout the fall and
winter months in publishing committee reports and preparing for the 1959 Annual Con-
vention, made early 1959 publication of the new edition impossible. In view of this,
printing of the new edition has been postponed until the summer months of 1959, look-
ing to distributing copies to the colleges early in October, just after the beginning of
their fall terms.
1214 Report of Executive Secretary
Student Recruiting Guide
Another notable publication effort of the Association during the year, which, how-
ever, like the Engineer Recruiting Brochure, did not reach the general distribution stage,
was the text for the first edition of a Student Recruiting Guide— also produced by the
Committee on Cooperative Relations with Universities. The guide presents recommended
techniques to be used by the railroads in recruiting college and university students,
and the committee has proposed it be published in pamphlet form and made available
to the railroads to assist them in their recruiting efforts. No doubt, this proposal will
be approved by the Board of Direction at one of its two meetings at the time of the
1959 Association convention.
Manual of Convention Arrangements
One other publication of the Association, started late in 1958, and only completed
by the secretary's office just prior to the date of this report, deserves mention because of
the sizable effort involved and its importance to one aspect of the Association's welfare,
even though its distribution is less than 50 copies and is confined to a small specific
group within the Association membership. This is the completely revised edition of the
Manual of the Association's Committee on Convention Arrangements, a document in-
cluding 45 single-spaced typewritten pages, in a flexible binder, which sets forth in
minute detail all of the duties and responsibilities of the committee as a whole and of its
eight subcommittees. Whereas the last previous edition, revised in 1955, was built around
Association conventions as held at the Palmer House, Chicago, and convention activities
as of that time, the new edition spells out the duties and responsibilities of every assign-
ment within the committee under present convention practices and procedures, and is,
for the most part, applicable regardless of the hotel in which the convention may be held.
Distribution of Publications
In the Calendar Year 1958 the Association continued widespread distribution of its
publications over and above those going to its own large membership. This distribution
totalled approximately 30,200 copies, 27,300 of which were sold from the secretary's of-
fice to, among others, the American railroads, colleges and universities, students, Govern-
ment agencies, engineers in industry generally, and railroad men in foreign countries.
The remaining 2900 copies included approximately 400 copies of the Engineer Recruiting
Brochure sent out free to engineering colleges, universities and high school counselors
from the secretary's office, and approximately 2500 reprints of research reports published
by the AREA, which were made available to the AAR research staff.
The 30,200 copies of publications distributed during 1958 was 8300 copies fewer
than the number distributed in 1957, a difference which reflects, on the one hand, the
fact that approximately 8600 fewer copies of the Handbook of Instructions for Care and
Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment were sold in 1958, and that, due to a
depleted supply, only about 400 copies of the Engineer Recruiting Brochure were avail-
able for distribution in 1958, compared with a distribution of 3675 copies in 1957. On the
other hand it reflects an increase in the sale of approximately 3575 copies of other Asso-
ciation publications.
Large as was the distribution of publications in 1958, it was somewhat smaller than
it might have been in view of the continued refusal on the part of the Association to fill
many foreign orders received which were not given clearance by the Office of Inter-
national Trade at Washington, D. C.
Following is a tabulation of the publication sales made in 1958.
Report of Executive Secretar>' 1215
Salf.s of Association Publications — 1958
Specifications (Bridge) 1,380
Manual chapters 1,387
Manual specifications and partial chapters 1,36Q
Manual specifications, large orders (more than 100) 13,500
Bulletins 1,671
Bulletin reprints 481
Special reprints in large orders (100 or more) 4,250
Proceedings 167
Consolidated Proceedings indexes 12
Revisions to Manual 880
Manuals (complete) and separate fillers 192
Revisions to Portfolio of Trackwork Plans 966
Complete Portfolios of Trackwork Plans 96
Individual track plans 730
Federal Valuation of Railroads 14
Achievement of Grade Crossing Protection 2
J. A. Given booklets 21
Engineer recruitment brochure 100
Maintenance of Way Equipment Handbooks 71
27,289
FINANCES
The Report of the Treasurer, Financial Statement, General Balance Sheet, and State-
ment of Cash Receipts and Disbursements for the calendar year 1958, all of which are
presented herein, indicate that the Association continues in a sound financial condition,
with total Receipts for the year exceeding Disbursements by $4105.64, and with the total
assets of the Association some $1500 higher, compared with 1957. A comparison of Re-
ceipts and Disbursements for the past two years is presented below:
1957 1958
Receipts $85,429.31 $81,454.56
Disbursements 89,830.57 77,348.92
— $ 4,401.26 $ 4,105.64
The following reviews briefly the financial picture for the year. In the first place,
Receipts for 1958 were lower than those of 1957 by $3975. This resulted primarily from
a combination of smaller Receipts in some accounts in 1958, compared with 1957, on the
one hand, and, on the other hand, sizable Receipts in two new accounts in 1958, both
related to the 1958 convention. More specifically, whereas only $59 was realized from
the sale of the revised edition of the Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation
of Maintenance of Way Equipment in 1958, Receipts from the sale of this publication
amounted to $6420 in 1957, when the revised edition was issued. At the same time, Re-
ceipts from Convention Registration Fees in 1958, the first year such fees were charged,
totaled $2605, while an additional $792 was realized from the sale of tickets to the ladies'
luncheon at the South Shore Country Club during the 1958 convention, for which there
was no paralleling credit for 1957. These two new credit items alone in 1958, totaling
$3397, offset much of the higher Receipts in 1957.
It is gratifying that the total Receipts in 1958 were as high as they were in view of
the general low level of business activity during at least the first two-thirds of the year —
receipts which were actually some $5000 higher than were anticipated at the beginning
of the year.
1216 Report of Executive Secretary
Total Disbursements in 1958 amounted to $77,348.92, $12,730 under those for 19S7.
This decrease reflects, on the one hand, an abnormal expenditure in 1957 of $7405 for
printing the Handbook of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way
Equipment, and $10,800 for reprinting 1200 Manual fillers to replace a depleted supply.
On the other hand, it reflects larger expenditures for certain items in 1958 over 1957, in
the amount of $5524. These latter items include $1325 for the purchase of a supply of
certain Manual Chapters for individual Chapter sales; $2318 increased charges against
the item of Convention Expenses; an increase of $1243 in the item of Salaries; an in-
crease of $438 in normal Postage Expense; and an item of $200 for Brochure-Mailing
Postage. In view of this situation, it is evident that the total of all other Disbursements
approximated those in 1957.
It is well that the Association enjoyed a good year financially in 1958, with an
excess of Receipts over Disbursements of $4105, if only to offset almost in its entirety the
deficit of $4401 in 1957. In fact, it is especially fortunate that the Association realized
this offsetting profit in 1958, since it is expected that, even with generally favorable
conditions in 1959, the Association will incur a deficit in that year of some $8000
due to increased costs for printing, salaries, postage, office rental, and the publication of
a three years' supply of the revised Engineer Recruiting Brochure.
Comparison of Receipts and Disbursements for a 20- Year Period
Receipts Disbursements Net Gain
1939 , $28,189.00 $23,847.00 $4,342.00
1940 28,272.00 26,451.00 1,821.00
1941 32,433.00 29,384.00 3,049.00
1942 31,500.00 26,692.00 4,808.00
1943 28,736.00 23,809.00 4,927.00
1944 30,492.00 26,534.00 3,958.00
1945 32,305.00 29,305.00 3,000.00
1946 28,836.00 34,583.00 5,747.00*
1947 46,993.00 46,989.00 4.00
1948 57,741.00 53,062.00 4,679.00
1949 62,081.00 57.075.00 5,005.00
1950 59,752.00 51,795.00 7,957.00
1951 69,045.00 62,369.00 6,676.00
1952 77,514.00 76,964.00 550.00
1953 73,033.07 82,067.86 9,034.79*
1954 85,748.99 68,003.03 17,745.96*
1955 80,177.21 73,923.18 6,254.03
1956 79,531.11 70,336.17 9,014.94
1957 85,429.31 89,830.57 4,401.26*
1958 81,454.56 77,348.92 4,105.64
* Deficit.
The foregoing report clearly bears out, I am sure, the statement at the outset of this
report, that in 1958, despite the generally unfavorable conditions which prevailed, the
Association retained the interest of its members, continued its work unabated, closed the
year in a favorable financial condition, and moved generally into higher ground, with
the single exception of total membership — a significant achievement. Continuing the
same general policies, with some emphasis on recouping the membership loss of the past
year, there is every reason to expect that the Association will move forward to a still
higher level of well-being and achievement in the year ahead.
Respectfully submitted,
: Keal D. Howard,
Executive Secretary.
Report of Executive Secretary 1?17
Beceacfeti iHembetfii
F. T. Becketi
Retired Assistant Chief Engineer, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad, Sapulpa, Okla.
K. A. Begemann
Tnstrunientman, Missouri Pacific Railroad, Little Rmk, Ark
H. I. Benjamin
Retired Vice-Chairman, System Committee on Insurance, Southern Pacific Company, San Francisco, Calif.
W. H. Brameld
Retired Assistant to Chief Engineer, Maintenance of Way, Erie Railroad, Paterson, N. J.
C. B. Breed
Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of 'I'eihnology
Harbor Road, Camden, Me.
H. C. Charlton
Assistant Engineer Bridges, Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke, Va.
A. Chinn
President, Terminal Railroad A.ssociation of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.
A. C. Clarke
Retired Chief Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Porpoise Point, Vero Beach, Fla.
J. E. Crawford
Retired Vice President — Assistant to President, Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke, Va.
A. M. Currier
Retired A.s.sistant to Vice-President, New York Central System, Cleveland, Ohio
J. E. Deckert
Director, Deckert Corporation, Morton Grove, IlL
M. M. DUTRA
care Estrada de Ferro Santos a Jundiaf, Rua Desembangador Guimaraes No. 72,
Sao Paulo. Brazil, S. A.
W. J. EcK
Retired .Assistant to Vice-President, Southern Railway System, Arlington, Va.
O. W. ESHBACH
Professor of Engineering Science, Northwestern Technological Institute, Evanston, 111.
L. P. O. Exley
Retired Chief Engineer, Gulf. .Mobile & (^hio Railroad, Miami Beach, Fla.
W. A. Fisher
Retired Secretary, Bernuth, Lenibcke Company, Inc., Bound Brook, N. J.
D. Z. Gardner, Jr.
Division Engineer, .Atchison Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Los Angeles, Calif.
A. Hazen
As.sistant Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St, Paul ^ Pacific Railroad, Minneapolis, Minn.
1218 Report of Executive Secretary
W. B. Hodge
Retired Division Engineer, New York Central System, Indianapolis, Ind.
O. W. Irwin
President, Rail Steel Bar Association, Chicago, 111.
M. F. Jaeger
Superintendent, Port Reading Creosoting Plant, Reading Company, Central Railroad of New Jersey
Port Reading, N. J.
P. M. LaBach
Los Angeles, Calif.
L. H. Latfolev
Engineer of Hotels, Canadian Pacific Railway, Montreal, Que.
J. W. Lasher
Armco Drainage & Metal Products, Inc., Duluth, Minn.
F. J. Lewis
Dean, School of Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.
F. H. Masters
Retired Special Engineer, Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Railway, Joliet, 111.
N. W. McCallum
Retired Chief Engineer, Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad, Scarsdale, N. Y.
T. H. McKjbben
Retired Assistant Chief Engineer, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Chicago, 111.
G. A. McROBERTS
Division Engineer, Southern Railway System, Somerset, Ky.
H. F. Passel
Retired Division Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Indianapolis, Ind
D. E. Perrine
Assistant Chief Engi^er, Chicago & Western Indiana Railroad, Chicago, 111.
F. A. Poling
Division Engineer, New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad, Brewster, Ohio
J. W. Porter
Retired Chief Engineer Western Region, Canadian National Railways, Winnipeg, Man.
G. W. Rathjens
Consulting Engineer, Berkeley, Calif.
M. D. Salinger
Chief Engineer, Cleveland Frog & Crossing Co., Cleveland, Ohio
L. D. Shelkev
Assistant Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, Greenville, Pa,
P. T. Simons
Retired Assistant Engineer, Missouri Pacific Lines, St. Louis, Mo.
Report of Executive Secretary- 1210
A. L. Simpson
Timber Treatment Engineer, New York Central System, Toledo, Oliin
E. D. SwiFt
Retired Engineer Maintenance of Way, Belt Railway, Chirago, III.
F. C. Teske, Jr.
Assistant to Chief Engineer, Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Sle. Marie Railroad. Minneapolis, Minn.
W. H. Vance
Retired Assistant Engineer Maintenance of Way, Missouri Pacific Railroad, Louisville, Ky.
C. P. Van Gundy
Retired Engineer of Tests, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Aberdeen. Md.
W. M. Wilson
Emeritus Research Professor of Structural Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
W. P. WiLTSEE
Retired Chief Engineer, Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke, Va.
A. H. Woerner
Retired Superintendent, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Washington, Ind.
J. C. Woods
Chief Engineer, St. Johnsbury & Lamoille County Railroad, Montpeiier, Vt.
1220 Report of Executive Secretary
FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR CALENDAR YEAR
ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1958
Balance on hand January 1, 1958 $145,664.57
RECEIPTS
Membership Account
Entrance Fees $ 1,560.00
Dues 42,905.96 $44,465.96
Sale of Publications
Proceedings 1 ,53 1 .23
Bulletins 2,435.75
Manuals 8,657.27
Specifications 1,642.31
Track Plans 1,536.40
Research Reports 6,257.04 22,060.00
Advertising
Publications 6,953.70
Interest Account
Interest on Investments 3,705.94
Miscellaneous
Registration (Convention) 2,605.00
Luncheon Receipts (Ladies) 792.00
Other 849.01 4,246.51
Total $81,432.11
DISBURSEMENTS
Salaries $25,526.96
Proceedings 14,207.39
Bulletins 14,238.97
Stationery and printing 2,039.72
Rent, light etc 1,140.00
Supplies 377.85
Postage 2,153.11
Audit 400.00
Pensions 300.00
Social security, unemployment tax and insurance 1,061.40
Manual 6,451.43
Track plans 183.95
Committee and officers expense 383.12
Annual meeting expense 4,910.97
News letter 2,832.88
Miscellaneous 1,141.17
Total $77,348.92
Excess of Receipts over Disbursements 4,083.19
Profit on Exchange of securities 22.45
Balance on hand December 31, 1958 $140,770.21
Report of Treasurer 1221
REPORT OF THE TREASURER
To THE Members;
Balance on hand January 1, 1958 $145,664.57
Receipts during 195S S 81,432.11
Paid out on audited vouchers 77,348.92
Excess of receipts over disbursements 4,083.19
Profit on exchange of bonds 22.45 4,105.64
Balance on hand December 31, 1958 $149,770.21
Consisting of bonds at cost 148,835.39
Cash in Northern Trust Company Bank 909.82
Petty cash 25.00 $149,770.21
We have made an examination of the accounts of The American Railway Engineer-
ing .Association for the j-ear ended December 31, 1958, and found them to be in accord-
ance with the foregoing statement.
C. A. BicK,
P. D. Mitchell,
Auditors.
GENERAL BALANCE SHEET
Assets: 193S 1957
Due from members $ 66.00 $ 48.00
Due from sale of pubhcations 98.50 131.20
Due from sale of advertising 956.40 1,147.80
Prepaid postage 23.81 51.95
Furniture and fixtures 1,345.00 1,495.00
Inventories:
Pubhcations (estimated) 500.00 500.00
Manuals 7,91 7.00 8,080.00
Track Plans 1,154.50 1,852.50
Binders, index and chapter 95.00 02.00
Paper stock — . i ,344.00
Investments (cost) 148,835.39 143,887.89
Interest accrued on investments 432.19 402.82
Cash in Northern Trust Company Bank 909.82 1,751.68
Petty cash 25.00 25.00
Totals .$162,358.61 $160,809.84
Llabilities:
Members dues paid in advance $ 372.00 $, 631.29
Surplus 161,986.61 160,178.55
Totals $.162,358.61 $160,809.84
STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS YEAR 1958
Cash in Bank, January 1, 1958 $ 1,751.68
Receipts:
From members, sales of publications, interest, etc 81,732.11
From sale of securities 12,963.08
$ 96,446.87
Disbursements :
Audited vouchers $ 77,648.92
Securities purchased 1 7.888.13 95,537.05
Cash in Bank, December 31, 1058 $ 909.82
American Railway Engineering
Association
CONSTITUTION
Revised to October 30, 1958
Article I
Name, Object and Location
1. Name
The name of this Association shall be the AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING
ASSOCIATION.
2. Object
The object of the Association shall be the advancement of knowledge pertaining
to the scientific and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance of
railways.
3. Means to be Used
The means to be used for this purpose shall be:
(a) The investigation of matters pertaining to the object of the Association through
Study and Research Committees.
(b) Meeting for the presentation and discussion of papers, and for action on the
recommendations of committees.
(c) The publication of papers, reports and discussions.
4. Conclusions
The conclusions adopted by the Association shall be recommendatory.
5. Location
The office of the Association shall be located in Chicago, 111.
• Article II
Membership
1. Classes
The membership of this Association shall be divided into five classes: Members,
Life Members, Honorary Members, Associates and Junior Members.
2. Qualifications
A. General
(a) An applicant to be eligible for membership in any class other than that of
Junior Member shall be not less than 25 years of age.
(b) To be eligible for membership in any class, or for retention of membership as a
Member, an Associate or a Junior Member, a person shall not be engaged directly or
primarily in the sale to the railways of appliances, supplies, patents or patented services.
(c) The right to membership shall not be terminated by retirement from active
service.
1222
Constitution 1223
(d) In determining the eligibility for membership in any class, graduation in engineer-
ing from a school of recognized standing shall be considered as equivalent to three years
of active practice, and satisfactory completion of each year of work in such school,
without graduation, shall be considered as equivalent to one-half year of active practice.
(e) In determining the eligibility for Member under Section B (a) of this Article,
each year of practical experience in engineering, or in science related thereto, prior to
employment on a railway, if such experience were of the same speciahzed character as
the current work of the applicant, shall be considered as equivalent to one year of
railway service.
B. Member
A Member shall be:
(a) An engineer or officer in the service of a railway corporation that is a common
carrier, who has had not less than five years' experience in the location, construction,
operation or maintenance of railways.
(b) A dean, professor, assistant professor, or equivalent in engineering in a university
or college of recognized standing, or an instructor or equivalent in such university or
college, who, with an engineering degree, has had at least two years' experience in
teaching engineering.
(c) An engineer or member of a public board, commission or other official agency
who, in the discharge of his regular duties, deals with railway problems.
(d) An editor of a trade or technical magazine who, in the discharge of his regular
duties, deals with railway problems, and who has had the equivalent of five years'
engineering or railway experience.
(e) A consulting engineer, engaged in private practice, or an engineer in his employ
or in the employ of a consulting engineering organization, who has had the equivalent
of five years' engineering experience.
C. Life Member
A Life Member shall be a Member or an Associate who has paid dues for 35 years,
or who has been retired under a recognized retirement plan and has paid dues for not
less than 25 years.
D. Honorary Member
(a) An Honorary Member shall be a person of acknowledged eminence in railway
engineering or management.
(b) The number of Honorary Members shall be limited to ten.
E. Associate
An Associate shall be:
(a) An engineer of a railway which is essentially an adjunct of an industry, or
which is used primarily to transport the products and materials of an industry to and
from a railway which is a common carrier.
(b) A person qualified by training and experience to cooperate with Members in the
object of this Association, but who is not qualified to become a Member.
F. Junior Member
(a) A Junior Member shall be not less than 21 years of age and shall be an
engineering employee of a railway corporation who has had not less than three years
of experience in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of railways.
(b) His membership in this classification in the Association shall terminate at the
end of the calendar year in which he becomes 30 years of age.
(c) He may make application for membership other than as a Junior Member at
any time when he becomes eligible to do so.
1224 Constitution
3. Transfers
The Board of Direction shall transfer from one class of membership to another,
or may remove from membership, any person whose qualifications so change as to
warrant such action.
4. Rights
(a) Members, and Life Members who were formerly Members, shall have all the
rights and privileges of the Association. Life Members who were formerly Associates
shall continue to have all the rights and privileges of Associates.
(b) Honorary Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the Association
except those of holding elective office, provided, however, that Members or Life Members
who are elected Honorary Members shall retain all the rights and privileges of the
Association.
(c) Associates and Junior Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the
Association except those of voting and holding elective office.
Article III
Admission, Resignation, Expulsion and Reinstatement
1. Charter Membership
The Charter Membership of this Association consists of all persons elected to mem-
bership before March 15, 1900.
2. Application for Membership
(a) A person desirous of membership in this Association shall make application
upon the form provided by the Board of Direction. In the event that Junior Membership
is desired, the applicant shall so state.
(b) The applicant shall give the names of at least three Members of this Asso-
ciation to whom personally known. Each of these Members shall be requested by the
Executive Secretary of the Association to certify to a personal knowledge of the applicant
with an opinion of the applicant's qualifications for membership.
(c) If an applicant is not personally known to as many as three Members of this
Association, the names of well-known persons engaged in railway or allied professional
work to whom he is personally known shall be substituted, as necessary, to provide a
total of at least three references. Each of these persons shall be requested by the Executive
Secretary of the Association to certify to a personal knowledge of the appHcant, with an
opinion of the applicant's qualifications for membership.
(d) No further action shall be taken upon the application until replies have been
received from at least three of the persons named by the applicant as references.
3. Election to Membership
(a) Upon completion of the application in accordance with Section 2 of this Article
the Board of Direction through its Membership Committee shall consider the application
and make such investigation as it may consider desirable or necessary.
(b) Upon completion of such consideration and investigation, each member of the
Board of Direction shall be supplied with the required information, together with the
recommendation of the Membership Committee as to the class of membership, if any,
to which the applicant is eligible, and the admission of the applicant shall be canvassed by
ballot among the members of the Board of Direction.
Constitution 1225
(c) In the event that an application has been made under the provisions of Section 2,
Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this Article, a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board
of Direction shall be required for election.
(d) In the event that an application has been made under the provisions of Section
2, Paragraphs (a) and (c) of this Article, a unanimous affirmative vote of the entire
Board of Direction shall be required for election.
4. Subscription to the Constitution
An applicant for any class of membership in this Association shall declare his willing-
ness to abide by the Constitution of the Association in his application for membership.
5. Honorary Member
A proposal for Honorary Membership shall be endorsed by ten or more Members
of the Association and a copy furnished each member of the Board of Direction. The
nominee shall be declared an Honorary Member upon receiving a unanimous vote of the
entire Board of Direction.
6. Resignation
The Board of Direction shall accept the resignation, tendered in writing, of any
person holding membership in the Association whose obligations to the Association have
been fulfilled.
7. Expulsion
Charges of misconduct on the part of anyone holding membership in this Association,
if in writing and signed by ten or more Members, may be submitted to the Board of
Direction for examination and action. If, in the opinion of the Board action is war-
ranted, the person complained of shall be served with a copy of such charges and shall
be given an opportunity to answer them to the Board of Direction. After such oppor-
tunity has been given, the Board of Direction shall take final action. A two-thirds
affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction shall be required for expulsion.
8. Reinstatement
(a) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of this
Assocition and having resigned such membership while in good standing may be
reinstated by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.
(b) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of this
Association and having forfeited membership under the provisions of Article IV, Section
3, may, upon such conditions as may be fixed by the Board, be reinstated by a two-thirds
affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.
ARncLE rv
Dues
1. Entrance Fee
(a) An entrance fee of $10 shall be payable to the Association with each application
for membership other than Junior Membership. This sum shall be returned to an applicant
not elected.
(b) No entrance fee shall be required for Junior Membership, except that a Junior
Member, in transferring to another class of membership, shall pay the entrance fee
prescribed for other classes of Membership.
1226 Constitution
2. Annual Dues
(a) The annual dues for each Member and each Associate shall be $15.
(b) The annual dues for each Junior Member shall be $5.
(c) Life Members and Honorary Members shall be exempt from the payment of
dues. Life Members desiring to continue to receive the Bulletins and Proceedings of the
Association may do so by paying a subscription fee prescribed by the Board of Direction.
3. Arrears
A person whose dues are not paid before April 1 of the current year shall be notified
by the Executive Secretary. If the dues are still unpaid on July 1, further notice shall be
given, informing the person that he is not in good standing in the Association. If the dues
remain unpaid by October 1, the person shall be notified that he will no longer receive
the publications of the Association. If the dues are not paid by December 31, the person
shall forfeit membership without further action or notice, except as provided for in
Section 4 of this Article.
4. Remission of Dues
The Board of Direction may extend the time of payment of dues, and may remit
the dues of any Member, Associate or Junior Member who, for good reason, is unable
to pay them.
Article V
Officers
1. Officers
(a) The officers of the Association shall be a President, two Vice Presidents,
twelve Directors, an Executive Secretary and a Treasurer.
(b) The President, the Vice Presidents and the Directors, together with the two
latest living Past Presidents continuing to be Members, shall constitute the Board of
Direction, in which the government of the Association shall be vested; they shall act
as the trustees and have the custody of all property belonging to the Association. The
President, the Vice Presidents and the Directors shall be Members.
(c) The Executive Secretary and the Treasurer shall be appointed by the Board of
Direction.
2. Term of Office
The term of office of the President shall be one year, of the Vice Presidents two
years and of the Directors three years. The term of each shall begin at the close of
the annual convention at which elected and continue until a successor is qualified.
.Ml other officers and employees shall hold office or position at the pleasure of the Board
of Direction.
3. Officers Elected Annually
(a) There shall be elected at each annual convention a President, one Vice President
and four Directors.
(b) The candidates for President and for Vice President shall be selected from
the members or past members of the Board of Direction.
4. Conditions of Re-election of Officers
A President shall be ineligible for re-election, except as provided for in Section S (e)
of this Article. Vice Presidents and Directors shall be ineligible for re-election to the same
office, except as provided for in Section 5 (e) of this Article, until, at least one full
term has elapsed after the end of their re.spective terms.
Constitution 1-27
5. Vacancies in Offices
(a) If a vacancy should occur in the office of President, as set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the senior Vice President shall immediately and automatically become
President for the unexpired term.
(b) If a vacancy should occur in the office of the senior Vice President, due to
advancement under Section 5 (a) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the junior Vice President shall automatically become senior Vice President
for the unexpired term.
(c) If a vacancy should occur in the office of the junior Vice President, due to
advancement under Section S (b) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the Board of Direction shall by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of its
entire membership, select a junior Vice President from the members or past members
of the Board of Direction.
(d) A vacancy in the office of Director, due to advancement of a Director to junior
Vice President under Section 5 (c) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, shall be filled by the Board of Direction by the affirmative vote of
two-thirds of its entire membership.
(e) An incumbent in any office for an unexpired term shall be eligible for re-election
to the office held ; provided, however, that anyone selected to fill a vacancy as Director
shall he eligible for election to that office, excepting that such appointee filling out an
unexpired term of two years or more shall be considered as coming within the provisions
of Section 4 of this Article.
6. Vacation of Office
(a) In the event of the death of an elected officer, or his resignation from office,
or if he should cease to be a Member of the Association as provided in Section 2 (B),
Article II; Section 6 or 7, Article III; or Section 3, Article IV, the office shall be con-
sidered as vacated.
(b) In the event of the disability of an officer or neglect in the performance of duty
by an officer, the Board of Direction, by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of its entire
membership shall have the power to declare the office vacant.
Article VI
Nomination and Election of Officers
1. Nominating Committee
(a) There shall be a Nominating Committee composed of the five latest living Past
Presidents of the Association, who are Members, and five Members who are not
officers.
(b) The five Members who are not Past Presidents shall be elected annually for a
term of one year, when the officers of the Association are elected.
(c) The senior Past President who is a member of the committee shall be the
chairman of the committee. In the absence of the senior Past President from a meeting
of the committee the Past President next in seniority present shall act as chairman.
2. Method of Nominating
(a) Prior to December 1 of each year the chairman shall call a meeting of the
committee at a convenient place, at which nominees for the several elective offices
shall be selected as follows:
1228 Constitution
Number of Candi-
Number of Candi- dates to be
dates to be named elected at the
by the Nominating Annual Election
Office to be Filled Committee of Officers
President 1 1
Vice President 1 1
Directors 8 4
Nominating Committee 10 5
(b) The chairman of the Nominating Committee shall send the names of the
nominees to the President and Executive Secretary not later than December 15 of the
same year, and the Executive Secretary shall report the names of these nominees to the
members of the Association not later than January 1 following.
(c) At any time between January 1 and February 1 any ten or more Members
may send to the Executive Secretary additional nominations for any elective office for
the ensuing year signed by such Members.
(d) If any person nominated shall be found by the Board of Direction to be
ineligible for the office for which nominated, or should a nominee decline such nomination,
his name shall be withdrawn. The Board of Direction may fill any vacancies that may
occur in the list of nominees up to the time the ballots are sent out.
3. Ballots Issued
Not less than thirty days prior to each annual convention, the Executive Secretary
shall issue a ballot to each voting Member of record who has paid his dues to or beyond
December 31 of the previous year, listing the several candidates to be voted upon. When
there is more than one candidate for any office, the names shall be arranged on the
ballot in the order that shall be determined by lot by the Nominating Committee. The
ballot shall be accompanied by a statement giving for each candidate his record of
membership and activities in this Association.
4. Substitution of Names
Members may remove names from the printed ballot list and may substitute the name
or names of any other person or persons eligible for any office, but the number of names
voted for each office on the ballot must not exceed the number to be elected at that
time to such office.
5. Ballots
(a) Ballots shall be placed in an envelope, sealed and endorsed with the name of
the voter, and mailed to or deposited with the Executive Secretary at any time previous
to the closure of the polls.
(b) A voter may withdraw his ballot, and cast another, at any time before the polls
close.
(c) Ballots received in unendorsed envelopes, or from persons not qualified to vote,
shall not be counted.
(d) The ballots and envelopes shall be preserved for not less than ten days after
the vote is canvassed.
6. Closure of Polls
The polls shall be closed at 12 o'clock noon on the second day of the annual conven-
tion, and the ballots shall be counted by tellers appointed by the presiding officer.
Constitution 1229
7. Election
(a) The persons who shall receive the highest number of votes for the offices for
which they are candidates shall be declared elected.
(b) In case of a tie between two or more candidates for the same office, the
Members present at the annual convention shall elect the officer by ballot from the
candidates so tied.
(c) The presiding officer shall announce at the convention the names of the officers
elected in accordance with this Article.
Article VII
Manage:m:emt
1. President
The President shall have general supervision of the affairs of the Association, shall
preside at meetings of the Association and of the Board of Direction, and, by virtue
of his office, shall be a member of all committees, except the Nominating Committee.
2. Vice Presidents
The Vice Presidents, in order of seniority, shall preside at meetings in the absence
of the President.
3. Treasurer
The Treasurer shall pay all bills of the Association when properly certified by the
Executive Secretary and approved by the Finance Committee. He shall make an annual
report as to the financial condition of the Association and such other reports as may be
called for by the Board of Direction.
4. Executive Secretary
The Executive Secretary, under the direction of the President and Board of Direc-
tion shall be the Executive Officer of the Association and shall attend the meetings of the
Association and of the Board of Direction, prepare the business therefor, and record the
proceedings thereof. The Executive Secretary shall see that all money due the Associa-
tion is collected, is credited to the proper accounts, and is deposited in the designated
depository of the Association, with receipt to the Treasurer therefor. He shall personally
certify to the accuracy of all bills and vouchers on which money is to be paid. He shall
invest all funds of the Association not needed for current disbursements, as shall be
recommended by the Finance Committee and approved by the Board of Direction, with
notification to the Treasurer of such investments. The Executive Secretary shall conduct
the correspondence of the Association, make an annual report to the Association, and
perform such other duties as the Board of Direction may prescribe.
5. Auditing of Accounts
The financial accounts of the Association shall be audited annually by an accountant
or accountants approved by and under the direction of the Finance Committee.
6. Board of Direction and Executive Committee
(a) The Board of Direction shall manage the affairs of the Association, and shall
have full power to control and regulate all matters not otherwise provided for in the
Constitution.
1230 Constitution
(b) The Board of Direction shall meet within thirty days after each annual
convention, and at such other times as the President may direct. Special meetings shall
be called on request, in writing, of five members of the Board of Direction.
(c) Seven members of the Board of Direction shall constitute a quorum.
(d) At the first meeting of the Board of Direction after the annual convention,
the President shall appoint from the membership of the Board, subject to ratification
by the Board, four members to serve with him as an Executive Committee which shall
possess and may exercise during intervals between meetings of the Board, all of the
powers of the Board on matters which in the judgment of a majority of the Executive
Committee cannot properly be delayed until the next meeting of the Board. Actions
of the Executive Committee shall be reported to the Board of Direction at the next
meeting of the Board. The President shall be chairman of the Executive Committee.
Actions of the Executive Committee shall be authorized by a concurring majority of
its full membership. Members of the Executive Committee shall serve until their succes-
sors are appointed or until the Executive Committee is dissolved by action of a majority
of the full membership of the Board of Direction. Following dissolution of the Executive
Committee it may be re-created at any time by action of a majority of the full mem-
bership of the Board of Direction. If not so re-created prior to the next annual con-
vention, the Executive Committee shall be reconstituted in the normal manner at the
first meeting of the Board of Direction following the convention.
7. Administrative Committees
At the first meeting of the Board of Direction after the annual convention, the
following Administrative Committees, each consisting of not less than three members,
shall be appointed by the President. The personnel of these committees shall be subject
to approval by the Board of Direction. '
Assignments
Finance
Manual
Membership
Personnel
Publications
Research
Other special Administrative Committees may be appointed by the President at
any time, and reappointed annually, if necessary, their personnel being subject to
approval by the Board of Direction.
Membership on Administrative Committees shall be restricted to members of the
Board of Direction, except that one or two members of the Administrative Committee
on Research may be past members of the Board of Direction.
8. Study and Research Committees
The Board of Direction may establish continuing or special Study and Research
Committees to investigate, consider, and report upon subjects appropriate to the object
of the Association, as set forth in Art. I.
9. Duties of Administrative Committees
(a) Assignments
The Assignments Committee shall review and pass upon the recommendations of
Association Study and Research Committees for subjects to be investigated, considered
and reported on by these committees during the ensuing Association year, and shall
Constitution 12.^1
report thereon to the Board of Direction for its approval. The Assignments Committee
shall have authority to assign additional subjects or change the scope of any existing
subjects at any time during the year, reporting its action thereon to the Board at its
next regular meeting.
(b) Finance
The Finance Committee shall have immediate supervision of the accounts and
financial affairs of the Association; shall approve all bills before payment, and shall
make recommendations to the Board of Direction as to the investment of funds and
other financial matters. The Finance Committee shall not have the power to incur
debts or other obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money
other than the amounts necessary to meet ordinary current expenses of the Association,
except by authority of the Board of Direction.
(c) Manual
The Manual Committee, with the assistance of the Publications Committee, shall
have general supervision over the Manual.
(d) Membership
The Membership Committee shall investigate applicants for membership and shall
make recommendations to the Board of Direction with reference thereto.
(e) Personnel
The Personnel Committee shall review and pass upon apphcations of members
for appointment to Study and Research Committees, and shall also appoint the chair-
man and vice chairman of such committees and make a report thereon to the Board
of Direction for its approval. Should an unexpected vacancy in chairmanship or vice
chairmanship of any such committee occur, the Personnel Committee shall have author-
ity to fill such vacancy immediately, reporting its action thereon to the Board at its
next regular meeting.
(f) Publications
The Publications Committee shall have general supervision over the publications
of the Association. The Publications Committee shall not have the power to incur
debts or other obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money
except by authority of the Board of Direction.
(g) Research
The Research Committee shall encourage and coordinate the research activities of
the Association, in the course of accomplishment of which it shall review and pass
upon the recommendations of Study and Research Committees for research projects and
shall report thereon to the Board of Direction, recommending for approval specific
projects initiated by these committees or by the Research Committee and recommending
allotments of funds for these projects in the research budget of the Association of
American Railroads or from other sources compatible therewith ; shall collaborate closely
with the research staff of the Association of American Railroads; and when called upon
by the Vice President — Research or the Vice President — Operations and Maintenance
of that association, members of the Research Committee shall engage in the activities
of advisory committees or groups of that organization and shall report from time to
time to the Board of Direction on those activities.
10. Special Committees
The Board of Direction may appoint special committees to examine into and report
upon any subject connected with the objects of this Association.
1232 Constitution
11. Discussion by Non-Members
The Board of Direction may invite discussions of reports from persons not members
of the Association.
12. Sanction of Act of Board of Direction
An act of the Board of Direction which shall have received the expressed or implied
sanction of the membership at the next annual convention of the Association shall be
deemed to be the act of the Association.
Article VIII
Meetings
1. Annual Convention
(a) The Annual Convention of the Association shall be held in the City of Chicago,
111., or in such other city as may be determined by the affirmative vote of two-thirds
of the entire membership of the Board of Direction. The convention shall open on the
second Tuesday in the month of March, or on the third Tuesday if the month of March
has five Tuesdays, excepting that some other opening day in March may be designated
by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the entire membership of the Board of Direction
(b) The Executive Secretary shall notify all members of the Association of the tim(
and place of the annual convention at least 30 days in advance thereof.
(c) The order of business at the annual convention of the Association shall be:
Reading of the minutes of the last meeting
Address of the President
Reports of the Executive Secretary and the Treasurer
Reports of committees
Unfinished business
Neiw business
Installation of officers
Adjournment
(d) This order of business may be changed by a majority vote of Members present,
(e) The proceedings shall be governed by "Robert's Rules of Order" except as
otherwise herein provided.
(f) Discussions shall be limited to Members and to those others invited by the
presiding officer to speak.
2. Special Meetings
Special meetings of the Associations may be called by the Board of Directions on its
own initiative, and may be so called by the Board of Direction upon written request
of 100 Members. The request shall state the purpose of such meeting.
The call for such special meeting shall be issued not less than ten days in advance
of the proposed date of such meeting and shall state the purpose and place of the
meeting. No other business shall be taken up at such meeting.
3. Quorum
Twenty-five Members shall constitute a quorum at all meetings of the Association.
Article IX
Amendment
1. Amendment
Proposed amendment of this Constitution shall be made in writing, shall be signed
by not less than ten Members, and shall be acted upon in the following manner:
Constitution 1233
The amendment shall be presented to the Executive Secretary, who shall send a
copy to each member of the Board of Direction as soon as received. If a majority of
the entire Board of Direction so votes, the matter shall be submitted to the Association
by letter ballot.
Sixty days after the date of issue of the letter ballot, the Board of Direction shall
canvass the ballots which have been received, and if two-thirds of such ballots are in
the affirmative the amendment shall be declared adopted and shall become effective imme-
diately. The result of the letter ballot shall be announced to members of the Association.
Information and Rules for the Guidance of Committees
The following information and rules for the guidance of committees are designed
to obtain the maximum benefits from the efforts of the members who make up the
personnel of such committees. They are designed to effect a continuity of effort in
committee work throughout the entire year, under a plan whereby the personnel of the
committees and their respective assignments for investigation and report are set up and
made pub'lic on or before the beginning of the calendar year, thus enabling the work
to be continued without interruption, although the new personnel and subject assign-
ments do not become officially effective until the beginning of the "Association Year,"
which starts with the close of the annual meeting.
The rules also take into account the fact that the publication of the committee
reports must be spread out over a period of four months (November through February),
to facilitate printing and to give members of the Association a reasonable length of time
in which to study such reports in advance of the annual meeting.
SUBJECT ASSIGNMENTS
Reassigned Annually •
The assignments for investigation and report of each committee shall be reviewed
annually. To this end, each committee shall review suggestions for new subjects sub-
mitted by its Subcommittee A, by other members of the committee, or by others, and
such suggestions as receive the approval of the committee shall be submitted by the
committee chairman to the executive secretary of the Association not later than October
1. Each suggestion shall be accompanied by brief explanation of the purpose and scope
of each proposed assignment, or change in the wording of present assignments. At the
same time, the committee chairman shall submit the committee's recommendations cover-
ing the withdrawal or continuation of current assignments, with a brief statement of the
reason or reasons therefor.
The recommendations received from the various committees shall be assembled and
forwarded to the Board Committee on Assignments, which has the responsibility
of authorizing the subject assignments to the various committees. Deviations from as-
signments thus authorized may be made during the course of the year only upon author-
ity of the Board Committee on Assignments. However, this is not to be construed
as preventing any committee from proposing additional urgent assignments at any time
during the year, upon which it feels work should be begun promptly.
Scope of Assignments of Committees 22 and 27
The scope of assignments of Committee 22 will encompass studies relating to the
economics of various types of work equipment as used by the labor forces to which
they are assigned, including the labor savings that may be effected, production, and
quality of work.
The scope of assignments of Committee 27 will encompass studies involving the
mechanical features, operating characteristics, development and maintenance of work
equipment, and fuels, lubricants, etc., necessary for its operation ; also pertaining to
such labor aspects as the selection and training of equipment operators, maintainers and
repair forces.
(Revised and amplified November 7, 1958).
1234
Information for Committees 1235
Either or both committees may include in their considerations and reports factors
of design or operation that affect productivity or quality of work, and such economic
aspects as first cost, obsolescence, life, depreciation, and maintenance and repair costs
as may be necessary to the comprehensive development of their respective assignments.
In the case of an overlapping assignment, the assignment should normally be handled
by the committee principally affected in the light of the foregoing paragraphs, with the
other committee collaborating.
COMMITTEE PERSONNEL
Reorganized Annually
The personnel of each committee shall be reorganized annually. It is desirable that
10 percent of the membership be changed each year. Members who do not attend meet-
ings of the committee, who do not render service by correspondence, or who do not
return letter ballots will be dropped. To this end the chairman of the committee shall
submit to the secretary's office not later than October 1 the current Committee Member
Activity Record Chart, filled out in full regarding each member, and showing in the
appropriate columns which members he recommends be dropped because of delinquency
in service to the committee, or for other reasons, and those members he recommends be
continued on the committee. The chart, at the bottom, should also list any members
he recommends for appointment to the committee, whether previously carried as "guest"
members or not.
The recommendations received from the various committees shall be assembled and
forwarded to the Board Committee on Personnel, which has the duty of appointing
the committee personne'l.
No additions to the personnel of committees will be made during the year following
the official closing of committee rosters, October 1, except as provided for in the rules
applying to "Guests."
Members who desire appointment to a committee should make application through
the committee chairman or the executive secretary on the prescribed form.
Chairmen, Vice Chairmen and Subcommittee Chairmen
Chairmen, vice chairmen and subcommittee chairmen must hold the grade of
Member in the Association, and be in active service of their respective companies or
organizations (not retired).
The term of chairman and vice chairman shall be three years in each position, and
will normally start at the beginning of the Association year, at the close of an annual
meeting. However, the term of office of vice chairman will be shorter if he is appointed
to fill a vacancy in the position of vice chairman. Chairmen completing their three-year
term shall recommend to the Board Committee on Personnel nominees for the chair-
manship and vice chairmanship, with assurance of acceptances from such nominees if
appointed by the Board Committee. The term of office of subcommittee chairman may
be more than three years.
In the event of a vacancy in the office of chairman, the office shall be filled by the
vice chairman, subject to the approval of the Board Committee on Personnel. The three-
year term of office of the chairman so approved, or of a new appointee shall be con-
sidered as having started as of the end of the immediately preceding convention if the
appointment is made prior to the time the committee's report is due in the secretary's
office, and as becoming effective as of the end of the next convention if the appointment
is made after the committee's report is due in the secretary's office.
1236 Information for Committees
In the event of a vacancy in the office of vice chairman, it shall be the duty of the
Board Committee on Personnel to fill the vacancy. The term of office of the vice chair-
man so appointed shall be considered as having started as of the end of the immediately
preceding convention if the appointment is made prior to the time the committee's report
is due in the secretary's office, and as becoming effective as of the end of the next
convention if the appointment is made after the committee's report is due in the secre-
tary's office.
Committee Secretary
Any chairman may appoint a secretary with duties usually encompassed by such
office.
Size of Committees*
The total membership of any committee shaJll be limited to 70, including Members,
Associates, and Junior Members, but not counting retired members, even though gain-
fully employed.
In determining the membership of a committee, railroads having no more than SO
Association members may have not more than 2 members on any committee; railroads
having 51 to 100 members may have not more than 3 members on any committee;
railroads having more than 100 members may have not more than 4 members on any
committee.
No college, university or other institution of learning shall have more than 2 mem-
bers on any committee, and no manufacturer or supply company or other organization
shall have more than 1 Member or Associate member on any committee.
Retired Members
Members who have retired from active service under normal retirement procedure,
regardless of whether they undertake other employment (other than sales to the rail-
roads), may serve on committees and subcommittees a maximum of three years fol-
lowing retirement, but cannot hold the office of chairman, vice chairman, or subcom-
mittee chairman, and have no voting rights. Their presence on the committee roster
shall not be counted in the application of the rules affecting the total number of mem-
bers permitted on committees, the number of associates permitted on a committee, or
the rules having bearing upon the number of members on committees permitted from
any railroad, supply company, or other organization. Following termination of their
service on committees, retired members may continue to attend committee meetings as
"visitors" subject to the approval of the committee chairman involved.
Associate Members*
No company will be permitted to have more than one Associate member on any
committee, and company representation shall not necessarily be continuing. However,
in the event that a railroad member on a committee becomes associated with a manu-
facturer or supply company (in other than a sales capacity) after retirement from
railroad service on pension, and thus automatically becomes an Associate member, he
shall not be deprived of membership on the committee during the period of three years,
• In applying any of the rules under the headings: Size of Committees and Associate Members,
see paragraph under heading "Retired Members," and third last paragraph under heading "Member
Emeritus."
Information for Committees I2i7
following his retirement from railroad service. As regards the voting rights of Associate
Members on committees, see "Voting in Committees."
The membership of Associates on a committee shall be limited to 10 percent of
the total membership of the committee. Committees with Associates in excess of 10
percent of their total membership are not required to reduce the number of Associates
immediately for the purpose of complying with this rule, but no Associates may be
added as long as the proportion of Associates exceeds 10 percent, except as may be
occasioned by the exception provided in the preceding paragraph or the exceptions set
forth under "Retired Members" and "Member Emeritus."
Member Emeritus
This class of committee membership was established in 1953 in order to permit
recognition of long-sustained meritorious service of committee members to committees,
following their retirement and the termination of their regular membership on committees.
To be eligible for this honor, a member must be in good standing in the Association
as a Member, Honorary Member, Associate, or Life Member, and must have:
(a) Retired under normal retirement procedure from active service in the company
with which he has been connected.
(b) Served on the committee at least 10 years. (Executive secretary's office can
furnish service record on any retired committee member.)
(c) Resigned from the committee or have been removed from the committee under
the rule that retired members can remain on a committee only three years following
the date of their retirement.
(d) Rendered outstanding service to the committee over a period of years.
(e) Been proposed by at least five committee members in writing and voted the
honor by a two-thirds affirmative letter ballot of all members of the committee, includ-
ing Associates, retired members and Junior Members — the letter ballots to be returnable
to the executive secretary's office within 60 days. (Secretar>''s office can furnish sample
type iletter ballot).
The number of such members permitted on any committee will be limited to five.
Furthermore, his election as Member Emeritus must be affirmed by the Board Com-
mittee on Personnel through the executive secretary's office.
Having been elected as Member Emeritus, the member's name will continue to appear
on the roster of the committee, and he will have all the rights and privileges of members
except that of voting (i.e., can serve on subcommittees, should he desire, in order that
the committee might benefit from his knowledge and experience). Likewise, his name
will continue to be shown in the printed roster of the committee appearing in the Bulle-
tins of the Association, and in the Assignments Pamphlet, in each case suitably
designated as Member Emeritus. However, the names of Members Emeritus will not be
designated by an "E" or otherwise in the alphabetical listing, railroad listing, Honorary
Member listing, or Life Member listing in the March Bulletin.
Members Emeritus will not be counted in the af>plication of the rules affecting the
total number of members permitted on committees, the number of associates permitted
on a committee, the rules having bearing upon the number of members on committees
permitted from any railroad, supply company, or other organization, or the number
of years that a retired member may serve on a committee. Any Emeritus title will
terminate with the death of the recipient, or in the event of the termination of his mem-
bership in the Association for other reasons.
1238 Information for Committees
Nothing in these rules will prevent extending the honor of Member Emeritus to a
retired committee member who may have taken up, or who subsequently takes up, other
employment following his official retirement.
Tangible evidence of this honor will be given to those so named in the form of
a pocket card, similar in form to a railroad pass, signed and sent out by the committee
chairmen.
"Guests" and "Visitors"
The previously stated rule under Committee Personnel Reorganized Annually, that
"no additions to the personnel of committees will be made during the year following the
official closing of committee rosters, October 1, except as provided for under the rules
applying to Guests," does not preclude the attendance at committee meetings of other
members of the Association, and non-members of the Association, as "Visitors," with the
approval of conamittee chairmen.
If there are vacancies on a committee roster after the official closing of committee
rosters on October 1, (i.e., less than 70), or if vacancies occur during the following year,
or are definitely in prospect at the end of that year. Association members (including
Junior members), with the approval of committee chairmen and the Board Committee
on Personnel, can be appointed as "guests" of that committee. As such, they may attend
committee meetings and participate in the committee's activities, unofficially, looking
to becoming regularly assigned members at the beginning of the next Association year
(March) .
"Guests" must allways be designated as such on the rosters maintained by the com-
mittees and the secretary's office, but their names will not appear in published com-
mittee or subcommittee reports. Creation of this class of committee affiliation is not
intended to increase the size of any committee beyond the 70 maximum set by the Board,
but rather to make it possible to add to "short" rosters between official roster changes.
IFurthermore, one need not be either a "regular member" or a "guest" of a com-
mittee to attend its meetings from time to time. With the approval of the committee
chairman, who must be consulted as regards any specific meeting, any AREA member
(including Junior Members), or any non-member may sit in on the meeting as a
"visitor", listen to all deliberations and participate in discussions.
Service on More Than One Committee
No member of the Association shall serve on more than one committee, except that
a member may serve on two committees if one or both of the committees are among the
following: Committee 3 — ^Ties; Committee 7 — ^Wood Bridges and Trestles; Committee
17 — ^Wood Preservation; Committee 20 — Contract Forms; Committee 24 — Cooperative
Relations with Universities; Committee 25^^ — ^Waterways and Harbors; Committee 28 —
Clearances; Committee 29 — ^Waterproofing; Committee 30 — Impact and Bridge Stresses;
and the Special Committee on Continuous Welded Rail.
COMMITTEE ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURE
Organizing the Committees
The new assignments and personnel of committees shall become effective with the
close of the annual meeting in March. However, the pamphlet containing this informa-
tion is issued not later than January 1 in order that committees may be reorganized
immediate^ly after January 1 for the new year's work, if reorganization has not already
Information for Committees )2,<o
been effected. Usually this information will be available to the chairmen in tentative
form at least 30 days in advance of publication.
It is the duty of the committee chairman to notify new members promptly of their
appointment and to notify old members of their reappointment or release. It is also his
duty to reorganize the subcommittees without delay. However, in the Association year
in which his term as chairman expires, he should call on his successor for advice and
assistance in this regard.
Subcommittees
In general, the committees are organized to conduct their work by the appointment
of one subcommittee for each subject assignment. If deemed advisable, any subject may
be subdivided into several parts and a separate subcommittee assigned to each j)art.
Committees may find it of advantage to create a subcommittee on personnel.
Subcommittee chairmen should make a report on the status of their work at each
committee meeting. If they cannot be present at any meeting, they should submit such
report to the chairman in writing, to be read to the meeting, or should arrange for
some member of their subcommittee, or of the AAR research staff to report for the
subcommittee. This rule should be followed even though the subcommittee has little or
nothing to report at any particular meeting.
Organization Charts
The chairman shall furnish the executive secretary of the Association two copies of
the organization chart (schedule of subcommittee assignments and personnefl) of his
committee, and shall advise him currently of any subsequent revisions thereof. This chart
may be in the form regularly used by committees, but should not be in the form of a
blueprint, on which it is difficult to make corrections. White prints are acceptable. These
charts should be in the hands of the executive secretary by February 1, and should be
prepared with the greatest care to insure the accuracy of initials and names.
The names of "guest" members on committees, if any, (not "visitors") should appear
on the charts, but should be clearly designated as such. These names may be arranged
either alphabetically among the members or grouped at the bottom of the chart as
desired by the various committees. Names of "visitors" should not appear on or be
subsequently added to these charts. Charts should also list (a) names of all committee
members who are collaborators with other AREA committees, and (b) separately, the
names of ali non-members of the committee who are collaborators from other AREA
committees and other organizations.
Handbook for Committee Chairmen
For the assistance and guidance of committee chairmen in the conduct of their
committee work, the Association has published a small mimeographed "Handbook for
Committee Chairmen", which contains the following material:
Procedures that Can Be Adopted by Committee Chairmen to Stimulate the
Most Effective Committee Work.
Procedures Designed to Expedite the Conduct of Committee Meetings,
Stimulate Greater Interest in Them, and Produce the Most Effective Results.
Report of a Well Conducted Committee Meeting.
Copies of this handbook are available to committee chairmen from the executive
secretary's office.
1240 Information for Committees
Voting in Committees
Voting in committees and subcommittees on all Association matters, except as may
be of a social! nature, or on ballots for Member Emeritus of the committee, shall be the
prerogative of active Members only; not retired Members, Associates, or Juniors.
COMMITTEE AND SUBCOMMITTEE (MEETINGS
Location and Number
fMost committees find it possible to conduct their work effectively with a maximum
of three meetings each year. While these meetings can be held at any time to fit in best
with the work of each committee, the trend in recent years has been for committees to
hold their first (organization) meeting each year in January or February in order to
get an early start on their new year's work, and not wait until after the annual con-
vention in March. However, concurrent or overlapping committee meetings are unde-
sirable from the standpoint that they may draw several key personnel from the same
railroad at the same time, or otherwise adversely affect the attendance at the committee
meeting. Accordingly, before committees decide definitely on meeting dates and send
out notices thereof, they should clear these dates with the secretary's office.
Subcommittee meetings can likewise be held whenever desired, either independent
of full committee meetings or in conjunction therewith. The latter plan has the advan-
tage of minimizing travel time and possiblly total time away from members' offices.
Where subcommittee meetings are held in conjunction with general committee meetings,
they may be held immediately before or after such meetings, or during such meetings
if desirable, in recesses specifically called by the committee chairman for this purpose.
fCommittee meetings or subcommittee meetings should be held at points most
convenient to the majority of members in order to hold down traveling time and expense,
except that meetings may be held elsewhere to permit inspections important to the work
of the committee or subcommittee. The Association has no funds to defray the cost
of meeting rooms. Therefore, committees should hold meetings where no charge is made
for such rooms, or to work out some other arrangement agreeable to members of the
committee.*
Notices and Minutes
Committee chairmen shall send out, or arrange to have sent out, well in advance
of meetings, copies of notices of all committee meetings to both committee members
and collaborators. Two copies of all such notices should be sent to the secretary's office
as early as possible for publication of meeting dates and places in the AREA News. In
this ilatter regard, and especially if mailing of official notices is to be delayed, chairmen
should give the secretary's office advance information about meetings, if possible. It
should be kept in mind that the deadline for material for any issue of the News is the
twentieth day of the month immediately preceding the date of issue.
Meeting notices, generally, should include or be accompanied by an agenda, prefer-
ably in timetable order, for the benefit of any members who may not be able to be in
t Revised. , ,„
• Conference Room 1218 at Association headquarters in Chicago, which will accommodate 20 to
30 people, is available for committee and subcommittee meetings to the extent that it has not already
been committed for other use. Arrangements for the use of this room should be made through the
secretary's office.
Information for Committees 1241
attendance the full time of any meeting. They should also include as much information
as possible relative to any inspection trips or other features planned.
Minutes of all committee meetings should be prepared as soon as possible following
meetings, and copies should be sent to all committee members and collaborators — with
two copies to the secretary's office.
Reporting on Inspection Trips
In order that highlights of all committee inspection trips may be published in the
News, committee chairmen should send detailed information concerning such trips to the
secretary's office, or arrange to have such information sent, as soon as possible after the
completion of such trips, keeping in mind that the deadline for news to appear in any
issue of the News is the twentieth day of the month preceding the date of issue.
Included among details furnished should be the name of the host or hosts (com-
panies or company representatives) on the occasion, the facilities or operations observed,
and separately, the number of members and guests who participated.
COLLABORATION
Between AREA Committees and with AAR Committees
Subjects, the nature of which clearly indicates the possibility of overlapping interest
of two or more AREA committees, or the interest of committees of other groups with
which the Association has agreed to collaborate, carry an appended clause reading:
"collaborating with " It is the duty of the chairmen of sub-
committees having an assignment carrying this instruction to take the initiative in effect-
ing such collaboration — by arranging for the appointment of a representative of the
other interested group, should such be mutually decided as desirable, or by setting up
an arrangement whereby the collaborating group will review and criticize any reports
submitted to it. If a representative or collaborator is appointed, he should be kept fully
advised of all activity of the subcommittee involved. Regardless of whether the assign-
ment specifically mentions collaboration, committees should be on the alert to obtain
the advice and assistance of other AREA committees or interested groups in dealing with
any subject that imposes any questions of possible overlapping interest or responsibility.
The reports of subcommittees involving collaboration should be submitted to col-
laborators or collaborating groups whether they are for information only or involve
sf>edfications or recommended practice, and should be submitted as far in advance of
filing date as possible. If they cannot be submitted prior to the committee's filing date
for any reason, they should be submitted as soon thereafter as possible, and in any
event prior to the annual meeting, so that if the collaborators, or the groups they repre-
sent, desire to comment thereon or to take exception thereto in any respect, such can
be done in writing to the committee chairman or subcommittee chairman involved prior
to the annual meeting, or in written or oral form at the annual meeting.
A committee undertaking revision of its Manual chapter should request collaboration
of any committee that participated in the original development and adoption of the
material under revision. The executive secretary of the Association will provide informa-
tion concerning such previous collaboration.
If an AREA committee or subcommittee is asked to collaborate with another AREA
committee, or with committees of any of the sections or divisions of the AAR, it shall
appoint a representative to implement this collaboration, if such is mutually decided as
1242 Information for Committees
desirable, or it should agree, without a specific collaborator, to review and criticize any
reports submitted to it. Committee members appointed to collaborate with any other
AREA or AAR committees should report currently to their own committees on any
matters of interest resulting from the collaboration.
The names of all collaborators, whether to or from a committee, should be shown
separately on the committee's organization chart, as set forth under "Organization
Chart."
With Other Organizations
Many AREA committees appoint from their membership representatives to serve
as collaborators on committees of the American Standards Association, the American
Society for Testing Materials, the American Concrete Institute, or other outside organ-
izations, these representatives acting either directly for the AREA committees or in behalf
of the Association of American Railroads which may hold membership in the organ-
izations involved. In all such cases, representation in these other organizations, either
initiaJlly or otherwise, is handled through the AREA executive secretary's office. Thus
AREA committee nominations for representatives on these outside committjees, or for
changes in representatives, are made through the executive secretary's office, which trans-
mits the nominations to the organizations, secures their acceptance, notifies those inter-
ested, and makes official record thereof.
Beyond this point the representatives carry on their collaboration independent of
the executive secretary's office, but each AREA committee should keep on its organiza-
tion chart a record of all of the organizations with which it collaborates, and the
names of its collaborators, as set forth under "Organization Chart".
Committee members appointed to collaborate with other organizations should report
currently to their own committees on any matters of interest resulting from the
collaboration.
WORK OF THE COMMITTEES
Objectives
The objectives of the Association are advanced through the work of the committees
in two ways — (1) the development of useful information pertinent to their assignments
to be presented to the Association "as information," and (2) the formulation of recom-
mended practices to be submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual.
Planning the Work
In pursuing the work on any assignment, the first step is necessarily one of fact
finding, including (a) a study of available literature on the subject, particularly reports
of previous investigations, (b) a compilation of current practice, especially recent changes
in practice, and (c) resort to original tests or experimentation, after a canvass of all
other sources of information indicates that research work is necessary.
Collection of Data
Committees are privileged to obtain data or information in any proper way. If
desired, the executive secretary will mail circulars of inquiry, or questionnaires, prepared
by committees. Where sufficient information can be secured from members of the com-
mittee, they alone should receive letters of inquiry or questionnaires. Where a broader
Information for Committees 1 243
representation of railroads is necessary or desirable, such letters of inquiry or question-
naires may be sent to the appropriate officer within the engineering and maintenance
of way departments of selected additional roads or of all AAR Member Roads.
Only in special cases should communications of any kind be sent to officers in other
than the Engineering and Maintenance of Way Departments (presidents or chief executive
officers, chief operating officers, chief mechanical officers, etc.), and then only over the
signature of, or with the explicit permission of, the heads of the appropriate AAR
department, division or section, such to be arranged for through the executive secretary's
office.
Circulars of inquiry or questionnaires should be brief and concise; the questions
contained therein should be specific and pertinent, and not of such general or involved
character as to preclude the possibiHty of obtaining satisfactory and prompt response;
should specify to whom answers are to be sent; and should be furnished in duplicate
so that a copy can be retained by persons replying.
Research
It is primarily the responsibility of Subcommittee A of each committee to bring
together recommendations for further study and research on the part of the committee,
based upon suggestions received from other members of the Association, or as the resullt
of its own observations within or without the railroad industry. Any recommendations
for assignments in the following year which call for research appropriations should be
processed with the committee early in the Association year, beginning with the close
of the annual meeting in March, in order that any proposal for research approved by
the committee, can be in the hands of the director of engineering research, AAR, with
copy to the executive secretary, AREA, by July 1. These recommendations must be
accompanied by a supporting statement setting forth: (a) the nature of the informa-
tion sought; (b) how the railroads are adversely affected by the lack of this informa-
tion; (c) the estimated cost of the investigation; (d) the estimated time to complete
the work; (e) the basis for assuming that the investigation will produce the data
desired; and (f) an estimate of the savings to be realized or other advantages to accrue
from the successful completion of the investigation. A request for funds to continue or
complete an investigation shall include also a statement of the results obtained to date.
Maintaining Manual Up to Date
Each committee shall critically review the material in its chapter of the Manual at
such intervals as to insure that it is kept up to date. It shall resubmit all Manual
material for revision or reapproval at intervals of not more than 10 years. This rule,
however, is not intended to encourage the reapproval of documents only at 10-year
intervals. On the contrary, and especially since each document in the Manuail carries a
reapproval line under its heading, committees are urged to recommend the reapproval
of documents each time that revisions (major or minor) are proposed, using some such
wording as "Reapprove with the following revisions". If such reapproval is not requested
specifically when revisions are recommended, the document will continue to carry its
previous adoption or reapproval line.
However, since two or more sheets must be issued in a Supplement every time a
document is reapproved without revisions, to correct the document date and the contents
page or pages, it is recommended that, in the interest of avoiding unnecessary printing
1244 Information for Committees
costs, documents which do not require revisions should not be offered for reapproval
at intervals of less than 8 or 10 years.
Group Revisions in Specific Years
While it is a healthy situation for committees to be constantly on the alert to
improve their respective documents in the Manual, and while some revisions in Manual
material will be of a character that will require that they be made at the earliest possible
date, many changes will be of an editorial or less important character and will not
demand that they be made immediately.
Accordingly, in the interest of economy, committees should, so far as possible,
group their revisions in any specific document, or anywhere in their respective chapters,
looking to submitting them as a group at intervals of two or three years or more, rather
than separately year after year — thus avoiding the necessity for reissuing the same Manual
pages, including contents pages, in successive years, to the greatest extent possible.
NATURE AND PREPARATION OF REPORTS
Form of Report
It is important that committee reports be prepared in accordance with the following
instructions pertaining thereto, and the Style Standards for committee reports, as detailed
on following pages in this pamphlet.
At Least Brief Progress or Status
Statements to Be Made on All Assignments
fCommittees should pursue their investigations on all assignments, but are expected
to present detailed progress or final reports for publication only on assignments with
respect to which pertinent information has been developed. However, with respect to
all other assignments each year, the report of a committee shall include for each a brief
statement as -to the progress which has been made on it during the year, or in the
event that no progress has been made, a brief statement as to the status of the project.
These brief statements, which are intended to be informative to those interested in any
specific subject in a year when no detailed report can be made, may be confined to as
few as one or two sentences, which may be entirely adequate. In such cases, the state-
ment should appear directly under the title of the assignment as listed in the chairman's
introductory statement to the committee report as a whole, instead of the words used
previously, "No report", or "Progress in study, but no report". On the other hand, if
these "progress" or "status" statements, in order to be adequate to the situation, neces-
sarily exceed 70 words, they should be presented in the usual manner as a subcom-
mittee report, with assignment heading and subcommittee personnel. In such cases, the
chairman's introductory statement should show, for the assignments in question, "Brief
progress statement", and the page number, or "Brief status statement", and the page
number, as the case may be.
Reports on Assignment A should not be submitted for publication.
Reports on Assignment A
In the case of Assignment A — Recommendations for further study and research, two
reports on recommendations shall be made to the committee each year; (1) early in the
t Revised and expanded.
Information for Committees 1245
Association year with respect to any proposed new assignments involving appropriations
for the conduct of research work, as set forth in detail under "Research", on page 17;
and (2) 'late in the summer or early fall, covering recommendations with respect to new
assignments for study which do not call for research appropriations. This latter report
should also include recommendations as to whether any existing assignments can be, or
should be, discontinued. Neither of the reports on Assignment A will be presented in the
Bulletins of the Association, or orally at conventions.
Information Reports or Recommended Practice
Whether the report on any particular assignment should take the form of "informa-
tion" or a "recommended practice," depends largely on the nature of the assignment.
Some assignments will be fulfilled completely by the presentation of information; others
call for information in support of appended recommendations that are submitted for
adoption. In still other cases, the primary objective is a comprehensive statement of
recommended practices, but the development of these recommended practices may entail
investigation or research work, the results of which are of such importance as to warrant
their presentation as information prior to the submission of the recommendations. In
some cases, it may be advisable to submit materiall in the form of recommended practice,
but as information only, with a view to inviting suggestions and criticism that may serve
as the basis for revisions prior to the resubmission of the material for adoption at a
later date. This, however, is not mandatory.
When the work has been completed on any assignment, the committee should request
of the Board Committee on Assignments that the assignment be discontinued. Its
last report on such an assignment should be designated as "final report" only when the
committee does not contemplate further study of the subject in the near or foreseeable
future; otherwise, the report should be designated as a "progress report", with the recom-
mendation that the subject be discontinued until there are further developments.
Writing of Committee Reports*
Many progress or fina)! reports, whether based on research or other investigation,
best lend themselves to written presentation in orderly sequence or chronological arrange-
ment, ending with any conclusions or recommendations which may have been arrived at.
However, in most cases, and especially in the case of long reports, to conserve the time
of members who may or may not be interested in the details of the study involved, it is
recommended that reports be introduced with a brief highlight summary statement
of the background, purpose and extent of the study, as may be desirable, and including
a synopsis of any conclusions, recommendations or other results — this llatter material
to supplement a more detailed presentation elsewhere in the reports.
Reports of information, supplementing previous reports of progress, should make
reference to the previous reports by Proceedings volumes, year and page number, and
may include a brief review of material previously presented, but should avoid extended
repetition of such material.
Use of Trade Names
Committee reports which are based upon physical research or field tests carried out
by or through the research staff of the Engineering Division, AAR, may use trade names
or manufacturers' names in referring to products, machines, devices or processes under
test, in accordance with rules in effect with the AAR Engineering Division research staff.
• See also Style Standards for Committee Reports.
1246 Information for Committees
No other committee reports, however, shall contain the trade names of products, machines,
devices or processes, nor the names of manufacturers, in either text or cut captions, unless
in each instance approval is secured from the Board Committee on Publications prior
to the publication of the reports. To seek such approval, a committee must submit five
copies of the report in question to the executive secretary's office, for transmission to the
members of the Board Committee, six weeks prior to the scheduled filing date of the
report. If time does not permit a ruling upon the request of the committee prior to the
publication date of the report in question, the report of the committee must either be
altered to eliminate the trade names or terms involved, or be withdrawn, at the discre-
tion of the committee which prepared it.
Trade or manufacturers' names are not to be used anywhere in the Manual of Rec-
ommended Practice, the Portfoho of Trackwork Plans, the Handbook of Instructions for
Care and Operation of Maintenance of Way Equipment, or other comparable publications
of the Association.
Illustrations in Committee Reports
Committees may use illustrations within their reports, both photographs and line
drawings, to the extent necessary to enhance the value of their reports, or to preclude
detailed descriptions or the presentation of detailed data which would otherwise be
required. For the physical requirements of such illustrations, see "Illustrations" under
Style Standards. No illustrations, within themselves, shall show trade or manufacturers'
names; neither shall the captions for such illustrations use trade or manufacturers' names,
without prior approval on the part of the Board Committee on Publications, as is set
forth under "Use of Trade Names".
Nature of Manual Material*
The material adopted by the Association for publication in the Manual shall be
considered Recommended Practice, but shall not be binding on the members. Recom-
mended Practice, as defined by the Board of Direction (May 20, 1936) is a material,
device, pilan, specification or practice recommended to the railways for use as required,
either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable
to meet the needs of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting
efficiency or economy, or both, in the location, construction, operation or maintenance
of railways.
Printing of Manual Material*
Material offered for adoption and publication in the Manual, except as noted herein,
should be submitted in full, regardless of its publication in previous years, unless the
material in question appeared in substantiaJlly identical form not more than one year
before being submitted for adoption. Such material shall appear in the report of the
committee that is published not less than 30 days before the annual meeting at which
it is to be presented. Recommended revisions of Manual material, if extensive, shall
include only the proposed material, which shall be printed in full in the report of the com-
mittee. Manual material recommended for reapproval, or for deletion, shall be presented
by title and page reference only. Likewise, plans, specifications or other documents of
other organizations recommended for adoption by the AREA shall be presented by title
and serial designation only, e.g., current ASTM specifications, designation D 17.
Same applies to Portfolio of Ti-ackwork Plans.
Information for Committees 1247
When entirely new material is offered for inclusion in the Manual, the committee
sponsoring it should state specifically in its report the exact location the material is to
have in the Manual.
Letter Ballot Required of Committee*
Any action recommended by a committee with respect to the adoption, revision,
reapproval or withdrawal of Manual material must have received prior endorsement
by the committee in the form of an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the voting mem-
bership of the committee, such vote to be taken by letter ballot. Associates, Junior
members. Members Emeritus, and retired members on a committee are not entitled to
vote. Thus, it is imperative that committee members promptly consider and vote on all
letter ballots, seeking the advice of other committee members or specifically qualified
officers on their own roads if in doubt as to whether to vote for or against a proposal.
If a member votes in the negative on any Manual proposal, it is encumbent upon
him to state the reason or reasons therefor.
PUBLICATION OF REPORTS
Dates for Filing Complete Committee Reports
To insure the orderly publication of the reports in the four winter Bulletins of the
Association — ^November-February, incl. — in accordance with a predetermined schedule, it
is necessary that chairmen file complete reports with the executive secretary of the Asso-
ciation on or before the dates specified in the Committee Assignments for Study and
Research pamphlet.
Reports to be published in the June-July and September-October issues of the Bulle-
tin shall be submitted in the same manner by committee chairmen, or by members of the
AAR research staff in their behalf, as other reports, on a schedule worked out with the
secretary's office.
The manuscript of the report must be furnished in dupilicate, preferably double spaced.
Piecemeal filing of reports by subcommittee chairmen is permissible only under special
arrangement (in writing) with the executive secretary of the Association.
The regular annual reports of committees — to appear in the winter Bulletins of the
Association — must in each case include an introductory statement, or committee chair-
man's report, embodying the personnel and list of assignments of the committee, as set
forth under Style Standards for Committee Reports, pages 25 to 27, incl.
Portrait Photographs of Committee Chairmen
During his first year as chairman, each chairman must furnish the secretary's office
a portrait photograph of himself to be used with the reports of his committee as pub-
lished in the Bulletins and Proceedings while he is chairman. If this has not been done
prior to the filing of the committee's report, it must be done at that time. The photograph
furnished need be of no special size, but should be black and white, clear, and an acceptable
likeness of the chairman. These photographs will be returned to chairmen upon request.
* Same <ipplie.s to Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
1248 Information for Committees
PRESENTATION OF REPORTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS
Presentation of Reports
Reports offered as information should be presented by title or by a brief highlight
outline of the contents. Material submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual*
may be presented by reading the title and subtitles, but the presiding officer may, upon
request, authorize the reading of specific portions of the material being offered.
Since both the degree of effectiveness with which a report is received by those
assembled in annual convention, and the accuracy with which it can be reported in the
Proceedings, depend upon the Clarity with which the oral presentation is made to the
meeting, it is desirable that committee members write out and read their presentations,
and that they speak directly and distinctly into the microphone at the rostrum, raising
or lowering the microphone as may be necessary to that end. In the event that written
presentations are read, a copy of such presentations should be given to the executive
secretary or to the convention reporter before the speaker leaves the rostrum.
Visual Presentations
The use of illustrations in the form of slides, motion pictures, etc., as a part of or in
conjunction with committee presentations, whether reports or special features, shall be
governed by the following rule:
Films** produced by supply companies, manufacturers, and supply organizations
depicting their products or services in any form are not to be used in connection with
committee presentations, either supplementing committee reports or as special features,
at annual meetings, and the use of trade association films is not encouraged. However,
under special conditions, where a committee desires to use a trade association film in
connection with its presentation, the matter must be referred to the Board Committee
on Publications for approval, through the executive secretary's office, by January 1 of
the year inquestion, in order that a ruling may be secured prior to the publication of the
convention program in the AREA News. Trade association films to be considered under
this rule must be of an educational, rather than of a sales-promotion type, must make
no direct or indirect comparisons with other products or services, and may make refer-
ence to the associations which produced them in only an innocuous way.
Oral Discussions
Comments on or criticisms of any report may be offered from the floor. When
necessary to insure accuracy, or upon request, the speaker's remarks will be submitted
to him in writing before publication in the Proceedings, for the correction of diction,
misstatements, and errors of reporting, but not for the elimination of remarks.
Written Discussions
Written discussions of published reports will be transmitted to the chairman of the
interested committee who will read or present them by title or in abstract at the con-
vention. Written discussions will be published in the Proceedings as a part of the
discussion of the committee reports.
* Same applies to Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
** Wherever the word "film" is used, it applies as well to slides and any other form of visual
presentation.
I nformation for Committees 1249
Action on Reports
No formal action is to be taken by the convention on material submitted as
information, whether in the form of a progress or final report.
Action on material submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual will be one
of the following:
(a) Adoption as a whole as presented.
(b) Affirmative action on the amendment of a part or parts of the material pre-
sented, followed by adoption as a whole as amended.
(c) Adoption of a part, complete in itself, and referring the remainder back to the
committee for further consideration.
(d) Recommittal! with or without instructions.
Note. — An amendment which affects underlying principles, if adopted, shall of itself
constitute a recommittal of such part of the report as the committee considers affected.
The Chair will decline to entertain amendments which in his opinion are primarily
a matter of editing.
MISCELLANEOUS
Memoirs
The Association has developed a complete set of rules with respect to memoirs in
committee reports or elsewhere in its publications, covering the scope, preparation and
presentation of such memoirs. Copy of these rules, as weill as the Association service
record of any deceased member, can be secured from the executive secretary's office.
Letter Ballot of Membership
When and as required between annual meetings, recommendations for the adoption,
deletion, revision or reapproval of Manual material shall be submitted to letter ballot
of the Members of the Association under the following limitations:
(a) That the letter ballot shall be taken only after the Board of Direction
has recognized the necessity for such emergency action, and
(b) That the propositions submitted by the committee shall have the approval
of a special committee of the Board of Direction appointed by the President for
that purpose, both as to the substance of the material offered and also as to the
circumstances attending the consideration of the material by the committee.
The Board of Direction, acting under the provisions of paragraphs 6 (a) and 11 of
Article VII of the AREA constitution, has the authority to amend, delete or revise
Manual material at any time, subject to later confirmation or rejection by the member-
ship, submission to the membership to be effected either by means of a letter ballot
immediately following such Board action, or by a motion presented at the annual
meeting.
Review by Association of American Railroads*
All material adopted for publication in the Manual and all recommendations for the
revision or withdrawal of Manual material shall be referred to the vice president, Opera-
* Same applies to Portfolio of Trackwork Flans.
1250 St vie Standards
tions and Maintenance Department, Association of American Railroads, for review,
before distribution is made thereof to holders or purchasers of the Manual, or parts
thereof.
Publication and Distribution of Annual Supplement to Manual*
Revisions of or additions to the Manual authorized by action at each convention
will be published annually in the form of loose-leaf sheets which will be made available
to all holders of the Manual. These supplemental sheets will be accompanied by instruc-
tions for insertion of the new sheets and the withdrawal of sheets that have been
superseded, as well as those sheets that have been withdrawn by action of the
Association.
In order that committee members who have purchased individual Chapters of the
Manual in connection with their committee work may keep these separate Chapters up
to date, the secretary's office will make available to them annually, through their com-
mittee chairmen, those supplement sheets required to this end.
Publication of Abstracts by Technical Journals
The following rules will govern the releasing of material for publication in technical
journals:
Committee reports to be presented at an annual meeting will not be released for
publication until after presentation to the annual meeting. Special articles, contributed
by members and others, on which no action by the Association is necessary, will be
released for pubilication in technical journals only after issuance in a Bulletin; provided,
application therefor is made in writing and proper credit is given the Association, authors
or committees presenting such material.
Same applies to Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
NDEX OF PROCEEDINGS, VOL. 60, 1959
AASHO road research project, address by
W. B. McKendrick and W. N. Carey,
1019
Accounting', ICC classifications, revisions
and interpretations, 574, 1042
Agreement form, higliway-railway grade
separation structuies for public
roads, construction and maintenance,
308, 1038
— parallel occupancy of right-of-way by
electric power lines, 308, 1037
— lease, railway tracks for storage of
tank cars containing liquefied petro-
leum gases, anhydrous ammonia and
other flammable or dangerous mate-
rials, 305, 1037
— lease, strip mine on railway miscellane-
ous physical property, 308, 1037
— subsurface exploration on i-ailway prop-
erty, 302, 1036
Aprons, headwalls, wingwalls and inverts,
required for culverts, 665, 1183
Annual meeting, closing business, 1191
— invocation, 984
— opening session, 983
— program of, 979
Asphalt shingles, specifications for appli-
cation of, 317. 1121
Asphalt treated ballast, 712, 1184
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Pe, joint bar
service test, 905
— -manganese crossing test, 792, 117 2
— prestressed concrete bridge tests, 38 2,
1095
— treated fence post service test, 348,
1119
B
Ballast, prepared stone and gravel, speci-
fications, revisions, 710, 1184
— special types, treated with asphaltic
materials, 712, 1184
—tests of, 711, 1184-.
Baltimore and Ohio Chicago Terminal,
manganese frog test, 7 92, 1172
Bessemer and Lake Erie, rail, laid tight,
service test, 843, 1174
Bibliography (See Bridges, Steel)
— (See Engineering and Valuation Rec-
ords)
— (See Tunnel Repairs)
— (See "Waterways and Harbors)
Bigos, Joseph, brine resistant bridge
paints. 509, 1105
Blew, J. Oscar, Jr., comparison of wood
preservatives in Mississippi post
study, 358, 1119
Bridge erection. Instructions for inspec-
tion of, reapproved, 507, 1098
Bridge floors, distribution of live load in.
381, 1094
Bridge frames, stress distribution, model
railway truss bridge, 508, 1100
Bridge gangs, tools and equipment for,
resulting economies, 408, 1142
Bridge material, unloading at site with
bridge hoist or crane, 407, 114 2
Bridge stringers, how serviceable after 50
years, address by F. P. Drew, 1083
Bridge structures, longitudinal forces in,
381, 1094
Bridges, concrete and reinforced concrete,
and other structures, specifications,
revisions, 474, 1085
— continuous steel railway, design, 553,
1106
— fusion welding, reapproved, 507, 1098
— iron and steel, rules for rating exist-
ing, revisions, 507, 1098
— railway, classification of, reapproved,
507, 1098
— steel, bibliogi'aphy and technical ex-
planation of various I'equirements for,
535, 1105
— instructions for inspection of the fab-
rication of, reapproved, 507, 1098
— preparation, and painting of, 509,
1105
— rigid frame, specifications reapproved,
506, 1098
— specifications, revisions, 506, 508, 1098,
1100
— top flanges of, protecting from abra-
sion, brine, moisture, 528, 1105
— track anchorage on, reapproved, 507,
1098
Brine-resistant bridge paints, by John D.
Keane and Joseph Bigos, 509, 1105
Brine drippings, prevention of damage
from to track structure, 793, 1172
Brochure, to stimulate undergraduates in
colleges and universities in an engi-
neering career, 621, 1062
Buildings, report and discussion, 315.
1120
Calculating machines, labor economies
from use of, 413, 1144
Car retarders, use of other than on a
hump, 298, 1046
Carr, R. A., greetings from NRAA, 993
Cars, rollability of, 291, 1045
Carey, W. N., Jr., address, the AASHO
road research project, 1019
Cathodic protection, pipelines, 271, 1073
— steel storagetanks, 271, 1073
Chemical control of vegetation, AAR re-
search project, 732, 1185
Chesapeake and Ohio, service tests of
rail, 919
Chicago and North Western, service test
of joint bars, 905
Index
Chicago, Great Western, protecting toj)
flanges of bridges, 528. 1105
Chinn, Armstrong, memoir, 597, 1197
Cleaning materials, disinfectants, deodo-
rants and fumigants, 280, 1074
Clearances, report and discussions, 501,
1107
— affected by girders above top of rails,
structures, third-rail, signal and train
control equipment. 502, 1107
— vertical and horizontal movements of
equipment, allowance for, 503. 1108
— high and wide shipments, methods of
measuring. 503. 1114
— requirements of the various states, 502,
1108
Coach-servicing facilities, design, con-
struction and operation of to comply
with U. S. Public Health Service, 271.
1072
Code. C. J., service tests of 155-lb heat-
treated rail, 930
College and university staff members,
stimulate greater Interest in current
railroad problems and practices, 631,
1063
College and university students, best
techniques for recruiting for railroad
employment, 598. 1060
— stimulate greater interest in science of
transportation, 613, 1061
— brochure to interest them in an engi-
neering career, 621, 1062
— cooperative system of education, in-
cluding summer employment. 614,
1061
Computers, electronic, potential applica-
tions to engineering and maintenance
problems in research, design, inven-
tory, etc.. 226. 1050
— use of for railroad bridge problems.
383. 1095
Concrete, prestressed, in Europe and Rus-
sia, address by Ben C. Gerwick, 1087
— railway slabs, static and fatigue tests.
1. 382. 1095
—use of fly ash in, 494, 1086
Concrete and mortars, method of im-
proving quality of. 494, 1086
Concrete and reinforced concrete railroad
bridges and other structures, specifi-
cations, revisions, 474, 1085
Concrete trestles, reinforced, specifica-
tions and design for railway loading,
475, 1085
Constitution, 1222
Continuous Welded Rail, report and dis-
cussion, 633, 1158
— economics of, 637, 1159
— equipment for loading, transporting,
unloading and installing, 442, 1135
— field tests, on Great Northern. 642. 1159
— laying, 634, 1158
— welding, in vicinity of rail mills, spe-
cial report. 640, 1159
Contract Forms, report and discvission,
301, 1036
— ( See Agreement Forms )
Cooperative Relations with Universities,
report and discussion, 595, 1059
— brochure, 621, 1062
Corrosion, effect of lubrication to retard
damage to rai! and fastenings, 828,
1173
— prevention in steam and condensate
lines, 263, 1070
Cramer, R. E., investigation of failures
in control-cooled rails, 878
— shelly rail study at University of Illi-
nois. 941
Crossings, highway-railway grade, pre-
fabricated, merits and economics of,
246. 1017
— protection recommended where one-way
traffic crosses one or more tracks,
249. 1018
— signals, recommended use of, revisions,
249, 1018
— requisites for. revisions, 249, 1018
— signs and signals, devices to guard
from damage by vehicular traffic.
247, 1018
— signs, recommended use of, revisions,
246. 1017
Crossings, pipeline (See Pipeline Cross-
ings)
— railway, plans for. 787, 1171
— railway, service tests of, 792, 1171
Culvert pipe, corrugated structural plate,
specifications, revisions. 550, 1106
Culverts, conditions requiring headwalls,
wingwalls, inverts and aprons, requi-
sites, therefor. 665. 1183
Curvature, degree of, effect on track
maintenance, 210, 1048
Curves, lining, machines for. labor econ-
omies of, 413, 1144
D
Dampprooflng coatings for railway struc-
tures. 471, 1115
Decks, timber-concrete composite, design,
plan, adopted, 562, 1082
Deodorants, disinfectants, fumigants and
cleaning materials, 280, 1074
Diesel fuel oil storage tanks, inspection
and maintenance. 278. 1074
Diesel fueling and unloading stations,
methods of controlling spillage, 279,
1074
Disinfectants, deodorants, fumigants and
cleaning materials, 280, 1074
Drafting and office practices. 570, 1040
Drew, F. P., address, how serviceable are
50-year-old bridge stringers. 1083
Duluth. Missabe and Iron Range, service
test of rail, 928
Durham and Southern, railroad weed con-
trol study, 723, 1185
E
Economics and methods of utilizing rail-
way property to develop or increase
secondary sources of revenue, 237,
1051
Economics of Railway Labor, report and
discussion, 385. 1139
Index
Koonomics of Railway l-.ocatlon and Op-
eration, report and discussion, 209,
1047
Eden, W. J., soil engineering problems on
the Quebec, North Shore and Labra-
dor, 669, 1183
Ekberg, Carl E., static and fatigue tests
on prestressed concrete railway slabs,
1. 382, 1095
Electronic computers, potential applica-
tions to engineering and maintenance
problems in research, design, inven-
tory, etc., 226, 1050
— use of for railroad bridge problems,
383, 1095
Engine wheel burns, repair by welding,
975
Engines, 4-cycle and 2-cycle, gasoline,
for small equipment, 455, 1137
Engineering and Valuation Records, re-
port and discussion, 565, 1039
— bibliography, 569, 1039
Erie, rail laid tight versus normal joints,
service test, 841, 1174
Erosion, natural waterways, prevention,
657, 1182
Eyebars, method of shortening to equal-
ize stress, reapproved, 507, 1098
Past, H. J., address, report on work study
— a tool for railway management as
practiced on British railways, 1145
Fences, right-of-way, specifications, levi-
sions, 688, 1184
F'ly ash, use of in concrete, 494, 1086
Forest products, preservative treatment
of. 345. 1118
Forest Products Laboratory, treated post
study, 358, 1119
Freight equipment, rail-truck, loading and
unloading, 293, 1045
Frocht, Dr. M. M., address, further three-
dimensional photoelastic studies of
stresses in rail head due to wheel
contact pressure, 1167
— three-dimensional photoelastic investi-
gation in the head of a model of a
railroad rail, 951. 1167
Frogs, plans for, 787, 1171
Fuel oil, diesel fueling and unloading sta-
tions, methods of controlling spillage,
279, 1074
— methods of heating to permit use of
economy grades in winter, 288, 1075
Fuller. James R., cumulative damage in
structural joints, 67
Fumigants, disinfectants, deodorants and
cleaning materials, 280, 1074
Fulweiler, W. H., memoir. 1117
Gang, tie, mechanized, advantages of re-
newing ties compared to renewals by
surfacing gang, 404, 1142
Genessee and Wyoming, tests on viaduct
deck girder spans, 51, 380, 1094
Gerwick, Ben, Jr., address, prestressed
concrete in Western Europe and
Russia, 1087
Graphical symbols, revisions, 566, 1039
Great Northern, field tests of continuous
welded rail, 642, 1159
— service test of rail. 928
Grime, E. M., memoir, 1069
H
Hale, H. H., address, summary of dis-
cussions before industry conference
on railway-highway problems, 1012
Handbook, M. W., equipment, revisions,
418, 1132
Hazen, Allen, memoir, 1048
Heating, infra-red ray, 324, 1121
— railway buildings, address by L. R.
Morgan, 1122
Heineman, B. W., address, economics of
railroads today, 1101
Herbicides, new. cost of developing, for
railroad vegetation control, 782, 1185
Highway crossings (See Crossings, high-
way-railway grade)
Highways, report and discussion, 245,
1016
Hillman, A. B., statement and report of
treasurer, 991, 1221
Holtzman, R., feasibility studies on new
nuclear light sources, 693, 1184
Honorary membership, certificate pre-
sented, 1007
Howard, N. D., executive secretary's
statement and report. 989, 1200
Hump yards, with retarders, buildings
and structures for, 317, 1121
Hydrants and valves, specifications, revi-
sions, 261, 1070
ICC, bureau of accounts, cost finding and
valuation, 571, 1041
— accounting classications, revisions and
interpretations, 574, 104 2
— simplication of completion reports, and
B. V. 588 returns, 574, 587, 1042
Illinois Central, rail joint lubi'ication
service test, 828, 1173
— 78-ft rail, service test, 972
Impact and Bridge Stresses, report and
discussion, 379, 1093
— ballasted-deck pile trestles, tests, 143,
382, 1095
— ^computers, electric, use of. for railroad
bridge problems, 383, 1095
— continuous steel structures, tests on,
384. 1096
— live load in bridge floors. 381, 1094
— precast concrete bridge tests, 382, 1095
— viaduct deck girder span tests on Gen-
essee and Wyoming, 51, 380, 1094
— vibrational characteristics of bridges
affecting deflections and depth ratios,
383, 1095
Index
Infra-red ray heatiriK. 324, 1121
— T-ailway buildings, address h.^ I>. K.
Morgan, 1122
International paper company, treated
fence posts, service test, 356, 1119
Inverts, headwalls, wingwalls and aprons,
required for culverts, 665, 1182
Iron and Steel Structures, report and
discussion, 505, 1097
— bibliography and technical explanations
of requirements of AREA specifica-
tions, 535, 1105
— structural joints, cumulative damage
in, 67
Jaeger, M. F., memoir, 34 2
Joint bars, head easement, recommenda-
tions, revisions, 874, 1166
— service tests of, 905
— wear and failure of, 916
Joint facilities, engineering, maintenance
and operating benefits derived from
increased use of, 231, 1050
Jones, Paul, address, give the "high ball"
to safety, 1001
K
Keane, J. D., brine resistant bridge
paints, 509, 1105 «
— protecting top flanges of bridges, 528,
1105
Klingman, G. C, railroad weed control.
North Carolina State College, 723,
1185
Kulp, John W., comparison of wood
preservatives in Mississippi post
study, 358, 1119
Labor economies, drived from cyclic
maintenance, 402, 1141
— derived from use of machines for cal-
culating and lining curves, 413, 1144
— derived from use of radio by M. of W.
gangs, 411, 1143
— effected by use of power tools and
mechanized equipment by B and B
gangs, 407, 1142
Laminated timbers, preservatives treat-
ment of, 345, 1118
Lease form (See Agreement Forms)
I^oomis, D. P., address, change and chal-
lenge in railroading, 995
Loomis, W. E., vegetation control on
Iowa roadbeds, 715, 1185
Louisville and Nashville, hold-down fas-
tenings for tie plates, includilng pads,
service test, 800, 1172
— rail, laid tight with frozen joints, serv-
ice test, 839, 1174
Lubrication tests to prevent rail joint
freezing, and to prevent corrosion,
828, 1173
Liniibei-, stress-graded classiflratinn of
for railway uses, 559. 1087
Luncheon, annual. 110(1
M
Magee, G. M., address, field tests on con-
tinuous welded rail on the Great
Northern, 1160
Maintenance, cyclic, labor economies of,
402, 1141
— equipment, track, ultimate improve-
ments in to provide economies in
maintenance costs, 411, 1143
Maintenance of way, equipment, hand-
book for care and operation of, revi-
sions, 418, 1132
— expenses, determination for various
traffic volumes, 216, 104 9
— work, analysis of operations on the
Missouri Pacific, 387, 1139
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment,
report and discussion, 417, 1132
Marine organisms, methods to prevent
destruction by, 372, 1119
Marine piling, treated, service test rec-
ords, 372, 1119
Masonry, report and discussion, 473, 1085
May, R. G., address, the engineer's re-
sponsibility to railroad management,
1064
McBrian, Ray, address, what I observed
in Europe of interest to the American
railroads, 1008
McKendrick, W. B. Jr., address, the
AASHO road research project, 1019
Membrane waterproofing, specifications,
revisions, 469, 1115
Meyers, B. R., president's address, 986
Missouri— Kansas— Texas, treated fence
posts, service test, 356, 1119
Missouri Pacific, analysis of maintenance
operations, 387, 1139
— brine-resistant bridge paint test, 509,
1105
Morgan, L. R., address, practical appli-
cations of infra-red ray heating to
railway buildings, 1122
Mortars and concrete, methods for im-
proving quality, 494, 1086
Munse, W. H., cumulative damage in
structural joints, 67
Myers, E. T., address, the broadening
field for railroad water service engi-
neers, 1076
N
New York Central, service test of rail,
920
Norfolk & Western, service test of rail,
919
Norfolk Southern, railroad weed control,
723, 1185
Nuclear light sources for roadway signs,
feasibility of, 693, 1184 •
Index
o
Office and drafting- practices, 570, 1010
Operations, railway, innovations in, 233,
1050
Parking- facilities at passengei- stations,
294, 1046
Pennsylvania, service test of rail, 920
—heat-treated 155-lb, 930
Perrine, Dwight E., memoir, 316
Petersen, Kenneth S., cumulative damage
in structural joints, 67
Petroleum, solvent foi pentachlorophenol,
344, 1118
Photoelastic study of stress distribution
in rail head, by M. M. Frocht, 951,
1167
Photography, use of in construction and
maintenance work, 592, 104 2
Pipe, cast iron, special castings, refer-
ence, revised, 261, 1070
— specifications for laying, revisions,
262, 1070
— corrugated structural plate, specifica-
tions, revisions, 550, 1106
Pipeline crossings, under railroads, 668,
1183
Pipelines, cathodic protection of, 271,
1073
— transportation of solids by, 274, 1073
— use of for long-distance transportation
of solids, 240, 1051
Posts, fence, treated wood, service tests,
348, 356, 358, 1119
President's address, 986
Prestressed concrete (See Concrete, Pre-
stressed)
Pryer, R. W. J., soil engineering prob-
lems on tlie Quebec, North Shore and
r.abrador, 669. 1183, 1186
Quebec, North Shore and Labrador, soil
engineering problems, 669, 1183
R
lipat-treatod and alloy, srrvicf ti'sts of,
919
— laying tight with frozen Joints, .scr\ !<•<■
test, 839, 1174
— 78-ft, performance and economics of,
972
— shelly, influence of hydrogen level in,
by U H. Winkler, 94 9
— photoelastic study by M. M. Frocht,
951, 1167
— progress repoits on service tests of
heat-treated and alloy, 919
— study, progress report by R. E.
Cramer, 941
— shelly spots and head checks, methods
of prevention, 916
Rail head stresses due to wlieel contact
pressure, address by M. M. Frocht,
167
Rail joints, lubrication tests, 828, 1173
Rail record forms, revisions, 875, 1166
Rail sections, recent developments affect-
ing, 970
Rail steel, significance of liydiogen level
in, 949
Rail-truck freight equipment, facilities
for loading and unloading, 293, 1045
Rail-water transfer facilities, 332, 1058
Railway operations, innovations in, 233,
1050
Record forms, rail, revisions, 875, 1166
Recruiting guide, student, recommended
techniques to be used by railroads,
599, 1060
Regulatory bodies and courts, current
developments in valuation and depre-
ciation, 571, 1041
Reports, annual, simplification of ICC
form 588, and underlying completion
reports, 574, 104 2
Retarders, car, use of at other than
hump locations, 298, 1046
Revenue, secondary, economics and meth-
ods of utilizing railway property to
develop or increase, 237, 1051
Richter, Frank, address, the economics
of railway engineering, 1052
Right-of-way fences, specifications, revi-
sions, 688, 1184
Roadway and Ballast, report and discus-
sion, 655, 1182
Roadway, formation and protection, 668,
1183
Roadway signs, new nuclear light sources
for, feasibility of, 693, 1184
Rollability of cars, 291, 1045
Radio, labor economies from use of by
M. W. gangs, 411, 1143
Radioactive substances, railroad aspects
of, 287, 1075
Rail, report and discussion, 873, 1166
— continuous welded (See Continuous
Welded Rail)
— control-cooled, investigation of failures
in, by R. E. Cramer, 878
— economic value of various sizes, 903
— end batter, causes and remedy, 903
— -failure statistics, 883
— heat-treated, 155-lb Pennsylvania, final
service test report, 930
Sanitation, railway waste disposal, 276,
1073
Seaboard Air Line, tests on ballasted-
deck timber trestles, 143, 382, 1095
Secretary, executive, statement and re-
port of, 989, 1200
Shelkey, L. D., memoir, 657
Siiepardson, V. P., greetings from Signal
Section 992
Shingles, asphalt, specifications for appli-
cation of. 317. 1121
Index
Shop machinery and equipment for work
equipment shops, 461, 1138
Signals, railway-highway grade cross-
ings, (See Crossings, Highway-Rail-
way Grade)
Signs, railway-highway grade crossing
(See Crossings, Highway-Railway
Grade)
Signs, roadway, nuclear light sources for,
feasibility of, 693, 1184
Sillcox, L. K., honorary membership cer-
tificate presented, 1007
Simpson, A. L., memoir, 34 2
Slutter, Roger G., static and fatigue tests
on prestressed concrete railway slabs,
1, 382, 1095
Soil engineering problems on the Quebec,
North Shore and Labrador, 669, 1183
Southern, prestressed concrete bridge
tests, 382, 1095
Southern Pacific, service test of rail. 921
— tests on continuous steel spans, 384,
1096
Spikes, track, soft steel cut, specifications,
revisions, 786, 1170
Stations, passenger, parking facilities,
294, 1046
Steam lines, prevention of corrosion in,
263, 1070
Steel spans, continuous, tests on, 384,
1096
Steel, structural, instructions for mill in-
spection of, reapproved, 507, 1098
Steel surfaces, preparation and paintint?
of, 509, 1105
Stone, C. A., feasibility studies on new
nuclear light sources, 693, 1184
Structural joints, cumulative damage in,
67
Struve, W. M., vegetation control on Iowa
roadbeds, 715, 1185
Students, guide for use of railroads in
securing for employment. 599, 1060
Sutcliffe, H. M., address, studies of anti-
splitting devices for ties at the AAR
research center, 1150
Switches, plans for, 787, 1171
Symbols, graphical, revisions, 566, 1039
Tanks, diesel fuel oil storage, inspection
and maintenance, 278, 1074
— hoops, specifications reapproved, 262,
1070
— steel, storage, cathodic protection of,
271, 1073
— steel substructures for, specifications
reapproved, 263, 1070
— water, use of treated wood for, specifi-
cations withdrawn, 260, 1070
— wood substructures for, specifications
reapproved, 263, 1070
— wood, water, specifications reapproved,
262, 1070
Tellers, report of, 982
Terminals, waterfront, 290, 1044
Termites, control investigation, 131, 1119
Tie gang, mechanized, advantage of re-
newing ties compared to renewals by
surfacing gang, 404, 1142
Tie plates, hold-down fastenings for, in-
cluding pads, tests of, 800, 1172
Tie production, means of effecting greater
utilization of timberland growth
available, 498, 1148
Ties, report and discussion, 4 97, 1148
— advantages of renewing in advance of
out-of-face surfacing with a mechan-
ized tie gang, 404, 1142
— anti-splitting devices for, address by
H. M. Sutcliffe, 1150
— greater utilization of timberland growth
for production of, 498, 1148
— renewal statistics and costs, 129, 1148
Timber-concrete composite decks, design,
adopted, 562, 1082
Timber tunnel lining, specifications, revi-
sions, 491, 1086
Tools and equipment for various types of
bridge gangs, economies of, 408, 1142
Track, report and discussion, 785, 1170
Track anchorage, on bridges and struc-
tures, reapproved, 507, 1098
Track maintenance, effect of degree of
curvature on cost of, 210, 1048
Track maintenance equipment, ultimate
improvements in to provide economies
in maintenance practices, 411, 1143
Track resurfacing, out-of-face, relation
between nature of traffic and inter-
val between on tracks of relatively
similar characteristics, 416, 1145
Track structure, prevention of damage
to from brine drippings, 793, 1172
Trackwork plans, economies to be gained
by more extensive use of, 870, llTo
— revisions, 787, 1171
Traffic, relation of nature of and interval
between out-of-face resurfacing tracks
of similar characteristics, 416, 1145
Traffic volumes, determination of main-
tenance of way expenses for various,
210, 1049
Transfer facilities, rail-water, 332, 1058
Treasurer, statement and report of, 991,
1221
Treated wood, service test records, 347,
1119
Trestles, ballasted-deck timber, tests on
SAL, 143, 382, 1095
— open-deck pile and framed, multiple-
story, ballasted-deck pile and framed,
plans, revisions, 556, 1081
— -reinforced concrete, specifications and
design for railway loading, 475, 1085
Trucks, motor, fuel and lubrication for,
448, 1136
—instructions for preventive mainte-
nance of, 430, 1134
Truesdell, Dr. R. F., invocation, 984
Tunnel lining, with timber, specifications,
revisions, 491, 1086
Tunnel repairs, bibliography, 489, 1086
Turnouts, standardization of, address by
M. .T. Zeeman, 1177
Index
u
v. S. Public Health Service, design, con-
struction and operation of coach-
watering facilities to comply witli
regulations of, 271, 1072
University (See College)
University of Florida, termite control in-
vestigation, 131, 1119
V
Vance, W. H., memoir, 38t;
Vegetation, chemical control of, 714, 1185
w
Washers, spring, for special trackwork,
specifications, revisions, 788, 1171
Waste disposal, railway, 276, 1073
Water, hydrants and valves, specifica-
tions, revisions, 261, 1070
— tanks, wood, specifications reapproved,
262, 1070
Water, Oil and Sanitation Services, re-
port and discussion, 259, 1068
Water-rail transfer facilities, 332, 1058
Water service engineers, broadening field
for, address by E. T. Myers, 1076
Water supply, pumping plants, reap-
proved and revised, 260, 1070
Water supply service, general principles
of, reapproved, 260, 1070
Waterfront facilities, relative merits and
economies of construction materials
used in, 335, 1058
Waterfront terminals, 290, 1044
Waterproofing, report and discussion, 469,
1114
— materials, application to railway struc-
tures, 470, 1115
— membrane, specifications, revisions, 469,
1115
Waterways, natural, prevention of ero-
sion, 657, 1182
Waterways and Harbors, report and dis-
cussion, 331, 1057
— bibliography, benefits and costs, inland
waterway projects involving naviga-
tion, 332, 1057
— waterfront facilities, construction ma-
terials used in, 335, 1058
Waywell, C. G., vegetation control on
Iowa roadbeds, 715, 1185
Weed control, railroad, North Carolina
State College, 723, 1185
Welding, fusion, reapproved, 507, 1098
Wilcox, Merrill, railroad weed control.
North Carolina State College, 7 23,
1185
Wilson, W. M., memoir, 109S
Wingwalls, inverts and aprons, required
for culverts, 665, 1182
Winkler, L. H., investigation into the sig-
nificance of the hydrogen level in
rail steel, 949
Wood Bridges and Trestles, report and
discussion, 555, 1081
Wood posts, treated, service test, 358,
1119
Wood Preservation, report and discus-
sion, 341, 1116
— fence posts, service tests, 348, 356, 358,
1119
— ^marine organisms, methods to prevent
destruction by, 372, 1119
— termites, control investigation, 131, 1119
Wood preservative treatment of forest
products, including laminated tim-
bers, 345, 1118
Wood preservatives, new and revisions,
review, 343, 1117
— petroleum, carrier for standard pre-
servatives, 344, 1118
— solvent for pentachlorophenol 344,
1118
Wood, treated, service test records, 347,
1119
Woods, K. B., soil engineering problems
on the Quebec, North Shore and
Labrador, 669, 1183
Work equipment, engines, 4-cycle and 2-
cycle, gasoline, for small equipment,
455, 1137
— improvements to be made in existing,
427, 1133
— new developments in, 4 23, 1133
— number of units to be repaired by field
repairmen, 446, 1135
— shops, machinery and equipment for,
461, 1138
Wright, H. P., greetings from Electrical
Section, 992
Yards and Terminals, report and discus-
sion, 289. 1044
Yards, hump classification with retarders,
buildings and structures for, 317,
1120
Yardmaster's oflices, use and location of,
292, 1045
Zeeman, M. J., address, standardization
of turnouts, wliat must be done to
achieve it, 1177
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